Part I.)

The next day the people in the village say, "Ha^n´adi nuda^n´ a¢a´-bikeamá."--_It is said that last night they went off in a line on the war-path._

The warriors and the leaders blacken their faces with charcoal and rub mud over them. They wear buffalo robes with the hair out, if they can get them, and over them they rub white clay. The messengers or wag¢a also wear plumes in their hair and gird themselves with macaka^n, or women's pack-straps. All must fast for four days. When they have been absent for that period they stop fasting and wash their faces.

§ 192. _Uninvited followers._--When a man notices others with weapons, and detects other signs of warlike preparation, should he wish to join the party he begs moccasins, etc., from his kindred. When he is ready he goes directly after the party. The following day, when the warriors take their seats, the follower sits in sight of them, but at some distance. When one of the servants spies him he says to his captain, "Núda^nhañgá, ¢éʇa aká wi^n´ atíi hă."--_O war chief! this one in the rear has come._ Then the captain says to all the warriors, "Hau, níkawasa^n´, íbaha^nba hi^nbé ctĭ ¢awái-gă. Ma^n´ tě ctĭ wégaska^n¢ái-gà."--_Ho, warriors! recognise him, if you can, and count your moccasins_ (to see if you can spare him any). _Examine your arrows, too._ Then a servant is sent to see who the follower is. On his return he says, "War-chief (_or_ captain), it is he," naming the man. The captain has no set reply; sometimes he says, "Ho, warriors! the man is active. Go after him. He can aid us by killing game." Or he may say, "Hau, nikawasa^n´! ní é¢i¢i^n gí tě a¢i^n´ gíi-gă. Águdi ca^n´ʇañga náxi¢í¢í¢ě ʞĭ, gaha a¢ija^n ga^n´¢ai ʞĭ, ca^n´ éja^n-mi^n´ hă."--_Ho, warriors! go for him that he may bring water for you. If he wishes to lie on you_ (_i. e._, on your bodies) _when the big wolves (_or_ the foe) attack you, I think it is proper._ Then the scout goes after the follower.

But if the man be lazy, fond of sleeping, etc., and the scout reports who he is, they do not receive him. Once there was a man who persisted in going with war parties though he always caused misfortunes. The last time he followed a party the captains refused to receive him. Then he prayed to Wakanda to bring trouble on the whole party for their treatment of him. They were so much alarmed that they abandoned the expedition.

§ 193. _Officers._--A small war party has for its chief officers two nuda^nhañga, _partisans_, captains, or war chiefs. Each nuda^nhañga has his nuda^n´hañga-q¢éxe or lieutenant, through whom he issues his orders to the men. These lieutenants or adjutants are always chosen before the party leaves the village. After the food has been boiled the giver of the feast selects two brave young men, to each of whom he says, "Nuda^n´hañga-q¢éxe hni^n´ taté," _You shall be a nuda^nhañga-q¢éxe._

In 1854 Two Crows was invited by four others to aid them in organizing a large war party. But as they went to the feast given by the chiefs and received the presents they forfeited their right to be captains. Two Crows refused the gifts, and persisted in his design, winning the position of first captain. Wanace-jiñga was the other, and [P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ and Sĭnde-xa^nxa^n were the lieutenants. In this case a large party was intended, but it ended in the formation of a small one. For the change from a small party to a large one see § 210.

§ 194. _Large war party._--A large war party is called "Nuda^n´hi^n-ʇañ´ga." La Flèche and Two Crows do not remember one that has occurred among the Omahas. The grandfather of Two Crows joined one against the Panis about a hundred years ago. And Two Crows was called on to assist in organizing one in 1854, when fifty men were collected for an expedition which was prevented by the chiefs. Such parties usually number one or two hundred men, and sometimes all the fighting men in the tribe volunteer. Occasionally the whole tribe moves against an enemy, taking the women, children, etc., till they reach the neighborhood of the foe, when the non-combatants are left at a safe distance, and the warriors go on without them. This moving with the whole camp is called "áwaha^nqti ¢é," or "ágaq¢a^nqti ¢é", because they go in a body, as they do when traveling on the buffalo hunt.

§ 195. When a large war party is desired the man who plans the expedition selects his associates, and besides these there must be at least two more nuda^nhañga; but only the planner and his friend are the nuda^nhañga úju, or principal war chiefs. Sometimes, as in the case of Wabaskaha (Contributions to N. A. Ethnology, Vol. VI, Part I, p. 394), the man paints his face with clay or mud, and wanders around, crying to Wakanda thus: "O Wakanda! though the foreigners have injured me, I hope that you may help me!" The people hear him, and know by his crying that he desires to lead a war party; so they go to him to hear his story.

Four wag¢a are sent to invite the guests, two taking each side of the tribal circle, and hallooing as they pass each tent. There is no cause for secrecy on such occasions, so the crier calls out the name of each guest, and bids him bring his bowl. In the case of Wabaskaha, so great was the wrong suffered that all the men assembled, including the chiefs. This was the day after Wabaskaha had told his story. Then a pipe (the war pipe) was filled. Wabaskaha extended his hands toward the people, and touched them on their heads saying, "Pity me; do for me as you think best." Then the chief who filled the sacred pipe said to the assembly, "If you are willing for us to take vengeance on the Pawnees, put that pipe to your lips; if (any of) you are unwilling, do not put it to your lips." Then every man put the pipe to his lips and smoked it. And the chief said, "Come! Make a final decision. Decide when we shall take vengeance on them." And one said, "O leader! during the summer let us eat our food, and pray to Wakanda. In the early fall let us take vengeance on them." The four captains were constantly crying by day and night, saying, "O Wakanda! pity me. Help me in that about which I am in a bad humor." They were crying even while they accompanied the people on the summer hunt. During the day they abstained from food and drink; but at night they used to partake of food and drink water.

