Part 2

In former ages, the [|C]egiha made fire by rubbing or turning a stick round and round between the hands. On the present Omaha reservation, and in that region, the Omaha use elm roots for that purpose. In the country called [P]izabahehe, near the source of Elkhorn river, there is a grass known as "duaduahi," which has about a hundred fine shoots from each root, which is half the size of the head. The stalk was used for hand drills and fire sticks. One stalk was cut almost flat, and the man puts his feet on the ends to steady them. Then, holding the other stick in his hands, with one end touching the stalk on the ground, he turned it round and round till the friction produced fire. Sometimes a small quantity of dry sand was placed on the flat stick. The same flat stick answered for several occasions. When the cavity made by turning the hand drill became too large, the point of contact was shifted to another part of the flat stick, and so on until the whole of that stick was used, when it was thrown away and another was obtained. Duaduahi, according to Mr. Francis La Flesche, may be found in Judiciary square, Washington, District of Columbia. After the coming of the white man, but before the introduction of friction matches, which are now used by the whole tribe, the Omaha used flints and tinder for making fire.

Spits for roasting, etc., naqpe, or webasna^{n}, were made of any kind of wood.

For tongs they used the [p]edi[|c]a[|c]isande ("fire-holder"), made by slitting one end of a stick. This implement was also called, ja^{n} jinga nini ibista ("the stick that presses the fire against the tobacco"), because it was used for lighting pipes.

Smoking Paraphernalia.

The pipes in use among the Omaha are of three kinds: the sacred pipe (niniba waqube, mysterious pipe), including the war pipes and those used by the chiefs in making peace; the niniba weawa^{n} or calumet (illustrated in figure 315), used in the calumet dance or dance of adoption,[1] and the hatchet pipe or ma^{n}zepe niniba, introduced since the coming of the white man. One form of the pipe used on ordinary Tobacco pouches (niniujiha) were made of deer or antelope skin, and were ornamented with porcupine quills or a fringe of deerskin. Sometimes buffalo bladders were used for this purpose. The women used them as receptacles for their porcupine quills.

[Footnote 1: See "Omaha Sociology," Third Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethnology, chap. vi.]

occasions is shown in figure 316. This pipe has a bowl of catlinite, and the stem is decorated with horsehair.

Equipage for Horses.

Saddles (canakag[|c]e) were in use before the coming of the whites. They were made of wood, around which was wrapped hide, while still "[t]aha-nu[k]a" (green or soft). According to Joseph La Fleche these saddles did not rub sores on the backs of the native horses (Indian ponies), but Dougherty[1] said, in 1819, "The Indians are generally cruel horse-masters, perhaps in a great measure through necessity; the backs of their horses are very often sore and ulcerated, from the friction of the rude saddle, which is fashioned after the Spanish manner, being elevated at the pummel and croup, and resting on skin saddle cloths without padding." They ride very well, and make frequent use of the whip and their heels, the latter being employed instead of spurs.

For bridles and halters they used strips of hide, out of which material they made also lariats. The bridle used consisted of a withe, one end of which was wrapped two or three times around the animal's lower jaw, while the other was held in the hand, forming but a single rein. This did not hinder the rider from guiding his horse, as he was able to turn him to the left by pressing the single rein against the animal's neck, as well as by the use of the right heel against its side. When he wished to turn to the right, he pulled the rein and pressed his left heel against the horse's side.

Whips were of three kinds. The wahi wegasapi was attached to a bone handle. The handle of a ja^{u}[']uke[|c]i^{n} wegasapi was made of common wood. That of a za^{n}zi wegasapi was made of Osage orange wood, which is very hard. The whip was attached to the wrist by a broad band, which passed through a hole near the end of the handle. The handle was about 15 inches long and was very stout. A specimen that has been deposited in the National Museum (a gift to the author from an Omaha) has a lash 2 feet long, composed of 8 thongs one-fifth of an inch wide. These are plaited together in one rounded plait for 18 inches, the rest of the lash being in 2 plaits of 4 thongs each, knotted near the ends.

The lasso was called ma^{n}[']tanah-i[|c]ize, i.e., "that by which (a) wild (horse) is taken." It was made by taking the hair from the head of a buffalo and plaiting it into a very strong rope as thick as one's thumb. This rope was called "[t]aha-[|c]isa^{n}," and was utilized by the Omaha and Ponka instead of the common lasso for catching wild horses in northwestern Nebraska. One end of the rope was formed into a noose large enough to slip over a horse's head, and the ends of this noose were secured to a long pole by small cords. The other end of the rope, arranged in a coil, was fastened to the belt or waist of the man. He rode with the pole held in one hand and tried to thrust the noose in front of a horse. When he succeeded in passing the noose over the head of an animal, he threw away the stick, which had become separated from the noose, and held the rope alone, which he pulled toward him. When the horse was caught, the man made an [)i]ndu[|c]ici^{n}. (bridle or face cover), being careful to place some buffalo hair over the nose and under the chin, to guard against paining the horse, whose eyes remained uncovered.

