Chapter 6

First I shall freely confide to you The tale of this tablet of wood. As a tree I grew up On the coast of Mecealde, close by the sea. Frequently thence to foreign lands 5 I set forth in travel, the salt streams tried In the keel of the ship at a king's behest. Full oft on the bosom of a boat I have dwelt, Fared over the foam a friend to see, Wherever my master on a mission sent me, 10 Over the crest of the wave. I am come here to you On the deck of a ship and in duty inquire How now in your heart you hold and cherish The love of my lord. Loyalty unwavering I affirm without fear you will find in his heart. 15 The maker of this message commands me to bid thee, O bracelet-adorned one, to bring to thy mind And impress on thy heart the promises of love That ye two in the old days often exchanged While at home in your halls unharmed you might still 20 Live in the land, love one another, Dwell in the same country. He was driven by feud From the powerful people. He prays now, most earnestly That you learn with delight you may launch on the sea-stream When from the height of the hill you hear from afar 25 The melancholy call of the cuckoo in the wood. Let not thereafter any living man Prevent thy voyage or prevail against it. Seek now the shore, the sea-mew's home! Embark on the boat that bears thee south, 30 Where far over the foam thou shalt find thy lord,-- Where lingers thy lover in longing and hope. In the width of the world not a wish or desire More strongly stirs him (he instructs me to say) Than that gracious God should grant you to live 35 Ever after at ease together, To distribute treasures to retainers and friends, To give rings of gold. Of gilded cups And of proud possessions a plenty he has, And holds his home far hence with strangers, 40 His fertile fields, where follow him many High-spirited heroes-- though here my liege-lord, Forced by the fates, took flight on a ship And on the watery waves went forth alone To fare on the flood-way: fain would he escape, 45 Stir up the sea-streams. By strife thy lord hath Won the fight against woe. No wish will he have For horses or jewels or the joys of mead-drinking, Nor any earl's treasures on earth to be found, O gentle lord's daughter, if he have joy in thee, 50 As by solemn vows ye have sworn to each other. I set as a sign S and R together, E, A, W, and D, as an oath to assure you That he stays for thee still and stands by his troth; And as long as he lives it shall last unbroken,-- 55 Which often of old with oaths ye have plighted.

1-6. The text here is so corrupt that an almost complete reconstruction has been necessary.

51. In the manuscript these letters appear as runes. For illustrations of the appearance of runes, see the introductory note to "Cynewulf and his School," p. 95, below. What these runes stood for, or whether they were supposed to possess unusual or magic power is purely a matter of conjecture.

THE RUIN

[Text used: Kluge, _Angelsächsisches Lesebuch_.

This description of a ruin with hot baths is generally assumed to be of the Roman city of Bath. The fact that the poet uses unusual words and unconventional lines seems to indicate that he wrote with his eye on the object.]

Wondrous is its wall-stone laid waste by the fates. The burg-steads are burst, broken the work of the giants. The roofs are in ruins, rotted away the towers, The fortress-gate fallen, with frost on the mortar. 5 Broken are the battlements, low bowed and decaying, Eaten under by age. The earth holds fast The master masons: low mouldering they lie In the hard grip of the grave, till shall grow up and perish A hundred generations. Hoary and stained with red, 10 Through conquest of kingdoms, unconquered this wall endured, Stood up under storm. The high structure has fallen. Still remains its wall-stone, struck down by weapons. They have fallen . . . . . . . . . Ground down by grim fate . . . . . . . . 15 Splendidly it shone . . . . . . . . The cunning creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . from its clay covering is bent; Mind . . . . . . the swift one drawn. The bold ones in counsel bound in rings 19 The wall-foundations with wires, wondrously together. 20 Bright were the burgher's homes, the bath halls many, Gay with high gables --a great martial sound, Many mead-halls, where men took their pleasure, Till an end came to all, through inexorable fate. The people all have perished; pestilence came on them: 25 Death stole them all, the staunch band of warriors. Their proud works of war now lie waste and deserted; This fortress has fallen. Its defenders lie low, Its repairmen perished. Thus the palace stands dreary, And its purple expanse; despoiled of its tiles 30 Is the roof of the dome. The ruin sank to earth, Broken in heaps --there where heroes of yore, Glad-hearted and gold-bedecked, in gorgeous array, Wanton with wine-drink in war-trappings shone: They took joy in jewels and gems of great price, 35 In treasure untold and in topaz-stones, In the firm-built fortress of a far-stretching realm. The stone courts stood; hot streams poured forth, Wondrously welled out. The wall encompassed all In its bright embrace. Baths were there then, 40 Hot all within --a healthful convenience. They let then pour . . . . . . . . . . Over the hoary stones the heated streams, Such as never were seen by our sires till then. Hringmere was its name . . . . . . . . . . 45 The baths were there then; then is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . That is a royal thing In a house . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14-18. The text is too corrupt to permit of reconstruction. A literal translation of the fragmentary lines has been given in order to show the student something of the loss we have suffered in not having the whole of this finely conceived lament for fallen grandeur. The line numbers are those of Kluge's text.