§ 196. _Feast._--It was customary for the guests invited to join a large war party to go to the lodge designated, where four captains sat opposite the entrance, and two messengers sat on each side of the door. The ensuing ceremonies were substantially those given in § 188, with the exception of the use of the wa¢íxabe or sacred bags, which are never used except when large war parties are organized.

_Sacred bags._--These sacred bags, which are consecrated to the thunder or war god, are so called because when the Indians went on the war-path they used to ¢ixábe or strip off the feathers of red, blue, and yellow birds, and put them into the sacred bags. There were five bags of this sort among the Omahas. The principal one is kept by Wacka^n´-ma^n¢i^n, of the Wajiñga-¢atájĭ subgens of the ₵átada. It is filled with the feathers and skins of small birds, and is wrapped in a ʇahúpezi, or worn tent-skin. This is the principal one. The second one is kept by the daughter of [T]ahé-jiñga, of the Iñké-sabě; because the people pity her, they allow her to keep the bag which her father used to have; but they do not allow her to take any part in the ceremonies in which the sacred bags are used. The third bag is in the custody of Máhi^n ¢iñ´ge of the Weji^ncte gens. The fourth, when in existence, was kept by [T]idé-ma^n¢i^n, of the [T]a-[p]a gens. And the fifth was made by Wábaskaha, of the Iñg¢e´-jide gens. This, too, is no longer in existence. According to La Flèche and Two Crows, the only wa¢ixabe used in war are made of the (skin and feathers of the) g¢eda^n´, or pigeon-hawk, the i^n´be-jañ´ka, or forked-tail hawk, and the nickúcku, or martin. All three kinds were not carried by the same war party. Sometimes one man carries an i^nbe-jañka, and the other a nickucku; at other times one carries a g¢eda^n, and the other an i^nbe-jañka or nickucku. [P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ says that the weasel is very sacred. Two Crows never heard this; and he says that the keeper of any very sacred object never reveals what it is. These sacred bags are not heavy; yet the bearer of one has no other work. He must wear his robe tied at the neck, and drawn around him even in warm weather.

At the feast, the three wa¢ixabe are put in the middle of the lodge. The keepers take their seats, and sing sacred songs, some of which are addresses to the Thunder, while others are dancing songs. Among the former is one of which a fragment was given by [P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ:

"Wi-ʇi´-ga^n na^n´-pe-wa´-¢ě e-ga^n´, Wi-ʇi´-ga^n na^n´-pe-wa´-¢ě e-ga^n´, We´-ti^n kě g¢i´-ha^n-ha^n ʞĭ, Na^n´-pe wá-¢ě----."

"As my grandfather is dangerous, As my grandfather is dangerous, When he brandishes his club, Dangerous----."

When he had proceeded so far [P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ stopped and refused to tell the rest, as it was too sacred.

This song is also sung by the keepers of the wa¢ixabe after the return of the warriors, when the ordeal of the wastégistú is tried. (See § 214.)

Though the keepers sometimes sing the songs four times, and the others then dance around four times, this is not always done so often. After the dance they enjoy the feast.

Presents are made by the giver of the feast to the keepers of the wa¢ixabe, who are thus persuaded to lend their sacred bags with the peculiar advantages or sacredness which they claim for them.

§ 197. The principal captains select the lieutenants, and assign to each of the other captains a company of about twenty warriors. Each of the minor captains camps with his own company, which has its own camp-fire apart from the other companies. But only the two principal captains select the scouts, police, etc.

When the fasting, etc., begins (see § 191), even the captains wear plumes in their hair.

When the party is very large, requiring many moccasins, and they intend going a long distance, a longer period than four days may be required for their preparations.

According to [P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ, the principal captains tie pieces of twisted grass around their wrists and ankles, and wear other pieces around their heads. This refers to the Thunder god. Two Crows says that he never did this.

§ 198. _Opening of the bags._--When the principal captains wish to open their sacred bags, they assemble their followers in a circle, making them sit down. Any of the followers or servants (the terms are interchangeable) may be ordered to make an "ujéʇi" in the center of the circle, by pulling up the grass, then making a hole in the ground. Then the sacred bags are laid at the feet of the principal captains, each one of whom opens his own bag, holding the mouth of the bird towards the foe, even when some of the warriors are going to steal horses.

§ 199. _Policemen or Wanáce._--These are selected after the party has left the village, sometimes during the next day or night, sometimes on the second day. The appointments are made by the principle captains. If the war-party be a small one, few policemen (from seven to ten) are appointed; but if it is a large party, many are appointed, perhaps twenty. There is never any fixed number; but circumstances always determine how many are required. For a small party, two wanáce-nuda^n´hañga, or captains of police, are appointed, to whom the principal captains say, "Wanáce ¢anúda^nhañ´ga taté," _You shall be captains of the police_. Each of these wanáce-nuda^n´hañga has several wanáce at his command. When any of the warriors are disobedient, or are disposed to lag behind the rest, the policemen hit them at the command of their own captains, the wanáce-nuda^n´hañga. When the wanáce see that the men are straggling, they cry, "Wa^n<! wa^n<!" On hearing this, the warriors say, "The policemen are calling"; so they run towards the main body.

