Part 8

In 1457 Bishop Pecocke, of Chichester, a prelate, so it would appear, of sadly "modernist" tendencies, made his submission at Paul's Cross, abjured his unorthodoxy, and submitted to the burning of his books at the same time and place. In a sermon at the cross, on 4th March 1461-62, the Bishop of Exeter urged the justice of the title of Prince Edward of York to the throne. In 1483 Jane Shore was compelled to do public penance at Paul's Cross; and on 19th June of the same year the Lord Mayor's brother, Dr Ralph Shaw, in his sermon at the cross, openly intimated that the validity of Edward V.'s right to the crown was questionable, and that there were substantial reasons (which did, in fact, ultimately prevail) why both of the young princes should be debarred from succession.

On a certain Sunday, in 1492, two men did public penance for heresy, standing at Paul's Cross "all the sermon time, the one garnished with painted and written papers, the other having a faggot on his neck." On Passion Sunday another man "with a faggot stood before the preacher all the sermon while at Paul's Cross; and on the Sunday next following (Palm Sunday), four men stood and did their open penance ... in the sermon time, and many of their books were burnt before them at the Cross."

On 12th May 1521, in the presence of Cardinal Wolsey, Bishop Fisher, of Rochester, delivered at Paul's Cross a sermon in denunciation of the German heresiarch, Luther.

In 1534 the king, Henry VIII., caused sermons to be preached against his wife, Catherine of Aragon, and also against Papal supremacy. In the same year, Elizabeth Burton and six of her most prominent supporters (all of them ultimately hanged at Tyburn) were brought to Paul's Cross for public exposure and degradation there, for the crime of having dared to express disapproval of the king's liaison with Anne Boleyn.

On 24th February 1538, the Rood of Grace, from Boxley Abbey, in Kent, an image which was alleged, by means of wires and other devices, to simulate various gestures and changes of countenance, was exhibited at Paul's Cross by Bishop Hilsey, of Rochester, and, at his incitement, broken and plucked to pieces amid the jeers of the mob. "The like was done by the blood of Hayles, which in like manner, by Crumwell, was brought to Paul's Cross, and there proved to be the blood of a duck," according to the veracious Foxe. From this time onward Paul's Cross witnessed the delivery of a succession of controversial sermons, first on one side and then on the other. When Edward VI. ascended the throne, Bishop Latimer, of Worcester, became a frequent preacher at Paul's Cross. Thus in the month of January 1548 he preached no less than four times.

In 1549 the Privy Council delivered to Bishop Bonner a set of articles, which he was required to advocate in a series of quarterly sermons at Paul's Cross. But the Bishop in preaching there having neglected to comply, was cited, on information laid against him by Latimer and Hooper, to appear for examination before the King's commissioners on 10th September 1549.

On 1st November 1552, at Paul's Cross, Bishop Ridley, of London, preached at great length in favour of the latest version of the Book of Common Prayer.

On 13th August 1553 Gilbert Bourne, a chaplain of Queen Mary, and Canon of St Paul's, preaching at the cross, narrowly escaped being murdered. One of the audience aimed a dagger at the preacher. The weapon, missing its mark, the point became embedded in one of the wooden posts of the pulpit. On the following Sunday Thomas Watson, preaching at the same place, was protected by a guard of 200 soldiers with halberds. At the same time an order was issued forbidding apprentices to attend the sermon, armed with knives or daggers.

On 2nd December 1554, in the presence of Cardinal Pole, the Lord-Chancellor preached at Paul's Cross commending the reconciliation of the kingdom, and its restoration to communion with the Holy See.

Abbot Feckenham preached at the cross on 18th June 1555, and Dr Hugh Glasier, Queen Mary's chaplain, on 25th August of the same year.

On 27th October 1584 Samuel Harsnett, subsequently Archbishop of York, delivered at Paul's Cross a sermon, which caused no little stir, on Predestination.

On 20th August 1588 Dean Newell made, at the cross, the first public announcement of the defeat of the Spanish Armada.

On 17th November 1595, at a special thanksgiving service for the long reign of Queen Elizabeth, Bishop Fletcher, of London, preached at Paul's Cross, which had been repaired and partly enclosed with a low brick wall for the occasion.

In 1616, at the instance of Harry Farley, one John Gipkyn painted a panel picture, in which he represented, by anticipation, the attendance of James I. at a sermon at Paul's Cross, which actually came to pass on 26th March 1620. The panel now in the possession of the Society of Antiquaries affords the most authentic view extant of the preaching cross (see Fig. 142).