II. CHRISTIAN POETRY

1. CÆDMONIAN SCHOOL

[Concerning the man Cædmon, we have nothing but Bede's account in his _Ecclesiastical History_ (see p. 179 below) and Cædmon's Hymn.

_Genesis_ was first published in Amsterdam 1655, next in 1752. The first editions brought _Genesis_ under Cædmon's name, because of Bede's account. There is, however, no such clue in the manuscript. The assignment of _Genesis_ to Cædmon was questioned by Hicks as early as 1689. The Cædmonian authorship was defended in the early part of the nineteenth century by Conybeare and Thorpe. It is now agreed that all the Cædmonian Paraphrases are probably by different authors.

Cf. A. S. Cook, "The Name Cædmon," _Publications of the Modern Language Association of America_, vi, 9, and "Cædmon and the Ruthwell Cross," _Modern Language Notes_, v, 153.]

CÆDMON'S HYMN

[Text used: Kluge, _Angelsächsisches Lesebuch_.

Prose translation: Kennedy, _The Cædmon Poems_, p. xvii.

The poem is interesting in that it is found in two texts, the Northumbrian and the West Saxon. It is the only thing we have that was undoubtedly written by Cædmon.]

Now shall we praise the Prince of heaven, The might of the Maker and his manifold thought, The work of the Father: of what wonders he wrought The Lord everlasting, when he laid out the worlds. 5 He first raised up for the race of men The heaven as a roof, the holy Ruler. Then the world below, the Ward of mankind, The Lord everlasting, at last established As a home for man, the Almighty Lord. _Primo cantavit_ Cædmon _istud carmen_.

6. The many synonyms (known as "kennings") make this passage impossible to translate into smooth English. This fact is true in a measure of all old English poetry, but it is especially the case with this hymn.

BEDE'S DEATH SONG

[Text used: Kluge, _Angelsächsisches Lesebuch_.

This poem was attributed to Bede, who died in 735, by his pupil, Cuthbert, who translated it into Latin. The Northumbrian version is in a manuscript at St. Gall.

These verses are examples of gnomic poetry, which was very popular in Old English literature. Miss Williams, in her _Gnomic Poetry in Anglo-Saxon_ (Columbia University Press, 1914), p. 67, says that this is the earliest gnomic expression in Old English for which a definite date may be set.

Text criticism: Charlotte D'Evelyn, "Bede's Death Song," _Modern Language Notes_, xxx, 31.]

Before leaving this life there lives no one Of men of wisdom who will not need To consider and judge, ere he sets on his journey, What his soul shall be granted of good or evil-- 5 After his day of death what doom he shall meet.

1. Bede, the author of the _Ecclesiastical History of England_, was the greatest figure in the English church of the seventh and eighth centuries.

SELECTIONS FROM GENESIS

[The poem readily divides itself into two parts: _Genesis A_, the bulk of the poem, and _Genesis B_, lines 235-853. The latter is a translation from the Old Saxon. The passage here translated is from _Genesis A_.

GENESIS A

Critical edition of _Genesis A_: F. Holthausen, _Die ältere Genesis_, Heidelberg, 1914.

Translation: C. W. Kennedy, _The Cædmon Poems_, New York, 1916, p. 7.

Partial translation: W. F. H. Bosanquet, _The Fall of Man or Paradise Lost of Cædmon_, London, 1869.

Date and place: Early eighth century; Northern England. The author was obviously acquainted with _Beowulf_.

Source: Vulgate Bible; first twenty-two chapters.]