§ 200. _Order of march for any war party._--The scouts, or wada^n´be-ma, go from two to four miles in advance during the day. There are only two of these when the party is a small one; but a large party has four. These scouts are sent ahead as soon as they have eaten their breakfasts. They do not always go straight ahead. Should they come to a hill, they do not ascend, preferring to make a detour by going along a "skída," or high level forming an opening between two hills. If, when they reach there, they detect no signs of a foe, they continue on their way. Some of the warriors may go out as scouts of their own accord, before requested to do so by the captains.

§ 201. When there is a large party, the two nuda^n´hañga-jiñ´ga, or minor captains, bearing the sacred bags, go about a hundred yards in advance of the others. Then march the captains, and after them follow the warriors and those who are the servants of the captains. Each captain has his servant, who carries his captain's baggage and rations, waits on him, brings him food and water, and makes his couch when they camp for the night. As the day advances and the warriors become tired, they drop behind. Then the captains order those near them to halt and sit down. If there are bearers of the wa¢ixabe, they are the first to take their seats at the command of the captains, who sit next to them. Then the nearest warriors are seated, and so on, as they come together. Those in the rear sit where they please. It is important for the party to keep together, for they might be exterminated if attacked when the men are scattered. As soon as those in the rear have overtaken the rest, all arise and resume the march.

The scouts having gone to the place designated, return to report, and two of the captains go ahead to meet them. Having reported whether they have seen traces of an enemy or of game, etc., they are relieved, and others are sent ahead in their places. This change of day scouts takes place as many times as the circumstances require. One of the men who bears the kettle on his back, acts as if he were a captain, addressing the warriors thus: "Ho, warriors! bring me water," or, "Ho, warriors! bring me some wood."

§ 202. _Songs._--Sometimes when a man thinks that he will die fighting the enemy he sings different songs. One of these songs given by [P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ, was intended to infuriate the warriors. He said that it was the "Captive song," and was not regarded as sacred. Though he said that it was sung by one of the wanáce-nuda^nhañga, as he danced around the marching warriors, that is doubted by La Flèche and Two Crows, who said that one of the nuda^nhañga was not always singing and dancing around the others. The song, as sung, differs from the spoken words.

Na^n´ku-¢é ha^n´-¢i^n-bi-go+ (_i. e._, Na^n´-ku-¢ě-a^n-¢i^n´-i-gă) Na^n´ku-¢é ha^n´-¢i^n-bi-go+ Hó, nú-da^n-hañ-gá, ʇa^n´-be tě U-á-hi-ta-má-ji no+ (i. e., Uahita-majĭ á¢a u+!) Nú-da^n-hañ-gá, na^n´-ku-¢é-ha^n´-¢i^n-bi-go+

It may be translated thus:

O make us quicken our steps! O make us quicken our steps! Ho, O war chief! When I see him I shall have my heart's desire! O war chief, make us quicken our steps!

One of the sacred songs which follows is from the [T]ᴐiwere language, and was sung by an Omaha captain. It is given, as sung in the Omaha notation of the [T]ᴐiwere. The meaning of all the words cannot be given by the collector.

Ma^n´-¢i^n ¢e hé ga+we+he-hé! (Ma^n-¢i^n, for ma-nyi, _to walk_.) Ma^n´-¢i^n ¢e hé ga+we+he-he! Tcé-do na-há! (Tce-ʇo naha, _buffalo bull, he who is_, or, _ The Buffalo bull_.) Ma^n´-¢i^n ¢e hé ga+we+he-hé!

After singing this the captain addressed the men thus: "Ho, warriors! I have truly said that I shall have my heart's desire! Truly, warriors, they shall not detect me at all. I am now proceeding without any desire to save life. If I meet one of the foe I will not spare him."

§ 203. The Míʞasi watcí or _Coyote Dance_.--This was danced by the warriors before they retired for the night, to keep up their spirits. It was not danced every night, but only when thought necessary. The captains took no part in it. Some sang the dancing songs. All whitened themselves (sa^nki¢a¢a). Each one carried a gourd rattle and a bow; he wore his quiver in his belt, and had his robe around him. They imitated the actions of the coyote, trotting, glancing around, etc.

§ 204. _Order of encamping._--As soon as they stop to camp for the night four night scouts are sent out, one in advance, towards the country of the foe, one to the rear, and one on each side of the camp, each scout going for about a mile. Before they depart the captains say, "Ho, warriors! When you feel sleepy come back," referring to midnight. Then the scouts leave, and as soon as they reach their respective stations they lie down and watch for any signs of the enemy.

At the command of the nuda^nhañga-q¢exe the camp is formed in a circle, with the fire in the center. The warriors are told to go for wood and water, and the servants of the captains prepare couches for their respective masters by pulling grass, some of which they twist and tie up for pillows. Each servant does this for his own captain. When bad weather is threatening the lieutenants order the warriors to build a grass lodge. For tent poles they cut many long saplings of hard willow or of any other kind of wood, and stick them in the ground at acute angles, and about one foot apart, if wood is plentiful, and small sticks are interlaced. Then they cover this frame with grass. When wood is very scarce the saplings are placed further apart.

Unlike the Iowas, the Omahas do not open their sacred bags when they encamp for the night. All the bags are hung on two or three forked sticks, the wa¢íxabe-u¢úbaʇig¢e, which are about three feet high. These sticks are placed about five feet from the circle of warriors, close enough to be seized at once in case of an attack.