Charles I. attended in state to hear a sermon at the cross in 1630, and Archbishop Laud preached there in 1631, perhaps the last preacher of eminence to occupy the pulpit--for in 1633 the use of Paul's Cross as an open-air pulpit was formally abandoned. Its consequent demolition cannot have been long delayed, although it has been contended that the cross was pulled down only that the pulpit might be reconstructed on a grander scale--a project which, however, was never attempted. In a publication of the year 1641 occurs the passage: "Paul's Crosse, the most famous preaching-place, is downe and quite taken away," which shows that the date usually given for the abolition of the cross, viz., 1643, cannot be correct. But it is the fact that, in May 1643, the parishioners of St Faith's complained of the obstruction caused by the presence of "stones, rubbish, and pales" in the churchyard, presumably the uncleared refuse from the demolished cross. In time the very site was forgotten; but in the spring of 1879 it was discovered by Mr C. F. Penrose, the cathedral surveyor. The cross stood about 12 ft. from the wall of Old St Paul's; and close to the north-east corner of Wren's cathedral. The octagonal base measured some 37 ft. across. "The platform itself," writes Rev. W. Sparrow Simpson, "was supported by a vault. A brick wall was found which probably carried the timber supports of the pulpit proper. The probable diameter of the pulpit itself was 18 ft."

Paul's Cross was not the only preaching cross in London. There were, at least, two others. One stood in the churchyard on the south side of St Michael's, Cornhill. This cross was built by Sir John Rudstone, Mayor, who, dying in 1531, was buried beneath it. St Mary Spital, without Bishopsgate, also had an open-air pulpit-cross, where special sermons were preached in Easter week, year by year.

In the majority of cases it is likely enough that there was not a distinctive pulpit-cross, the steps of the ordinary churchyard cross sufficing to afford a platform for the preacher, when occasion required. There remain, indeed, no more than two crosses obviously and primarily designed as preaching crosses, viz., that at Iron Acton, Gloucestershire, and the Black Friars' Cross at Hereford.

The preaching cross at Iron Acton (Fig. 144) stands in the north part of the churchyard, and is a very good example of its kind. The base, 10 ft. 9 in. in diameter at the ground level, consists of three brick-built steps, topped with stone slabs, forming drips with a slight overhang. These steps are octagonal on plan. Upon the second step (and thus encompassing the top step and the low stone plinth resting on the same) stand the piers of the cross. The piers are buttressed each with one diagonal buttress, like the cross itself, square on plan. The arched openings (2 ft. 11 in. wide) are obtuse headed. One arch (the northern one according to Lysons, the southern one according to Charles Pooley) is open from top to bottom to make an entrance doorway. The three others are railed in with a low fence, composed of a pair of arches, cusped in the head, beneath a transom. The mullions between these small arches had disappeared previously to 1868; so the present mullions are modern restorations. The ceiling within is vaulted, with ribs and sculptured bosses, some of the latter representing acorns and oak leaves. In the centre, forming a pendant, are the remains of a capital of an octagonal shaft, now perished, though the traces of its footing on the floor were remarked by Charles Pooley in, or shortly before, 1868. The whole cross upward from the springing level of the principal arches is sadly mutilated, all the pinnacles, as well as the statues, wanting. The total height of that which survives of the cross is 19 ft. 2 in. The upper part is a shaft with four panelled sides, having, at the foot of each, between a pair of shields borne by demi-angels clad in albs, a pedestal for a standing statue, with projecting canopy overhead. Of these eight shields four exhibit emblems of the Passion; two are blank and two are armorial. One of these last is quarterly per fesse dancetty argent and gules, Acton; while the other shield is Acton as before, impaling quarterly or and gules a bend argent, Fitz-Nichol. Robert Poyntz, lord of the manor of Iron Acton, married, for second wife, Catherine, daughter of Sir Thomas Fitz-Nichol, and died on 15th June 1439. The cross, then, dates from the early part of the fifteenth century.

Contiguous to the ancient house of the order within the city of Hereford stands the Black Friars' Cross (Fig. 143), which apparently dates from the reign of Richard II. It is hexagonal on plan, and is mounted on steps. Its six arches were all open down to the bottom in 1806, but were fenced in some time previously to 1875, after the manner of those of the Iron Acton preaching cross. In the middle is a hexagonal socket, its sides panelled with Gothic panel-work. From the top of the socket rises a central shaft from which springs the vaulting of the roof. The cornice is embattled, and from the midst rose the stump of the shaft, now replaced by a modern shaft and cross. The whole structure has, in fact, been completely renovated since 1875.