[Footnote 1: Long, S. H.; Exp. Rocky Mts., vol. 1, p. 291, Phila., 1822]

Trappings for the saddle (s[)i]n[']de-ehe[|c][)e]) were used. Some years ago a specimen of Omaha trapping was presented by the writer to the Anthropological Society of Washington, and subsequently was deposited in the National Museum.

Traveling Gear.

Snow-shoes (se-hi^{n}be) were worn by the Omaha and Ponka when they traversed a region, north of their modern, habitat.

For traveling on foot a staff (hi-mang[|c]e) was used when it was necessary to pass over mountains; also when, heavy loads had to be carried. This staff differed from the crutch (i-mang[|c]e).

The women had maca[k]a^n, or straps, for aiding them in carrying loads of wood, etc.

Boats.

When they wished to cross streams they made hide boats, or mandeha. These were manufactured from dried buffalo hides, which were sewed together with sinew, and so tightly that no water could penetrate the seams. Ten branches of red willow were placed within, the ends being bent upward and fastened by withes to two other saplings, which extended the whole length of the boat at the inside of the gunwale. The ten pieces were the [t]ici-iki[p]ada^{n}. The rudder or steering oar (i[|c]isa^{n}['][|c][)e]) was fashioned like the oars (mandu[|c]ugahi), with the blade flat and of the breadth of two hands. The rowers (u[|c]ugahi aka) sat near the bow, and the steersman ([|c]isa^{n}['][|c]a aka) took his seat at the stern.

Musical Instruments.

Battles were of five kinds, [P]exe were generally gourds; wata^{n}['] [p]exe, gourd rattles, were always round, and were partially filled with seed, fine shot, or gravel, [T]ahanu[k]a [p]exe, green-hide rattles, were of two sorts, one of which is "[|c]iguje," bent a little. Specimens of this form are in the National Museum.

Two kinds of rattles were called [t]a-cage, i.e., "deers-claws," from the composition of one variety, though the other was made of molars of the elk.

The Omaha used three styles of drums. The [|c]exe-ga[k]u b[|c]aska, or flat drum, is illustrated by a specimen (no. 21675) in the National Museum. The [|c]exe-ga[k]u gadaje is made of buffalo hide, cowhide, or the skin of a horse. An example of this drum (no. 24682) is also in the National Museum, and is illustrated by the accompanying figure 317. The ja^{n}['] [|c]exe-ga[k]u, or [k]uge [|c]exe-ga[k]u, is a wooden or box drum, represented by the accompanying figure 318, also from a specimen (no. 58610) in the National Museum.

Whistles were made of elder (ba[t]uci-hi, or popgun wood) by pushing out the pith. No holes were made in the sides of the tube.

Nisude [t]an[']ga, or large flutes, were made of red cedar. A branch was cut off, rounded, split open with a knife, and hollowed out; then six holes were made in the side of one of them, and the halves were stuck together again. When one of these instruments is blown it produces quavering notes. The best specimens were made by [P]a[|c]i^{n}-[t]an[']ga, Big Pawnee.

The large flute is illustrated in figure 319.[1] Wahi nisude, or bone flutes, were made of the long bones from the eagle wing. These small flutes have only one hole. Reed flutes, [|c]iq[|c]e nisude, were made of a kind of reed which grows south of the Omaha territory, probably in Kansas. The Omaha obtained the reeds from some of the southern tribes and made them into flutes having but one hole each.

[Footnote 1: Compare Ree fife, "AMM 129-8429, Gray and Matthews," in the National Museum.]

WEAPONS.

Clubs.

The ja^{n}-weti^{n}, "striking-wood," is a four-sided club. It is made of ash, and is as long as from the elbow to the tips of the fingers. The ja^n-daona, "wood with a smooth head," is a club made of ironwood, which is very hard. According to the late Joseph La Fleche, the Omaha form of this weapon had a steel point projecting from the ball.

Figures 320 and 321 are forms of the ja^{n}-[p]a[c]na which may be seen in the National Museum (nos. 2649 and 22419). The weaq[|c]ade, another kind of war club, is made of some kind of hard wood. There are two varieties, one of which is shown in figure 322 (National Museum no. 23729). The other has a ball carved at the end of a straight handle, with a wooden point (of one piece with the ball and handle) projecting from the ball, making an angle of about 130 deg. with one side of the handle. There is a steel point inserted in the ball, forming an angle of about 110 deg. with the other side of the handle. The i^{n}[']-wate-jin[']ga is something like a slung shot. A round stone is wrapped in a piece of hide which is fastened to a wooden handle about 2 feet long.