Should any scout detect danger he must give the cry of a coyote or míʞasi. By and by, when the scouts become sleepy, and there is no sign of danger, they return to the camp, and lie down with their comrades till nearly day. When it is time for roosters to crow, one of the captains exclaims, "Ho, warriors! rise ye and kindle a fire." Then all arise and dress in haste, and after they have eaten, the scouts are sent ahead, as on the preceding morning.

§ 205. _New names taken._--When the warriors have been four nights on the way, excluding the night of departure from the village, the warriors generally take new names. But if any one likes his old name he can retain it. According to La Flèche and Two Crows, the ceremony is very simple. The captain tells all present that such a man has changed his name; then he addresses the Deity in the sky and the one under the ground: "Thou Deity on either side, hear it; hear ye that he has taken another name."

According to [P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ, the warriors collect clothing and arrows, which they pile up in the center of the circle. As each man places his property on the pile, he says, "I, too, O war chief, abandon that name which is mine!" (This is probably addressed to the Thunder god.) Then one of the principal captains takes hold of the man by the shoulders, and leads him all around the circle, following the course of the sun. When he has finished the circumambulation (which is denied by La Flèche and Two Crows), the captain asks the man, "What name will you have, O warrior?" The man replies, "O war chief, I wish to have such and such a name," repeating the name he wishes to assume. The captain replies, "The warrior is speaking of having a very precious name!" Then one of the men is sent to act as crier, to announce the name to the various deities. The addresses to the deities vary in some particulars. The following was the proclamation of the Ponka, Cúde-gáxe, when the chief, Nuda^n´-axa, received his present name: "He is truly speaking, as he sits, of abandoning his name, halloo! He is indeed speaking of having the name Cries-for-the-war-path, halloo! Ye big head-lands, I tell you and send it (my voice) to you that ye may hear it, halloo! Ye clumps of buffalo grass, I tell you and send it to you that ye may hear it, halloo! Ye big trees, I tell you and send it to you that ye may hear it, halloo! Ye birds of all kinds that walk and move on the ground, I tell you and send it to you that ye may hear it, halloo! Ye small animals of different sizes, that walk and move on the ground, I tell you and send it to you that ye may hear it, halloo! Thus have I sent to you to tell you, O ye animals! Right in the ranks of the foe will he kill a very swift man, and come back after holding him, halloo! He speaks of throwing away the name Naji^n´-ti¢e, and he has promised to take the name Nuda^n´-axa, halloo!" The original ₵egiha will be found on pages 372, 373 of Part I, Vol. VI, "Contributions to N. A. Ethnology." According to the Omaha [P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ, the following proclamation was made when he received his present name; but this is disputed by La Flèche and Two Crows:

"He is indeed speaking of abandoning his name! He is indeed speaking (as he stands) of having the name, He-fears-not-a-Pawnee-when-he-sees-him. Ye deities on either side (_i. e._, darkness and the ground), I tell you and send it to you that you may hear it, halloo! O Thunder, even you who are moving in a bad humor, I tell you and send it to you that you may hear it, halloo! O ye big rocks that move, I tell you and send it to you that ye may hear it, halloo! O ye big hills that move, I tell you and send it to you that ye may hear it, halloo! O ye big trees that move, I tell you and send it to you that ye may hear it, halloo! O all ye big worms that move (_i. e._, O ye snakes that are in a bad humor, ye who move), I tell you and send it to you that ye may hear it, halloo! All ye small animals, I tell you and send it to you that ye may hear it, halloo! O ye large birds that move, I tell you and send it to you that you may hear it, halloo!" To this address was added some of the following promises, all of which were not used for the same person: "Watí¢ída^nbadíqti wi^n´ na^n´pěqti ta^n´ wégaq¢ `í¢ě ta^n á¢a!--_He speaks as he stands of striking down one in the very midst of the ranks of the foe, who shall stand in great fear of him!_" "Watí¢ uhañ´geqti tě´di wi^n´ wégaq¢ `í¢ě ta^n á¢a!--_He is speaking of striking down one at the very end of the ranks of the foe._" "Watí¢e uka^n´ska ída^nbadiqti wi^n´ wégaq¢ `í¢ě ta^n á¢a!--_He is speaking of striking down one in the very middle of the enemy's ranks, having gone directly towards him._" "Watí¢e uhañ´gadiqti wi^n t'éwaki¢ `í¢ě ta^n á¢a!--_He is speaking of slaying one at the very end of the enemy's ranks!_" "Gaza^n´adiqti wi^n ú ¢iñgé u¢a^n´ `í¢ě ta^n á¢a!--_He is speaking of taking hold of one without a wound right in the midst of the foe_ (_i. e._, when surrounded by them)!"

§ 206. _Behavior of those who stay at home._--The old men who stay at home occasionally act as criers, day and night. They go among the lodges, and also to the bluffs, where they exhort the absent warriors, somewhat after this manner: "Do your best. You have gone traveling (_i. e._, on the war path) because you are a man. You are walking over a land over which it is very desirable for one to walk. Lie (when you die) in whatever place you may wish to lie. Be sure to lie with your face towards the foe!" They do not keep this up all the time, nor do they always make such exhortations.

§ 207. The women, too, address the distant warriors. The following is a song referring to Hebadi-ja^n, of the [K]a^nze gens:

"Wa-na´-q¢i^n-ă! Á-¢a-`a^n´ ¢á-¢i^n-cé-i^n-te [T]í-nu-há, ¢a-a^n´-¢a ca^n´ ¢a-¢i^n-cé. He-bá-di-ja^n´, Cá-a^n-jiñ´-ga kú¢ě a¢i^n gí-ă!"

Hasten! What are you doing that you remain away so long? Elder brother, now, at length, you have left him behind. O Hebadi-ja^n! be returning quickly with a young Dakota!

La Flèche and Two Crows never heard this song; but they do not dispute its correctness. It was told the writer by [P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ.

§ 208. _Report of scouts._--When the scouts return and report having found the enemy, stating also how they are encamped, if the party is a large one, the sacred bags are opened by the principal captains, with the mouth of each bag towards the enemy, as stated in § 198.

[P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ says that they then give the scalp-yell, and each one repeats what he has promised to do on meeting the enemy; but this is disputed by La Flèche and Two Crows.

§ 209. _Capture of horses._--Two men who are active go to steal horses from the enemy. This departure is called "ʇí-gaqá a¢ai," _they have gone to get the better of_ (those in) _the lodges_ (of the enemy), and is explained by "wama^n´¢a^n a¢aí," _they have gone to steal_. The two men may go together or may separate and try to steal horses at whatever places they can find any. Should these followers fail, two of the officers must make an attempt. These officers may be either the captains or the lieutenants. Sometimes a youth steals off from the warriors, and tries to capture a horse. The policemen try to prevent this, as the youth might alarm the foe. No matter who captures the horses, he must deliver them to the two principal captains. If many horses have been captured, the men take them to a safe distance, and then they are distributed among the members of the party. He who captured the horses is always the first to receive one from the captains. Each of the (principal) captains has his special followers, who are obliged to bring to him all the horses which they capture. And the captain, in like manner, shares his booty with his followers. Thus, when [P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ captured horses from the Dakotas, when he was one of the captains, he distributed eight horses among his own followers. (See p. 442, Part I, Vol. VI, Contributions to N. A. Ethnology.) When he recovered the horses from the enemy, the warriors thanked him, saying that on account of his act they would not be compelled to make their feet sore from walking home. When but few horses have been taken, only the elder men receive them; but when many have been captured, all of the party share alike.

§ 210. _Preparations for attacking the enemy._--Before the attack is made, it is usually the custom for scouts to make a thorough survey of the enemy's camp. So, when Two Crows led his party against the Yanktons, in 1854, and had discovered the proximity of the foe, he first sent one of the lieutenants, [P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ, to count the lodges. On his return, another lieutenant, Sĭn´de-xa^n´xa^n, was sent by Two Crows, for the purpose of learning if the enemy were sleeping. The latter having reported, Two Crows himself, being one of the captains, went with Sĭnde-xa^n´xa^n, to make a final examination. Having ascertained the location of the sleepers, they returned to their party, and began the attack at midnight. When [T]ahé-jiñga and Níku¢íb¢a^n had led a small party against the Pawnee Loups, they sent back a messenger to the Omaha camp, and when four scouts were sent from the camp, Wabaskaha, who was one of the small war party, deceived them, saying that the Cheyennes were in the camp near at hand. Then many of the Omahas joined the small party changing it into a nuda^nhi^n-ʇañga. This was after the death of the chief Black Bird, in the early part of this century. When the main body of the Omahas had joined the others, they proceeded without delay to surprise the camp of the Pawnees. Having arrived just at the outside of the village, they crawled towards it in perfect silence, going by twenties, each one holding the hand of the man next to him. The captain, Niku¢ib¢a^n, or Gia^nhabi, had a sacred bag, which he opened (_four times_, said Big Elk) with its mouth towards the foe, that the wind might waft the magic influence of the bag to the lodges, and make the sleepers forget their weapons and their warlike spirit (denied by La Flèche and Two Crows). He also had a war-club with an iron point, which he used as a sacred thing, waving it four times toward the foe. When they were very near the lodges, but while it was yet dark, one of the attacking party pulled his bow with all his might, sending an arrow very far. But the arrow could not be seen. They continued drawing nearer and nearer, exhorting one another, but speaking in whispers. At last it was daylight, which is the usual time for making the attack, as people are supposed to be sound asleep. Then Niku¢ib¢a^n pulled his bow, and sent an arrow, which could be seen. He waved the sacred bag four times, and gave the attacking cry of the leader (the wa`i^n´ba^n) once, whereupon all of his party gave the scalp-yell (ug¢á`a`a), and began the fight by shooting at the lodges. (See § 193.)

Each combatant tries to find a shelter, from behind which he may fire at the enemy, though brave men now and then expose themselves to great danger when they rush towards the ranks of the enemy and try to capture a man, or to inflict a blow on him. Those who are the first to strike or touch a fallen enemy in the presence of his comrades, who are generally watching their opportunity to avenge his fall, are also regarded as very brave.

Protracted warfare, or fighting for several days in succession, has not been the Omaha custom.

§ 211. _Preparation for an attack on a single foe._--In the story of I´cibájĭ of the [T]e-sĭn´de gens, we read thus: "At length the warriors detected a man coming towards them. They told the war-chief, who said, 'Ho! Oh warriors, he is the one whom we seek. Let us kill him.' Then the warriors prepared themselves. They painted themselves with yellow earth and white clay. Icibajĭ picked up the pieces dropped by the others, and the war-chief made his back yellow for him, in imitation of the sparrow-hawk. Then the warriors pulled off their leggings and moccasins, which they gave to Icibajĭ to keep. When Icibajĭ, having gained the consent of his captain, had peeped over the bluff at the advancing man, he ran to meet him, having no weapon but his club. Having overtaken the man, he killed him with the club. And when the others took parts of the scalp, Icibajĭ did not take any of it."