Besides those above named there is a small class of open crosses, which, though not built for the purpose of preaching crosses, yet resemble the latter more than any others, and must therefore, from the point of view of design and construction, be grouped under the same head. These, then, comprise the crosses of Bristol, Holbeach (Lincolnshire), Leighton Buzzard (Bedfordshire), and lastly Winchester.

The High Cross at Bristol (Fig. 9) stood at the junction of four main thoroughfares: Broad Street, Wine Street, Corn Street, and High Street. The site had already been occupied by a cross, when a new cross was erected in 1373. The cross of that date was constructed of coarse-grained oolite, specially liable to absorb moisture; but the original paint (blue and vermilion with gilding) effectually preserved it from the weather for centuries. Above the arches of the lowest stage was a stage comprising four niches, which were eventually filled with statuary, standing figures, facing toward the four cardinal points. A statue of King John faced northward, Henry III. eastward, Edward III. westward, and Edward IV. southward. The cross was taken down in 1633, to be erected on an enlarged scale, its height, by the addition of an extra stage or storey, attaining to a total of 39 ft. 6 in. The new storey contained four seated figures, representing, respectively, King Henry VI. facing eastward, Queen Elizabeth facing westward, King James I. southward, and Charles I. northward. Above these, again, was a tier of armorial shields, with pairs of _putti_ for supporters, obviously an addition of the same period, viz., Charles I.'s reign. Then also was the cross embellished with fresh painting and gilding, and encircled with an iron railing to protect its lowest stage. The latter consisted of four open arches, grouped about a central shaft. The cross was redecorated in 1697. It was subsequently taken down in 1733. Its remains were then carted to the Guild Hall, whence, after a short interval, they were taken and set up in the College Green, to north of the cathedral. There it was standing in 1737, when R. West made the drawing, which was engraved and published in 1743. The cross in its new position was painted to look like grey marble, with the ornaments gilt, and the figures tinted in their natural colours. Not many years later, viz., in 1763, it was again taken down, and its portions relegated to an obscure corner of the cathedral. Finally, Dean Barton gave the remains to Sir Richard Colt Hoare, of Stourton, who transported them, in August 1766, and set up the cross once more, with a new base, summit, and central pier in the gardens of Stourhead, Wiltshire.

The cross at Holbeach was pulled down in 1683, but Dr William Stukeley made a drawing of it, dated 1722 (Fig. 10). The structure thus depicted appears to have been pentagonal on plan, four steps supporting the piers, which were buttressed with buttresses, square on plan, panelled on their outward face, and surmounted by pinnacles. The open arches were four-centred. The roof underneath was vaulted with lierne and tierceron ribs, having carved bosses at the intersections. Above the arches was a parapet or frieze, comprising on each side a shield between two quatrefoils. Above, in the midst, rose a huge crocketed pinnacle, forming the shaft for the cross which originally crowned the summit.

The Market Cross at Leighton Buzzard (Figs. 146, 147), also, is remarkable in being pentagonal on plan. Apart from the difficulty of treating a five-sided structure satisfactorily, the design is faulty, because the upper stage of the cross (admirable though it be, _per se_, with its statuary, its flying buttresses, and its exquisite cluster of pinnacles) altogether lacks coherent continuity with the open stage beneath, the latter finishing abruptly with a pronounced horizontal break, which divides the cross into two distinct parts, upper and lower. The piers are buttressed and the arches four-centred. Above the latter runs a frieze of masks, surmounted by crenellation. The cross stands on a base of five steps, and is 27 ft. high. The total height, including the weathercock, is 38 ft. The original figures, representing the Blessed Virgin and Child, a Bishop, St John Evangelist, Christ, and a King, were taken down in 1852 and replaced by modern replicas. Fortunately, the old figures were preserved for the embellishment of the Town Hall, and when the architect, G. F. Bodley, repaired the cross in 1900, he restored them to their proper position. The modern copies were, at the same time, set up against the outside walls of the Town Hall, where they still remain. Mr Bodley assigned the cross to the late-fourteenth or early-fifteenth century. If this be somewhat too early, the cross can hardly be of later date than the middle of the fifteenth century.

