Part 5
There is an absence of interesting chimneys in Holland, for the gable ends of the high and narrow-fronted houses, bordering the street, obscured from view these objects of usefulness. Solely utilitarian, therefore, they generally remained, shafts of the simplest form, serving the purpose for which they were devised, owing nothing to beauty or ornament and little to precedent. When hipped roofs were employed, instead of gables, chimneys came into greater prominence. But even then--with an absence of developed, traditional forms to give the basis for the evolution of a settled type--they did not constitute important decorative factors in the architectural scheme. Many stacks have neither mouldings nor other projection at the top. Chimneys a little more elaborate than was usual are shown by the two illustrations from Hoorn and Zutphen (page 112). They deviate somewhat from the plain rectangular shape, and both have moulded heads; while the Hoorn example has a pyramidal hood covered with lead and supported by four metal uprights.
Isolated stone ornaments are numerous. They were inserted into walls with freedom and wheresoever caprice or fancy suggested--high up on gables, around doorways, over windows, or distributed on what would otherwise have been unrelieved spaces. The rich appearance of the buildings is in no small measure due to the extravagant use of these details. That bizarre kind of ornament, known by the name of strapwork, and well shown in the Arnhem gable (page 108), was freely used, as was carved work based upon Italian motives. Among the latter may be mentioned the more or less conventional representation of human forms, fruit and flowers, birds, fishes and beasts, with prominence given to heads of lions, or the complete animal in the attitude sejeant, popularly used as a gable termination.
Of a more homely and personal character are the frequently occurring panels bearing, in well-cut figures and letters, dates, mottoes, and inscriptions; four are exemplified by the accompanying drawings from Zutphen (page 115) and Haarlem (pages 114 to 116). Equally symbolic of pride of home are the carved coats-of-arms which keep green, by visible sign, the memory of the builder and the honour of his house. One such armorial decoration from Workum, dated 1644, is illustrated on page 115. All these little enrichments, so constantly seen, are more than mere examples of craftsmanship; they essentially express the sentiments of the man who caused the stones to be laid.
Things to be observed in everyday life naturally furnished subjects for carvings in stone. The forces of Nature, greatly influential in Holland--that is to say, water and wind and all that resulted therefrom--were turned to for inspiration. Decoratively treated water, with ships, windmills, and other appliances relevant to human convenience or suggestive of enterprise, were especially favoured. A windmill from Sneek, high in relief and painted black, red, gold and white, together with a ship from Haarlem appearing in an oval panel surrounded by a scrollwork frame, are illustrated (page 115). Interesting is the wall-panel at Franeker (page 114), with a scene from local history depicted upon it; there is much spirit shown in the carving of the men and horses, while the water, drawbridge, and distant houses are well managed. The house known as "Inde Steenrotse," situated on the Dwars Quay at Middelburg, dated 1590, is noteworthy for its large panels in high relief. It was built by a wealthy mason. Five of the carved subjects portray various episodes connected with the working of stone and two are here given (page 116); others, higher up the building, represent biblical scenes from the Book of Exodus.
The mosaic decorations are of unusual interest, for they are of a kind more or less peculiar to this country. They were formed by inlaying small pieces of brick and stone set together to make repeating patterns or panels. As was customary, materials were used with just regard for their suitable adaptability to purpose; not employed unreasonably, or strained to accomplish that for which they were not fitted. The units were simple and results legitimate. This ornamental work was principally used to enrich the arched spaces over window-heads; less frequently it appears in bands carried horizontally across the buildings.
The houses at Woudrichem (page 117)--inscribed "Iden Salamander 1606" and "Zuden Gulden Engel 1593"--have notable examples of mosaics in the window-heads. Two of the patterns are shown in detail on page 118, together with two others from a house near by. All were achieved by manipulating little shaped pieces of brick to form devices, especially noticeable being the starlike figures with radiating points. Work of a similar kind appears on the house at Zwolle, dated 1609, and illustrated on page 119. An enlarged drawing of one of the window-heads (page 118) gives the precise arrangement of the brick and stonework. There is quite a Moorish feeling evident in this design, with the two main portions of inlay enclosed by arch-shaped lines curved horseshoe fashion. The horseshoe arch was essentially a product of Morocco, and the analogy with the East is further strengthened by the fact that mosaic was a medium extensively used by Byzantine and Saracenic artists. These circumstances all suggest the origin of the employment of such work in Holland.
On page 118 is represented a small section of the horizontal mosaic band that appears over the archway at Nijmegen (page 41). Simpler patterns were also formed with ordinary narrow bricks and mortar. Two examples are here given, both carried out in red and yellow bricks,--a frieze at the first storey level of a house at Workum and shaped spaces from Franeker (page 120).