§ 212. When one of the principal captains was killed, that always stopped the fight, even if he belonged to the side of the victors.

If any one heard that one of his kindred was killed or captured, he would try to go to him, and both generally perished together. When the Omahas were fleeing from the Dakotas, in a fight which occurred about A. D. 1846, some one told an old man that his son had been killed. "Ho!" said he, "I will stop running." So he turned around and went to the place where his son's body was. He rushed headlong among the combatants, who were standing very thick, and at last perished with his son.

§ 213. _Return of the war-party._--On the way home the booty is divided. [P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ said that "They stop for the night at a point about two miles from the village," but La Flèche and Two Crows deny this, saying that the warriors come into the village when they please, as they are hungry and wish to see their wives and children.

If they have brought back scalps or horses, they set the grass afire. On seeing this the villagers say "Nuda^n´ ama´ agíi, eb¢e´ga^n. Usaí."--_I think that the warriors are coming back. They have set the grass afire._ [P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ said that if they have brought scalps, they put some of the hair in the fire, and the smoke is black. But if they put a horse's tail in the fire, the smoke is very yellow.

La Flèche and Two Crows said that there is no difference in the meaning of the colors of the smoke, though déje jíde or red grass, sidúhi, and other kinds of grass, are set afire, and make different kinds of smoke.

When guns are fired it signifies that a foe has been killed. But when none are fired, and the grass is not set afire, it is a sign of an unsuccessful expedition.

As soon as the people hear the guns, they shout, "The warriors have come back!" Then the warriors ride back and forth, moving here and there among themselves in the distance. Then the old men proclaim through the village what each warrior has achieved, calling him by name--"This one has killed a foe!" "This one has broken off a head!" "This one would not allow the others to anticipate him in seizing one of the foe by the scalp-lock," etc.

§ 214. _Ordeal of the sacred bags._--When the warriors have had a rest of about two days, they assemble for a dance, called the "Wéwatci," or Scalp-dance. Before the dance, however, the successful warriors receive the rewards or insignia of valor from the nuda^nhañga who has the three wa¢íxabe ʇañ´ga or wastégistú. The three bags are placed in a row, and all the warriors stand in a row. Each warrior having selected the wa¢ixabe to which he intends speaking, he makes a present to it. Then the keeper of the wa¢ixabe addresses him, reminding him that Wakanda sees him, and that if he speaks falsely, he may not expect to stay much longer on the earth. Then the young man says, "Wi^n´ake. Wakan´da aká íbaha^ni."--_I tell the truth. Wakanda knows it._ As he says this, he holds up his right hand towards the sky. Then he addresses the wa¢ixabe itself, as follows: "Hau, i^nc`áge-ha! edáda^n uwíb¢a támiñke ¢a^n´ja, i¢áusi´cta^n-májĭ uwíb¢a tá miñke."--_Ho, O venerable man! though I will tell you something, I will not lie when I tell it to you._ When he says this, he lets fall a small stick which has been cut beforehand. He is obliged to hold the stick up high when he drops it. Should the stick fall on the sacred bag and remain there, it is a sign that he has spoken the truth; but if it falls off, they believe that he has been guilty of falsehood, and did not do in the fight that which he has claimed for himself.

_Rewards of bravery._--When all the warriors have thus been tested, they are addressed by the holder of the wa¢ixabe. To one who was the first to take hold of a foe, he says, "[K]áxe mí¢ag¢a^n´te hă," _You shall wear the crow in your belt_. Sometimes he adds, "Sábě ¢aʞíckaxe te. [K]áxe ájaja ¢aʞíckaxe te hă."--_You shall blacken yourself. You shall make spots on yourself, resembling crows' dung._ This warrior must blacken his body, and then mark here and there spots with white clay.

[P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ said that the second who took hold of a foe had the following reward: He was allowed to blacken his body from the waist to the shoulders, and to rub white clay down the tops of his shoulders. To him was said, "Máca^n-skă, ʇáhi^n-wág¢a^n á¢ag¢a^n´ te hă."--_You shall stick in your hair white eagle feathers, and wear the deer's-tail head-dress._ La Flèche and Two Crows said that this man was allowed to wear the ʇahi^n-wag¢a^n alone on his head, and to put the crow in his belt.

According to [P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ, the third warrior who caught hold of the foe blackened his body thus: On the arms, at the elbows, on the ribs, and hiusagi, he could make places as large as a hand (or, he could make one side of his body black--sic). To him was said, "[T]áhi^n-wág¢a^n máca^n ¢iñgé á¢ag¢a^n´ te hă," _You shall wear the_ ʇahi^n-wag¢a^n _without any feathers_. But La Flèche and Two Crows said that this man was told to wear the crow in his belt; and the fourth who took hold of the foe was told to wear the ʇahi^n-wag¢a^n without any other decoration.

[P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ said that he who disemboweled a fallen enemy with a knife was permitted to stick a red feather in his hair. He blackened his body from the waist up to the shoulder, and over the shoulder, then down the back to the waist. He could redden his knife and dance as a grizzly bear. But Two Crows, who has attended the scalp-dance, never saw anything of this sort.