The Offering of Isaac

2845 Then the powerful King put to the test His trusted servant; tried him sorely To learn if his love was lasting and certain. With strongest words he sternly said to him: "Hear me and hasten hence, O Abraham. 2850 As thou leavest, lead along with thee Thy own child Isaac! As an offering to me Thyself shalt sacrifice thy son with thy hands. When thy steps have struggled up the steep hill-side, To the height of the land which from here I shall show you-- 2855 When thine own feet have climbed, there an altar erect me, Build a fire for thy son; and thyself shalt kill him With the edge of the sword as a sacrifice to me; Let the black flame burn the body of that dear one." He delayed not his going, but began at once 2860 To prepare for departure: he was compelled to obey The angel of the Lord, and he loved his God. And then the faultless father Abraham Gave up his night's rest; he by no means failed To obey the Lord's bidding, but the blessed man 2865 Girded his gray sword, God's spirit he showed That he bore in his breast. His beasts then he fed, This aged giver of gold. To go on the journey Two young men he summoned: his son made the third; He himself was the fourth. He set forward eagerly 2870 From his own home and Isaac with him, The child ungrown, as charged by his God. Then he hurried ahead and hastened forth Along the paths that the Lord had pointed, The way through the waste; till the wondrous bright 2875 Dawn of the third day over the deep water Arose in radiance. Then the righteous man Saw the hill-tops rise high around him, As the holy Ruler of heaven had shown him. Then Abraham said to his serving-men: 2880 "O men of mine, remain here now Quietly in this place! We shall quickly return When we two have performed the task before us Which the Sovereign of souls has assigned us to do." The old man ascended with his own son 2885 To the place which the Lord had appointed for them, Went through the wealds; the wood Isaac carried-- His father the fire and the sword. Then first inquired The boy young in winters, in these words of Abraham: "Fire and sword, my father, we find here ready: 2890 Where is the glorious offering which to God on the altar Thou thinkest to bring and burn as a sacrifice?" Abraham answered (he had only one thing That he wished to perform, the will of the Father): "The Sovereign of all himself shall find it, 2895 As the Lord of men shall believe to be meet." Up the steep hill struggled the stout-hearted man, Leading the child as the Lord had charged, Till climbing he came to the crest of the height, To the place appointed by the powerful Lord, 2900 Following the commands of his faithful Master. He loaded the altar and lighted the fire, And fettered fast the feet and hands Of his beloved son and lifted upon it The youthful Isaac, and instantly grasped 2905 The sword by the hilt; his son he would kill With his hands as he promised and pour on the fire The gore of his kinsman. --Then God's servant, An angel of the Lord, to Abraham loudly Spoke with words. He awaited in quiet 2910 The behests from on high and he hailed the angel. Then forthwith spoke from the spacious heavens The messenger of God, with gracious words: "Burn not thy boy, O blessed Abraham, Lift up the lad alive from the altar; 2915 The God of Glory grants him his life! O man of the Hebrews, as meed for thy obedience, Through the holy hand of heaven's King, Thyself shall receive a sacred reward, A liberal gift: the Lord of Glory 2920 Shall favor thee with fortune; his friendship shall be More sacred than thy son himself to thee." The altar still burned. Abraham was blessed By the King of mankind, the kinsman of Lot, With the grace of God, since he gave his son, 2925 Isaac, alive. Then the aged man looked Around over his shoulder, and a ram he saw Not far away fastened alone In a bramble bush-- Haran's brother saw it. Then Abraham seized it and set it on the altar 2930 In eager haste for his own son. With his sword he smote it; as a sacrifice he adorned The reeking altar with the ram's hot blood, Gave to his God this gift and thanked him For all of the favors that before and after 2935 The Lord had allowed him in his loving grace.

1. This selection is based directly on the biblical account of the offering of Isaac. The clearness with which the picture is visualized by the poet, and the fine restraint in the telling of the dramatic incident make this passage a fitting close for the paraphrase of Genesis.

2928. _Haran_, the brother of Abraham, is mentioned in Genesis, 11:26, ff.

SELECTIONS FROM EXODUS

[Critical edition: Francis A. Blackburn, _Exodus and Daniel_, Boston and London, 1907, Belles-Lettres Series.

Translation: Kennedy, _The Cædmon Poems_, p. 99.

There can be no doubt that both _Exodus_ and _Daniel_ are by different hands from _Genesis A_ or _Genesis B_, and they are themselves by different authors.]