Turning to external metalwork the most characteristic objects are the iron wall-ties. They were applied to walls to give them stability. But the possibilities for artistic treatment which the wall-ties offered were by no means overlooked, as is demonstrated by the many and varied forms produced by the blacksmiths, who regarded these accessories, before all things, as the particular field for the display of their skill. Endless varieties are to be found, certain patterns being local to specific districts. Upon ordinary houses--and they were practically invariably used--they are usually no more elaborate than might be achieved by direct work on the anvil; of honest but unambitious appearance and shaped in simple ways, such as are shown by the illustrations on page 121. But the wall-ties of more important buildings are often complicated affairs; beautiful examples of design and craftsmanship which were wrought with labour. They are rich in scrolls and curves with foliated ornament, and one of the examples here given (page 123) has the date of 1798 worked within it. Iron letters and figures also decorate the fronts of many houses. Each is detached and secured to the wall by a single stay. They are arranged to denote dates or monograms. An example has already been seen at the base of a gable at Middelburg (page 35); another specimen, from St. Anna, near Nijmegen, is reproduced on page 122.
Other wrought ironwork was used for various purposes on doors and windows, as well as to heighten the effect of certain features. A good instance of its application is demonstrated by the key-escutcheon, with supporting iron decorations, from Middelburg (page 123). The workmanship is of a traditional kind, with Gothic forms recalled by the cusps on the pierced plates. The iron door-knocker, appearing on the same page, is an interesting example of curious design and belongs to the sixteenth or seventeenth century. For windows, ironwork was used in the stout stay-bars and stanchions, instances of which, fitted to an oval opening, are furnished from Leiden (page 122).
The magnificent wrought vanes of Holland, surmounting lofty belfries on public buildings, are justly famous and are reflected in the less elaborate shapes that adorn the roof points or gable terminations of business and dwelling-houses. One, from Middelburg (page 122), is a beautiful example of an iron terminal. The crowning figure and fleur-de-lis are gilded, while signs and symbols of the Zodiac are worked around the outer and inner open-framed globes. Simpler vanes are common throughout the country, attached to farmhouses or stables. That from Broek (page 122) is shaped like a swan; one may be seen at Veere which takes the form of a ship. The shaft of the weathercock from Hees (page 124) is made up of iron scrolls, welded together, and four projecting arms point to north, south, east and west.
The leadwork to be observed on domestic buildings is not of remarkable interest. There are no wonderful decorated rain-water heads such as may be seen elsewhere, and lead heads, when used at all, are for the most part comparatively plain, square projections. The examples from Zutphen, reproduced on page 122, illustrate two ordinary forms. An interesting feature, prevalent in North Holland, is the lead finial placed at the apex of a hipped roof. There are many examples in the streets of Hoorn, three of which are shown on page 124. Notice should be taken of the delicate little fretwork heads; the repoussé patterns on the upright sides; and the iron vane which surmounts one of the examples. These objects, although of little practical use, have a decorative value that well justifies their existence. In all these exterior features and details, whether executed in wood or stone, metal or brick, there is especial evidence of the type of mind that was concerned with their production; they pertinently give the key to temperament and character. Such work resulted from deliberate thought and calculation, rather than from imaginative impulse. Sometimes it verged on dulness, yet there is always traceable a certain solid strength and vigour. This is well seen in the stone carvings, here illustrated, whose subjects are often lacking in originality or follow some oft-repeated theme. They are excellently carved, however, and attain interest in consequence. For the individuality of the masons is reflected in the inanimate stone. They gave life to their work and freshness to old subjects. Each man followed his own bent. Some were a little in advance of their time, some behind it, so there are endless variations to patterns that superficially agree. A new turn was given to a scroll here, a different arrangement there; just small things that served to raise work from the conventional and commonplace.
The olden craftsmen respected tradition. Forms that became established by custom were handed down from generation to generation. Certain ornaments continued to be used, almost unaltered, over a very long period. Not that patterns were slavishly followed; on the contrary, each man gave his own interpretation of what he knew had served so well, and fashioned his work in his own way. But he remembered something of that which had gone before. Traditions of ornamentation were just as much founded upon accumulated experience as were the main styles of architecture. The worker saw around him the forces of Nature, active yet unchanging, the abiding waterways, the ancient churches standing as they had done in times long past, and it was in a spirit of respect for the permanence of spiritual and material things that he pursued his craft. This was altogether good. Methods of workmanship, the treatment of features, and types of enrichment, were gradually evolved. They were governed by ordered principles that slowly grew together and became established, principles that served to check the introduction of inharmonious innovations which would have been out of sympathy with all those forms that, as a whole, were customary and usual.