According to [P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ, he who killed a foe was rewarded in several ways. He could wear the ʇehuq¢abe[17] necklace, called the "gadádaje waci^n´, and was addressed thus: "Gadádaje waci^n´ na^n´¢ap'i^n te hă," _You can wear the_ ʇehuq¢abe _necklace_. "Ma^n´-u¢úbaski ái¢agá¢a te hă," _You shall carry the ramrod on your arm_. "[T]áhi^n-wág¢a^n sía^n¢é á¢ag¢a^n´ te hă," _You shall wear the_ ʇahi^n-wag¢a^n _alone in your hair_. (These were disputed by La Flèche and Two Crows.) "Ma^n´sa gasú jíde¢ě na^n¢ap'i^n´ te hă," _You shall wear an arrow shaft, scraped and reddened, suspended from your neck_. (Confirmed by La Flèche and Two Crows.)

He who struck a foe with a hatchet, bow, etc., was allowed to redden it and carry it to the dance, if he wished.

[17] The fat on the outside of the stomach of a buffalo or domestic cow.

Sometimes a warrior gave a gun, etc., to an old man, who went through the camp telling of the generosity of the giver.

All who had parts of scalps were told to wear ʇahi^n-wag¢a^n on their heads.

§ 215. _The scalp dance_ (of the women).--One of the women had to carry the scalp around on a pole during the dance. This act is ái¢a-báju.

When a man killed a foe with a knife, gun, hatchet, etc., it was taken by his wife, who held it as she danced. Such women dressed themselves in gay attire, decorated themselves with various ornaments, wore head-dresses of ʇeji^nhi^nde, painted their cheeks, and reddened the déugáza^n or parting of the hair of the head.

This scalp-dance is the women's dance; the men take no part but that of singing the dancing songs for the women and beating the drums. When any of the Omahas had been killed by the enemy, this dance could not be had; but when the Omahas were fortunate enough to kill some of the foe without losing any of their own party the men said, "Wéwatci añ´ki¢e taí," _Let them dance the scalp-dance_. Then the men went first with one, two, or three drums to a place bare of undergrowth, and began to beat the drums. By and by the women would hear it, and assemble. There was no feast and no invitations were made by criers. Any women and girls who wished to dance could do so. The only men allowed to sing the dancing songs for the women were those who had killed foes, or had taken hold of them.

The women did not dance in a circle, but "kiáqpaqpág¢a" (moving in and out among themselves) and "íki¢íb¢a^n" (mixed, in disorder), as they pleased. Sometimes they danced all night till the next morning; sometimes they continued the dance for two or three days. This wewatci has not been danced by the Omaha women for about fourteen years. It is not considered a sacred dance, but one of rejoicing.

§ 216. The He¢ucka _dance_ (of the men).--The corresponding dance for the men is the He¢úcka.[18] The only members of the He¢ucka dancing society are such as have distinguished themselves in war, and boys whose fathers are chiefs. When Frank La Flèche was a boy he was admitted to the He¢ucka solely because his father was a chief.

"The first four to take hold of the foe were decorated with the ʇahi^n-wag¢a^n head-dress, the 'crow' in the belt, and garters of otter-skin.

"He who had killed a foe with a gun reddened the barrel for about nine inches or a foot from the muzzle, wore the 'crow,' and stuck several swan feathers around the muzzle. He also wore a feather in his hair.

"Those who struck some of the foe, but did not inflict fatal blows, made on their bodies the signs of blows; having blackened their hands, they put them here and there on their bodies, leaving black impressions. Sometimes they blackened the whole body, and over the black they made white hands, after rubbing white clay on their own hands. They wore feathers in their hair, as did all except the four who were the first to take hold of the foe.

[18] Known among the Kansas as the Ilucka, and among the Osages as the Iñʞ¢ŭ^ncka.

"He who had been wounded by the foe, without receiving a fatal blow, blackened his body, and put on a red spot and stripe to denote the wound and the dripping of the blood. He wore a red feather in his hair.

"Those who had brought back horses, wore lariats, "núsi-áq¢a" (over the left shoulder and under the right arm), and carried their whips on their arms.

"All these were promoted to the rank of wanáce or policemen, to act as such during the buffalo hunt." (_La Flèche_ and _Two Crows_.)

"There were many singers. They had a drum, but no rattles of any sort. They danced as they moved around the fire-place, from left to right. This was always after a feast. They had no regular number of times for dancing around the circle.

"The man who first held a foe ranked as number one; the slayer came next; the second who held the foe ranked third; the third to hold the foe ranked fourth, and the fifth was he who cut off the head and threw it away.

"Sometimes the fourth man did this. Only the first, second, and third of these men were regarded as having gained great honors, and these three laded out the food at the feast.

"Only those who held or touched the foe made the impression of hands on their bodies.

"Those who struck living foes wore feathers erect in their hair, while those who hit dead enemies had to wear their feathers lying down." (_Frank La Flèche._)

Mr. J. La Flèche gave the following as a very ancient song of this dance:

"Wakan´da aká a^n¢iñ´ge te, ai éga^n, A^n¢iñ´ge támiñke."

"Wakanda having said that I shall not be, I shall not be."

In this song, "A^n¢iñ´ge ta´miñke" is equivalent to "At'é támiñke," _I shall die_. The idea is that the singer thought he would not die until Wakanda spoke the word, and then he must die. Till then he would be safe, no matter what dangers he encountered.