Tomahawks.

The heads of tomahawks as well as of battle-axes were at first made of stone; but within the last century and a half they have been fashioned of iron.

Spears.

Lances, darts, or spears are designated by the general term man[']d[)e]hi. The ja^{n}[']-man'd[)e]hi are made of ash, and are from 6 to 8 feet long. There are two kinds, of one of which the handle is round, and about an inch in diameter, and the point is flat and about the width of three fingers at its juncture with the handle.

Besides these there are the lances, called waq[|c]exe-[|c]aze, of which there are two varieties. One consists of a straight pole, which has been thrust through a piece of buffalo hide that has its long end sewed together, forming a sort of covering. To this hide are fastened feathers of the crow and mi^{n}[']xa-sa^{n}, or swan, in alternate rows or bunches. Between the feathers are fastened square pieces of blanket. About the middle of the pole a space of nearly 6 inches is left without feathers, and this is the place where the spear is grasped. When the pole was not set into a metal point the lower end was cut very sharp.[1] The other variety, or mand[)e]hi [|c]iguje, "bent spear," is the weapon which the Dakota call "wahukeza." It is ornamented with eagle feathers placed at intevals, one being at the end of the curved part; and it generally terminates at the bottom in an iron point. It is possible for one of these waq[|c]exe[|c]aze to reach a man about 6 feet distant; and even mounted men have been killed by them. Spears are used also in some of the dances. Around the shaft is wrapped the skin of a swan or brant. The end feather at the top is white; the other feathers are white or spotted. The bent spear is no longer employed by the Omaha, though the Osage, Pawnee, and other tribes still use it to a greater or lesser extent.

Bows.

Bows (man-d[)e]) are of two kinds. One is the man-d[)e] or za^{n}zi-mand[)e] (bow-wood bow), having an unbroken curve past the grip to within an inch or two of each nock.[2] The other kind is the [t]a[k]a^{n}-mand[)e], so called because it has deer sinew glued on its back.[3] Bows were made of hickory, ash, ironwood, or za^{n}zi, the last being greatly preferred. It is a wood resembling that of the Osage orange, with which some persons confound it; but it is black and much harder than the former, the Osage orange wood being yellow, soft, and easily cut. The za^{n}zi is probably that which Dougherty[4] called "bow-wood ( Maclura aurantiaca of Nuttall)."

[Footnote 1: See First Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology, 1879-'80; 1881, Pl. X, "Tolkotin cremation."]

[Footnote 2: This may be the "self-bow" mentioned in the American Naturalist for July, 1886, p. 675.]

[Footnote 3: This is the sinew-backed bow above mentioned.]

[Footnote 4: Long's Expedition, op. cit., vol. I, p. 290.]

Bowstrings were made of the twisted sinew of the elk and buffalo, as among other tribes.

Arrows.

The arrows (ma^{n}) used in former days were of several kinds. The hunting arrow, used for killing the buffalo, was generally about 2 feet long, of the usual cylindric form, and armed with an elongate triangular point, made at first of flint, afterward of sheet iron. The shoulders of the arrow were rounded instead of angular, as in the ordinary barbed form. The point, or head, was firmly secured to the shaft by deer sinew wrapped around the neck of the point, and over that was spread some cement, made in a manner to be afterward explained. The flight of the arrow was equalized by three half-webs of feathers, neatly fastened near its base in the usual manner.

Another kind of hunting arrow was the hide nazi[|c][)e], which was altogether of wood. About 6 inches from the point the shaft was triangular or quadrangular; and the point was made by holding the shaft close to a fire and turning it round and round till the heat had reduced it to the proper shape and had hardened it. This was used for killing fish, deer, and small game.

The war arrow ( b ) differed from that used in hunting in having a barbed point, which was very slightly attached to the shaft, so that if it penetrated the body of an enemy it could not be withdrawn without leaving the point in the wound.

Children used the hide-[t]ace, or target arrow, when they began to learn the use of the bow. With this a boy could kill small birds and animals.

The Ponka used to make arrowshafts (ma^{n}sa) of ja^{n}-[']qude-hi, "gray wood," juneberry wood, which grew in their country, but is not found among the Omaha. Most of the Omaha made their shafts of the ma^n'saqtihi, or "real arrow-wood," ( Viburnum ) as that was the wood best suited for the purpose. Sometimes they were made of chokecherry wood; and Joseph LaFleche informs me that he has made them of ash and hickory.

Arrowshafts were held lengthwise directly in a line with the eyes of the workman, who sighted along them to see if they were straight. If one was bent, he held one end of it between his teeth, while he pressed against the rest of it with his hands. They were polished by means of the polishers, or ma^{n}[']-[|c]iq[|c]ade, two pieces of sandstone, each of which had a groove in the middle of one side. These grooves were brought together, and the arrow was drawn between them.