Doorways, windows, gables and ornaments, therefore, by their particular appearance, mark various steps in a long-continued process of development. Period followed period. After the pointed-arched doorways came the circular-headed; gables of simple outline in course of time became more complex; fashions in the shaping of wall-ties changed. But nothing happened suddenly. Craftsmen were content to solve their own problems without any show of haste. It was by such methods that incongruities were avoided.
The national temperament always asserted itself and each individual as he carved his stone, laid his bricks, worked his wood, or wrought his iron, did his small part to keep alive the inherited traditions, and pass them on so that they should be vigorous to meet the needs of future generations.
The ornamental features that appear on the exterior walls impart to the buildings of Holland much of that quaintness for which they are distinguished. Although the decorations are so plentifully applied, they do not often appear misplaced or offend the eye. For the natural conditions of the country have always been peculiar. The low-lying lands and ever-present water demand a special type of architecture which shall be in thorough sympathy with the surroundings, as well as outwardly express the character of those people who live amongst them. Much is possible and good in Holland which would be out of place, or even bad, elsewhere. The many houses, appearing where they do, are admirably conceived. Rich with ornaments, date panels, little carvings, mosaics and ironwork--such as are shown by the illustrations in this section--with coloured bricks fashioned in many ways, and doorways and windows highly decorated, they cannot fail to appeal to those who see them in their natural environment. There is a personal note about each dwelling. They are houses that look like homes, places to be treasured by succeeding generations. And the evidences of pride of possession to be seen in the isolated panels carved with arms, dates and inscriptions, or similar motives worked around doorways, especially give to the brick and stone-built walls a home-like and fireside quality. Students of English architecture will have observed how homely ideas affected the appearance of the houses of Holland just as they did those of England. Similar sentiments obtained in both countries and indirectly brought kindred features to the buildings.
It requires but little imagination to people once again the streets and waterways with men and women and of their lives are on every hand. The stones they lovingly caused to be carved are there; the heavy studded doors that yielded to their hands are still framed by old entrance ways. The work was done that it should last and yet it stands, solid and good. The glory of the house may have departed; yet there still remains the material record of lives well-spent and duties well-performed. And in this the carved monograms and dates are full of meaning.
DIVISION III
INTERIORS AND DECORATION
There are, within the old buildings of Holland, interior effects of rare charm. They are hidden away from the outer world behind high gabled fronts of sober houses, beyond the thresholds of country farms. These interiors are rich in memories of the past. They tell of bygone times and bring vivid pictures of civic and home life to the imagination. Solidly built, they were erected with due thought to permanence, that they should stand from generation to generation; that men's memories might be honoured by their children and their children's children. That it should be continuous and abiding was the keynote of the old work which to this day is fresh and beautiful, full of life and vitality, although the makers of it have long since gone and are forgotten. And while things were made to be durable, so also were they made to please the eye and gratify the senses. Good construction, accompanied by much enrichment, gave results tending towards extreme elaboration. Rooms became imposing by their massive ceiling beams supported by sculptured corbels; panelling, or maybe Spanish leather or tapestry, upon the walls; carved oaken doors; fireplaces in wood and stone adorned with columns, figures and other devices; coloured tiles of many patterns; cast-iron firebacks and wrought metalwork; panels of painted glass in the windows; floors of oak, veined marble, or glazed quarries; brass candelabrums hanging from the ceilings, with movable furniture and ornaments disposed in many places.
A good impression of a seventeenth-century room may be gathered from the accompanying illustration from Dordrecht (page 128). The walls are panelled in oak up to a certain height; above is a deep white frieze, admirably adapted for displaying the blue-and-white ware and pictures which rest against it. The chimney-piece is sumptuous, alternately gay and sober, charming below the mantel with brightly-coloured tiles and shining metal utensils, dignified above with panelling and projecting frieze. Forming the dividing line between mantel and fireplace is a mantel-cloth of blue material, inscribed with the homely maxim "Oost West, Thuis Best," and bearing a brace of crossed tobacco-pipes worked at each end of it. A good specimen of a brass candelabrum is attached to the central ceiling beam, while the floor is covered with matting. Solid oak furniture, massive and heavy, completes this picture of material comfort and pleasantness. Equally characteristic is the room at Leeuwarden (page 129). Similar features will be observed--panelling and carved woodwork; ceiling joists and beams, which are here supported by moulded corbels; blue-and-white ware, tiles, and a blue velvet mantel-cloth. The hearth is of squares of black and white marble. Upon it stands a copper fire-holder; behind is a cast-iron fireback adorned with an armorial subject. In the lead-glazed window are two circular panels of painted glass.