For the song in honor of the Ponka chief, Ubískă, see pp. 380, 381, Part I, Vol. VI., Contributions to N. A. Ethnology.

§ 217. _The He-watcí._--The concluding part of the He¢ucka was called the "Hé-watcí." It was danced only by one man, a member of the He¢ucka society. After the feast, the head of a dog or deer was generally given to one of the guests, who ate it clean and laid it down after imitating, as he danced, some of his acts in battle. The man arose suddenly of his own accord, taking the head in both hands and holding it in front of him. When no head had been boiled he danced without one. The drum was beaten, but there were no songs. The dancer wore the "crow," and grasped a club or hatchet, which had been purposely placed in the middle of the circle. His acts resembled those of the four visitors when the Égi`a^n-watcigaxe was danced. (See § 271.) Pointing in various directions with his club or hatchet, with which he struck the ground each time, he said, "Níaci^nga wi^n gaé`a^n:" _I did thus to a man_; "Níaci^nga wi^n áq¢i," _I killed a man_; "Níaci^nga wi^n ub¢a^n," _I took hold of a man_; or some other expression. When he finished the He¢ucka dance was ended.

§ 218. _The Mandan dance with fallen friends._--When the Omahas lost any of their number in a fight they had the Mandan dance on their homeward way, or after they reached home. If they had the bodies of their dead they placed the latter in the middle of a lodge, making them sit upright, as if alive and singing. And they made them hold rattles of deers' claws on their arms.

In the war story of [P]a¢i^n-na^npajĭ, recorded in Part I, Vol. VI, Contributions to N. A. Ethnology, the narrator says: "All the people danced in groups, dancing the Mandan dance. I rode the horse which I had brought home. I painted my face and wore good clothing. I hit the drum: 'Ku+!' I said, 'Let Wáqa-náji^n take that for himself,' referring to the horse. I presented the horse to one who was not my relation."

§ 219. When the war party return home, whether they have been successful or not, the captains invite the warriors to a feast. The warriors, in turn, invited the captains to a feast. There was no regular order; if the warriors boiled first they were the first to invite (the captains) to a feast.

§ 220. A battle may be ended either by the death of one of the principal captains or by sending a man with a sacred pipe towards the ranks of the enemy. The sacred pipe is a peace pipe, and is used instead of a flag of truce. (See Punishment of a murderer, § 309.)

§ 221. _Treatment of the wounded foes._--If they fell into the power of the men of the victorious side they were killed and their bodies were cut in pieces, which were thrown towards the retreating foes, who cried with rage and mortification. Their treatment at the hand of the women has been described in § 184.

§ 222. _Treatment of captives._--Captives were not slain by the Omahas and Ponkas. When peace was declared the captives were sent home, if they wished to go. If not they could remain where they were, and were treated as if they were members of the tribe; but they were not adopted by any one. When Gahíge-jiñ´ga, father of Wacúce, of the Iñke-sabě gens, was a small boy he was captured by the Ponkas as they were fighting with the Omahas, who were camped near their adversaries. The Omahas having overcome the Ponkas, the latter sent the aged Hañ´ga-ckáde, whom the Omahas admired, with a peace pipe, and, as an earnest of their intentions, they sent with him the boy whom they had captured that day. He was restored to his tribe, and peace was declared. (See International Law, § 306.)

§ 223. _Bravery._--The following anecdotes were told by Mr. La Flèche as illustrating the bravery of his people:

An old man had a son who reached manhood, and went into a fight, from which he returned wounded, but not dangerously so. The son asked his father saying, "Father, what thing is hard to endure?" He expected the father to say, "My child, for one to be wounded in battle is hard to endure." Had he said this, the son would have replied, "Yes, father; I shall live." The father suspected this, so he made a different reply: "Nothing, my child. The only thing hard to bear is to put on leggings again before they have been warmed by the fire." So the son became angry and said, "My father, I will die."

A certain old man had been very brave in his youth; he had gone many times on the war-path, and had killed many persons belonging to different tribes. His only children were two young men. To them he gave this advice: "Go on the war-path. It will be good for you to die when young. Do not run away. I should be ashamed if you were wounded in the back; but it would delight me to learn of your being wounded in the chest." By and by there was war with another tribe, and the two young men took part in it. Their party having been scared back, both young men were killed. When the men reached home some one said, "Old man, your sons were killed." "Yes," said he, "that is just what I desired. I will go to see them. Let them alone; I will attend to them." He found the eldest son wounded all along the back, but lying with his face towards home. Said he, "Wă! kí ga^n´¢aqti kéana. Gátěʇa úgaq¢e ¢aja^n´ te, ehé ¢a^n´ctĭ."--_Why! he lies as if he felt a strong desire to reach home! I said heretofore that you were to lie facing that way._ So taking hold of his arms, he threw the body in the other direction, with the face towards the enemy. He found the younger son wounded in the chest, and lying with his face toward the foe. "Ho! this is my own son. He obeyed me!" And the father kissed him.

§ 224. _Grades of merit or bravery_, Úwahéhajĭ-má, were of two sorts. To the first class belonged such as had given to the poor on many occasions, and had invited guests to many feasts, being celebrated for the latter as "wéku-cta^n." To the second class belonged those, who, besides having done these things many times, had killed several of the foe and had brought home many horses. In connection with war customs, see Property (Chapter XII), and Regulative Industries (Chapter XI).

Another protective industry is the practice of medicine. (See Dancing Societies, Chapter X.)