War arrows had crooked lines drawn along the shafts from the points to the other ends, down which, so I was informed by the Indians, it was intended that the blood of a wounded foe should trickle.

Arrowheads (mahi^{n}-si), when made of flint, as at the first, were called "i^{n}['][,][(e] mahi^{n}si," stone arrowheads. In more recent times, they were manufactured of pieces of sheet iron; as, for example, hoops of pails and barrels.

Arrow cement (hi^{n}[']pa), for attaching the heads to the shafts, was usually made from the skin taken off a buffalo or elk head. This was boiled a long time, till ready to fall to pieces. When the gelatinous matter forming the cement rose to the top of the water, a stick (called hi^{n}pa-ja^{n}jin[']ga) was thrust in and turned round and round, causing the material to be wrapped around it. When cooled it was smoothed with the hand. Then the act was repeated till a large quantity was collected on the stick. When needed for use, it was warmed by placing either in the mouth or in hot water. The skin of the big turtle was also used for making cement.

A set of arrows were called, collectively, "ma^{n}wi^{n}[']da^{n}." A set generally consisted of ten arrows, but the number varied; sometimes there were two, four, or even twenty. When a man had arrows left in his quiver, he compared them with that which was in the slain animal. When he had none left, he appealed to some one who knew his style of arrow.

There were no clan or gentile marks on arrows. One set was distinguished from another by the order of the paint stripes on them, by the kind of feathers used, by the mode in which the arrowheads were made, etc. The Oto made bad arrows; those of the Pawnee were better, but they were inferior to those made by the Dakota, Ponka, and Omaha.

The feathers, half-webs generally, put on arrows were those of the eagle, buzzard, wild turkey, great owl, and goose. Sometimes hawk or crow feathers were employed.

Quivers.

Quivers (ma^{n}[']jiha) for men were made of buffalo hide; but boys' quivers were made either of otter skins or of the skins of cougars, with the tail of the animal hanging down from the upper extremity. A skin case was attached to the quiver for carrying the bow when not in use. The wrist was defended from the percussion of the bowstring by the leather wristguard or aqande-[p]a.

Shields and Armor.

Shields ([t]ahawag[|c]e) were made of the hides of buffalo bulls. They were round and very thick, reaching to the waist of the bearer. Arrows did not penetrate them. Joseph La Fleche never heard of the use of defensive armor, such as helmet and mail, among the Omaha and Ponka.

He had heard of a Pawnee who made a coat from four elk skins, two forming the front and two the back. Between each pair of skins was placed sand. A helmet was made in like manner. It covered the back of the head and extended over the forehead, coming down as far as the eyes. When the Pawnee noticed an arrow coming toward him, he bowed his head forward.

Firearms.

Firearms were introduced among the Omaha prior to 1819, when Dougherty says that they preferred those called "Mackinaw guns."

INDEX.

Armor, Absence of, among the Omaha 287 of the Pawnee 288 Arrows of the Omaha 286 Axes of the Omaha 278

Bark, Omaha lodges of 269, 271 Basketry of the Omaha 278 Baths, public, Absence of, among the Omaha 274 Beds and bedding of the Omaha 275 Big Pawnee, Flutes made by 282 Bikude, an Omaha village 270 Bladders used as receptacles 280 Boats of hide of the Omaha 281 Bone hoes of the Omaha 278 Bridles of the Omaha 280 Brooms of the Omaha 276 Buffalo, gents of the Omaha 277

[|C]egiha fire-making 279 Cement used by the Omaha 287 Children, Omaha, Target arrows of the 286 Clubs, War, of the Omaha 283 Couches of the Omaha 275 Cradles of the Omaha 275

Dakota, Arrows of the 287 Dance houses of the Omaha 274 Decoration of Omaha tents 274 Dorsey J. O., on Omaha dwellings, furniture, and implements 263-288 Dougherty, --, on Omaha bow-wood 285 firearms 288 horse equipage 280 Drilling, with grass-stalks 279 Drinking vessels of the Omaha 277 Drums of the Omaha 282 Dwellings, furniture and implements of the Omaha 263-288

Equipage for horses 280

Firearms among the Omaha 288 Fire implements of the Omaha 279 Fireplace in Omaha lodge 271 of the Omaha and Ponka 275 Flute of the Omaha 282 Furniture, dwellings, and implements of the Omaha 263-288

Gentile marks, Absence of, on Omaha arrows 287 Grain, Storage of, among the Omaha 274

Halters of the Omaha 280 Hammocks introduced among the Omaha 275 Hoes, Bone, of the Omaha 278 Horn spoons of the Omaha 277

Implements of the Omaha 263-278 Iowa indians, Bark lodges of 271

Ja^{n}[|c]a[']te, an Omaha village 270

Kansa, Lodges of the 270 Knives of the Omaha 268