Another example of a brass candelabrum, similar to the one above-mentioned, is shown by the drawing from Haarlem (page 127). It is of a type that was customary. Many such still exist in old-world rooms, suspended from high ceilings by chains or rods. Apart from their uses for purposes of illumination, they are highly successful as centre ornaments, for it will be seen how effectively they were made, with curved decorated brackets branching from shaped shafts. Patterns are various, but there are certain essentials common to all and a general resemblance between each. Thus, a particularly beautiful candelabrum in the Town Hall at Zwolle, with an image of the Virgin and pierced, leaf-like brackets, is but an elaboration of the simple familiar form. Some carry three lights only, ordinarily there are ten or twelve; while an example noticed at Haarlem, with twenty-seven candles, probably represents the extreme capacity of this old-fashioned system of lighting.
Of interior features, first in importance come the fireplaces. Great thought was given to the decoration of them, the appearance of many being rich beyond description. Numerous kinds of materials were used for their adornment; brick and stone, wood, marble and slate, coloured tiles and terra-cotta, all giving value to the imposing compositions. And although the materials were so various, they were skilfully combined to produce harmonious results. Fireplaces were brought forward from the walls and not set back within them. The openings were of ample size, wide and high. The jambs, enriched with mouldings or appearing as columns, supported massive hoods that extended upwards to the ceiling.
The fireplace at Maastricht (page 131) is a good specimen of the late Gothic type. It belongs to the year 1510, this date being carved on the centre scroll. Upon the sandstone jambs are worked Gothic mouldings which spring from shaped stops resting on square bases. The broad frieze is rich with carvings of angels, conventional flowers, cusps, and two shields, bearing the arms of Maastricht and Liège. The rear of the opening is lined with pressed terra-cotta tiles that exhibit a variety of designs in low relief. Against it is set an iron fireback ornamented with a heraldic device. The wooden figures on the mantel-shelf are merely placed thereon and are not inherent to the design.
Details of fireplaces changed with the passing of Gothic influences, although the olden form was still retained. Classic columns, or less frequently, human figures and grotesques, were substituted for moulded jambs. They commonly supported a carved oak frieze surmounted by a projecting cornice. Such chimney-pieces are by no means rare in Holland and may generally be ascribed to the seventeenth century. One, from Leeuwarden, has already been illustrated on page 129. Another example, from Middelburg, is here given (page 133). The columns are of white marble, but the jambs behind them, together with the bases and corbels, are of slate and are decorated with strapwork patterns. The oak mantel is inlaid with bands and panels of light wood. Tiles of blue, white and yellow cover the back, and border the upright sides of the iron hearth.
The chimney-piece at Amsterdam (page 130) is of an unusual pattern. It is situated in the room of the Bricklayers' Guild and is of early seventeenth-century workmanship. The opening is framed of stone. Over the mantel-shelf is a curved pediment with the arms of Amsterdam carved upon it. Fitted to the chimney-breast above is a small oval painted panel enclosed by brickwork.
The fireplace from the Westerwold (page 135), now at Groningen, belongs to a later period than the preceding example. A wooden chimney-shelf and pilasters, almost black in colour, support the tapering hood. The back of the fireplace is faced with blue-and-white tiles and red bricks. A protecting fireback rests against it, while a hanger, hooked within the opening, holds the metal pot over the fire. The effect of this fireplace and its accessories, admirably decorative in themselves, is further enhanced by the pure white surrounding walls, and by the parti-coloured floor laid with red and yellow quarries.
Cast-iron firebacks have been noticed in the previous illustrations. They were generally used where fires burned on open hearths. The castings are rather light and thin, and were taken from wooden models. They are ornamented with floral and heraldic subjects, or designs suggested by classical myths and bible stories. Of the four examples illustrated on pages 132 and 134, two have armorial bearings, surrounded by rich borders, cast upon them. The one from Leiden is dated 1609, and the other, from Nijmegen, 1650. Both of the remaining specimens from Jisp and Middelburg, are decorated with figure subjects, bordered by fruit and scrolls and flowers. All the work is in rather low relief.
Fuel, in the form of peat or charcoal, was responsible for certain utensils in which it could be conveniently burned. One such is given on page 139. It is an iron fire-standard suited for holding peat, and was drawn in the Museum at Dordrecht. The lines of the design are good, especially to be observed in the engaged scrolls and shaping of the top. It is, withal, serviceably made. Small boxes containing fire, placed upon the floor in front of chairs, served as foot-warmers (page 148). They are of square or oval shape. The sides are frequently patterned and the lids perforated. Fires were also contained in iron pots which stood upon oak stools within the fireplaces; or they burned in little iron hearths, which were set towards the centre of the rooms, with no provision made for carrying away the smoke. The former system is exemplified by the drawing from Leeuwarden (page 137), and the latter by an illustration from a cottage at Marken (page 136).