The Butter Cross, at Winchester (Fig. 145), stands on the pavement alongside the High Street, at the point whence a narrow lane leads to the north-west angle of the cathedral churchyard. The cross is remarkable for its lightness and the gracefulness of its proportions. It is mounted on five octagonal steps; it is square on plan, and is enhanced by pinnacles and two tiers of flying buttresses. The open arches of the lowest stage are four-centred, and surround a central shaft. The next stage above forms an open tabernacle for statues, of which, however, by 1741, only one original figure, 5 ft. 10 in. high, survived. The cross measures between 45 and 50 ft. in height; and dates, apparently, from the second half of the fifteenth century, but has been sadly over-restored.

VI. MARKET CROSSES

"The general intent of market crosses," as defined by Bishop Milner, was twofold, viz., religious and ethical--first, "to incite public homage to the religion of Christ crucified," and secondly, "to inspire men with a sense of morality and piety amidst the ordinary transactions of life." This being so, "every town had its cross, at which engagements, whether of a religious or worldly interest, were entered into," says another writer, Brady. It would seem that, at first, there was no difference of form between the market or village cross and the normal churchyard cross of shaft-on-steps type. But as the need developed of providing for the greater comfort and convenience of folk gathered round the cross for market business, the demand was met by erecting a penthouse roof about the lower part of the already existing cross. Such a transformation is known to have taken place at Norwich, and obviously also must have been effected at Castle Combe in Wiltshire, Bingley in Yorkshire, and at Axbridge and Cheddar in Somersetshire. This method of adaptation, however, cannot have proved entirely satisfactory, because the platform or steps of the shaft in such cases occupied too much of the space beneath the shelter. And so the distinctive form of market cross was evolved at length, planned from the outset as a cross and roof combined in one coherent structure, the base of the central shaft being surrounded by a footing of only a single step, a convenient bench to sit upon, instead of the old-fashioned high flight of graduated steps. Such a typical market cross might be built either of stone or of timber work, its essential feature always being the covered in space for shelter from the weather.

In Wells, at the junction of Sadler Street with the High Street, stood a cross, which must have been the most beautiful of all structures of its kind. As represented in the prospect of the city, drawn by William Simes, in 1735 (Fig. 149), it was a Gothic work of singular richness and elegance. Its bottom storey consisted of two-centred arches between buttressed piers surmounted by pinnacles, with a parapet of open tracery. The upper portion consisted of a lantern of two diminishing stages, with late-Gothic traceried windows and parapets, with pinnacles at the angles, the lower one of the two stages connected with the ground storey by flying buttresses. The whole was crowned by a most gracefully tapered spire, terminating in a weathercock. This exquisite monument was swept away by order of the Corporation, December 1785, on the ground that part of the cross having "lately fallen down, and the remainder being in a ruinous state and dangerous," the entire cross must be demolished, and its materials carried elsewhere to some convenient place. This cross obviously dated from the middle of the fifteenth century or even earlier, and was, doubtless, the same cross, referred to by Bishop Beckington (1443-64), in his charter providing for the conveyance of water by conduit "to the high cross in the market place." Nevertheless, it has been identified by at least two writers, Charles Pooley and Alex. Gordon, with a cross which the antiquary Leland relates that he saw in process of construction. Leland describes this cross as having two concentric rings, an outer ring or "circumference" of seven pillars, and an inner "circumference" of six pillars, with a vaulted ceiling under the _Domus Civica_. This particular building was completed in 1542. It was erected by Bishop William Knight, with the help of a bequest from Dean Richard Woolman. But the cross of Simes' map must have been, at least, a century earlier in date than the cross of 1542, the account of which tallies neither in architectural style nor in shape with the other. In the one illustrated, there is no sign of two concentric arcades, while the lantern storey is far too small ever to have served for the headquarters of the municipal body. The discrepancies, in short, are such that one is driven to the conclusion that there must have been, at one and the same time, two separate crosses at Wells. It should be added that the tolls of the market cross, which he built, were given, by Bishop Knight's will, "for the use of the choristers of the Cathedral Church for ever."

The Market Cross of Axbridge, Somersetshire (Fig. 148), illustrated, after a painting of the year 1756, in a communication from George Bennett to the _Gentleman's Magazine_, 1805, was demolished in or about 1770. The structure appears to have been hexagonal on plan. Its piers were buttressed, its arches four-centred. The surrounding parapet was of pierced Gothic tracery, interrupted by a pinnacle over each of the piers. The roof was conical, with a lofty vane. The height to which the steps within, beneath the central shaft, rose, suggests that this was an instance where the cross must have been in existence first, and the shelter a subsequent addition.