The Crossing of the Red Sea

When these words had been uttered the army arose; 300 Still stood the sea for the staunch warriors. The cohorts lifted their linden-shields, Their signals on the sand. The sea-wall mounted, Stood upright over Israel's legion, For day's time; then the doughty band 305 Was of one mind. The wall of the sea-streams Held them unharmed in its hollow embrace. They spurned not the speech nor despised its teaching, As the wise man ended his words of exhorting And the noise diminished and mingled with the sound. 310 Then the fourth tribe traveled foremost, Went into the waves, the warriors in a band Over the green ground; the goodly Jewish troop Struggled alone over the strange path Before their kinsmen. So the King of heaven 315 For that day's work made deep reward, He gave them a great and glorious victory, That to them should belong the leadership In the kingdom, and triumph over their kinsmen and tribesmen. When they stepped on the sand, as a standard and sign 320 A beacon they raised over the ranks of shields, Among the godly group, a golden lion, The boldest of beasts over the bravest of peoples. At the hands of their enemy no dishonor or shame Would they deign to endure all the days of their life, 325 While boldly in battle they might brandish their shields Against any people. The awful conflict, The fight was at the front, furious soldiers Wielding their weapons, warriors fearless, And bloody wounds, and wild battle-rushes, 330 The jostling of helmets where the Jews advanced. Marching after the army were the eager seamen, The sons of Reuben; raising their shields The sea-vikings bore them over the salt waves, A multitude of men; a mighty throng 335 Went bravely forth. The birthright of Reuben Was forfeited by his sins, so that he followed after In his comrade's track. In the tribes of the Hebrews, The blessings of the birthright his brother enjoyed, His riches and rank; yet Reuben was brave. 340 Following him came the folk in crowds, The sons of Simeon in swarming bands, The third great host. With hoisted banners Over the watery path the war-troop pressed Dewy under their shafts. When daylight shone 345 Over the brink of the sea, --the beacon of God, The bright morning,-- the battle-lined marched. Each of the tribes traveled in order. At the head of the helmeted host was one man, Mightiest in majesty and most renowned; 350 He led forward the folk as they followed the cloud, By tribes and by troops. Each truly knew The right of rank as arranged by Moses, Every man's order. They were all from one father. Their sacred sire received his land-right, 355 Wise in counsel, well-loved by his kinsmen. He gave birth to a brave, bold-hearted race, The sage patriarch to a sacred people, To the Children of Israel, the chosen of God. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The folk were affrighted with fear of the ocean; Sad were their souls. The sea threatened death; The sides of the hill were soaked with blood; 450 Gory was the flood, confusion on the waves, The water full of weapons; the wave-mist arose. The Egyptians turned and journeyed backward; They fled in fright; fear overtook them; Hurrying in haste their homes they sought; 455 Their pride had fallen; they felt sweep over them The welling waters; not one returned Of the host to their homes, but behind they were locked By Wyrd in the waves. Where once was the path The breakers beat and bore down the army. 460 The stream stood up; the storm arose High to the heavens, the harshest of noises. Dark grew the clouds. The doomed ones cried With fated voices; the foam became bloody. The sea-walls were scattered and the skies were lashed 465 With the direst of deaths; the daring ones were slain, The princes in their pomp-- they were past all help In the edge of the ocean. Their armor shone High over the hosts. Over the haughty ones poured The stream in its strength. Destroyed were the troop 470 And fettered fast; they could find no escape. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Egyptians were For that day's work deeply punished, Because not any of the army ever came home; Of that mighty multitude there remained not a one 510 Who could tell the tale of the traveling forth Who could announce in the cities the sorrowful news To the wives of the warriors of the woeful disaster. But the sea-death swallowed the sinful men, And their messengers too, in the midst of their power, 515 And destroyed their pride, for they strove against God.

299. Moses has just finished telling the children of Israel that he has been able to make the sea part its waves so that they may walk across unharmed.

307, 308. This passage is obscure in meaning.

310. The tribe of Judah lead the way. They are followed by the tribe of Reuben (v. 331) and then by the tribe of Simeon (v. 340). This order is perhaps taken from Numbers, chapter ii.

331. The Children of Israel are called "sailors" in the poem, but no satisfactory explanation has been made of the usage.

335, 336. See Genesis 49:4.

354. This refers to God's promise to Abraham. See Genesis 15:18; 22:17.

2. CYNEWULF AND HIS SCHOOL

[Aside from Cædmon's Hymn, the only Old English poems whose author we know are four bearing the name of Cynewulf, _Christ_, _Juliana_, _Elene_, and _The Fates of the Apostles_. In these he signs his name by means of runes inserted in the manuscript. These runes, which are at once letters of the alphabet and words, are made to fit into the context. They are [image: Anglo-Saxon runes: cen,yr,nyd,eoh,wynn,ur,lagu,feoh]

Several other poems have been ascribed to Cynewulf, especially _Andreas_, _The Dream of the Rood_, _Guthlac_, _The Phoenix_, and _Judith_. Except for internal evidence there is no proof of the authorship of these poems. The Riddles were formerly thought to be by Cynewulf, but recent scholars have, with one notable exception, abandoned that theory.

Many reconstructions of the life of Cynewulf have been undertaken. The most reasonable theories seem to be that he was Cynewulf, Bishop of Lindisfarne, who died about 781; or that he was a priest, Cynewulf, who executed a decree in 803. There is no real proof that either of these men was the poet. For a good discussion of the Cynewulf question, see Strunk, _Juliana_, pp. xvii-xix, and Kennedy, _The Poems of Cynewulf_, Introduction.

Of the signed poems of Cynewulf, selections are here given from _Christ_ and _Elene_.]

_a_. CYNEWULF

SELECTIONS FROM THE CHRIST

[Critical edition: Cook, _The Christ of Cynewulf_, Boston, 1900. Text and translation: Gollancz, _Cynewulf's Christ_, London, 1892. Translation: Kennedy, _The Poems of Cynewulf_, pp. 153, ff. The poem consists of three parts: