Part 6

There are also certain trees self-produced from seed which are superior to the ordinary so-called wild tree. These bear fruit which is straight and short but more or less marketable, and these are known as "kountoura" (short) or "apostoliki," as though sent by chance or by Providence. The word "apostoliki" is applied in Cyprus to other kinds of trees or fruit showing similar phenomena.

There are several millions of these trees in the State forests, and yet more privately owned. It frequently happens that, owing to the wide powers of testamentary disposition, a single tree passes by inheritance to several heirs.

Many thousands of carob plants are annually raised in the Government gardens and issued at a trifling charge. The common method of propagation has been to sow the seeds in pots, and when the plant is from 18 in. to 2 ft. high it is ready for transplanting. The seed, which is very hard, is softened by placing it in a cauldron or saucepan of cold water. The water is then brought to the boil. On arriving at boiling-point the water is cooled and should then be changed and the seed left to steep for twenty-four hours. Owing to the long tap root, sowing in ordinary nursery beds has not been satisfactory, as the plants, which certainly make better growth than in pots, do not transplant well.

The foregoing methods have to a great extent been superseded by that of germinating the seed in damp sand and sowing direct in the field in properly prepared holes. Little watering is needed if the holes are deep and the soil kept friable. A top mulch is useful to conserve the moisture.

Transplanting from pots or beds is best done when the plants are twelve months old and about 12 in. high, after that it is precarious. Grafting may be done as soon as the stem is thick enough to take a graft, either before or after transplanting.

The tree is liable to attack by insects and other pests. Scale (_Aspidiotus ceratoniæ_) is very common; but the greatest damage of late years has been caused by the fly _Cecidomyia ceratoniæ_, which lays its eggs on the flowers or newly-set fruit, and the grub feeds on the bean, causing it to become stunted and of no commercial value. This stunted condition is locally known as "brachycarpia" and has been the subject of careful scientific study and practical treatment by the Agricultural Department during the last few years. Very satisfactory results have been recorded from the campaigns, which have so far been limited to the Kyrenia District, and these have justified the extension of compulsory treatment to other infected areas. This and other pests, such as _Myelois ceratoniæ_, _Cossus liniperda_ (a lepidopterous boring insect), a species of _Mycetiasis_, and a small hymenopterous fly which has lately appeared and is now under investigation, have, no doubt, checked production. The attacks of _Cecidomyia_, when serious, reduce the yield by 80 per cent. or over, and normally may lessen it by 40 to 50 per cent.

Much damage is also caused by rats (_Mus alexandrinus_), which gnaw the bark of the branches, causing them to dry up. Their destruction is encouraged by Government by the payment of 1 cp. per tail.

Carob gathering commences about mid-August and lasts for about a month. The beans are knocked down with long sticks, put into sacks and brought into store, or heaped up in the open air, where they often remain for several weeks. This is a safe procedure, as there is little rainfall at that season, and what might fall would not harm the beans, which would quickly dry again.

It is not easy to estimate the yield per donum of carob trees, but assuming that the trees were planted 30 ft. apart, and there were 16 medium-sized trees to the donum, the yield would average somewhere about 1,260 okes to the donum. The yield varies from year to year, a good year generally being followed by a moderate year. The fruit may be destroyed by frost in January and February, knocked off by hail-stones in March and April or scorched by hot winds in May or June. A full-sized, well-cultivated tree can give up to 720 okes. Taking good and bad years, the value of the annual produce of a medium-sized tree is 5_s_.

Carobs are sold by the Aleppo cantar of 180 okes, and the normal price may be put at from 13_s._ to 17_s._ per cantar delivered into store.

Carobs are weighed on export and the tithe is taken in money from exporters at the Customs House.

The following table shows the export of carobs during the ten years ending 1913-14:

Year. Quantity. Value. _Tons._ £ 1904-05 31,887 104,301 1905-06 26,187 85,105 1906-07 44,965 157,452 1907-08 42,381 151,610 1908-09 57,010 188,841 1909-10 44,059 157,972 1910-11 37,485 145,590 1911-12 51,359 182,883 1912-13 63,658 251,750 1913-14 44,989 179,027

The falling-off in 1913-14 was mainly due to the losses caused by the fly _Cecidomyia ceratoniæ_.

The fruit of the carob is exported mostly to England, but also to France and Egypt, and more recently, before the war, to Germany. Gaudry mentions that about the middle of last century it was exported to Russia, Sardinia and Austria. Some is used, in Egypt and the Levant especially, as food for the poorer classes and for making sweets and sherbets. Its chief use in Western Europe is as food for animals, bovine and equine, for which purpose it is ground up and made into either meal or cattle cakes. It is also said to be employed in the manufacture of chocolate and spirit, and there is a demand for the seed for use in the manufacture of certain gums.

The juice of the bean, "carob honey," locally called "mavromelos," "teratsomelo" or "betmezi," is consumed as a substitute for bee-honey or jam and also as a flavouring for culinary purposes. From the carob honey is also made the sweetmeat "pastelli."

At one time carobs were used in Cyprus for fattening mules and other animals, but, unfortunately, this practice died out. Efforts are now being made to revive it, and the advantages of this local product are again becoming recognised.

The carob contains some 50 per cent. of saccharine matter and the interesting question has been raised in recent years as to whether the bean might not become a new source of sugar production.

_Lucerne_ (_Medicago sativa_)

This plant was introduced about eighteen years ago, but in spite of its undoubted success when properly grown on suitable soil, the Cypriot farmer was for many years very slow to make use of it. Every effort has been made of late years to encourage its cultivation and during the last three or four years there has been a steadily increased demand for seed. Irrigation is necessary in order to obtain a satisfactory yield, but there are many farms where it might be grown with great advantage. Its value for cattle food is generally recognised, and now that greater attention is being given to dairy cattle, lucerne would seem to have an assured future.

_Vetch_ (_Vicia Ervilia_)

This plant, known locally as "rovi," is undoubtedly the most widely grown of the fodder crops. Being a leguminous plant, it has a restorative action on the soil, although the average Cypriot farmer still considers it to be exhaustive.

In the plains sowing begins in January, whereas in the Pitsillia, and even in the Morphou, Solea and Tylliria districts which are only at the foothills, it is sown in October-November, _i.e._ before the cereals.

Rovi is almost the only food in the form of seed given to ploughing oxen throughout the East. It is regarded as heat-giving and strengthening, and is therefore fed specially in winter. It is sometimes given unthreshed with the straw. It is harvested in May, when it is uprooted, made into little bundles, which are stacked together in small heaps in the field, until they turn yellow, when they are removed to the native threshing-floor and threshed in the customary manner. The dry stems, etc., are eagerly eaten by cattle and sheep. The average yield is very little, from 2 to 4 or 5 kilés per donum. It is subject to tithe.

_Chickling Vetch_ (_Lathyrus sativus_)

The chickling vetch, known locally as "favetta" or "chavetta," has come rather more into prominence of late years, displacing the vetch (_Vicia Ervilia_) to some extent, as it gives a heavier yield. It is subject to tithe.

_Vetch_ (_Vicia sativa_)

This crop, called locally "vicos," was introduced from Crete in 1913 and has been found excellently suited to this country. It is most useful in any rotation, and has to some extent supplanted rovi (_Vicia Ervilia_) as it gives a larger yield. It is a most nutritious cattle food, for which purpose it is grown. When crushed and mixed with chopped straw it is readily eaten by cattle and sheep. The plant seeds itself very freely. It is sown about November-December and is ready for harvesting in about April. Seed is sown at the rate of 5 to 6 okes per donum and the yield is normally from 8 to 12 kilés per donum. It is a good drought-resister and needs no irrigation, and being a leguminous plant should be cut and not pulled up, as the roots left in the soil serve to increase the amount of nitrogenous salts. Being a vetch it is subject to tithe.

_Tares_ (_Vicia tenuifolia_ var. _stenophylla_)

This plant, locally called "mavracheron" or "phakacheron," grows wild in the Pitsillia district among the vineyards and other cultivated as well as uncultivated lands. It is of value in those remote localities where grain and straw are little grown and difficult to procure, as it provides a wholesome fodder for cattle. The villagers have now taken to cultivating the plant. It is cut before the seeds are fully matured to prevent loss of seed through shedding. The seeds and chaff are mixed together when fed to cattle.

_Milk Vetch_ (_Astragalus_)

This plant, locally called "arkokoutsia," grows wild in some abundance among the hills. When it appears above ground it is readily eaten by animals, especially sheep; but at this stage it is apt to cause hoven. As the plant hardens the animals do not touch it, except when fully ripe, and then it is greedily eaten.

As soon as it blossoms, but before the fruit is set, the plant is gathered and tied into bundles or small sheaves and stored in a heap. When, after a few months, it is quite dry, and at a time when other foods are scarce, it forms an important part of an animal's ration.

The plants are sometimes allowed to mature their seeds, and these, after being steeped in water for two or three days to remove acidity, are given to pigs, and are considered a nourishing and palatable food.

_Moha, Sulla_ (_Hedysarum_)

These have been tried for some years with success and are gradually becoming known and experimentally grown by farmers.

_Teosinte_ (_Reana luxurians_)

This grass is one of the most valuable fodder plants with which the New World has enriched the Old. It is a native of Guatemala and is also largely grown in Australia.

Seed was first imported into Cyprus by the Agricultural Department in 1897, and since then the plant has been continuously grown in the Government gardens with marked success. It is sown in March-April in the same manner as Indian corn, to which it is allied.

If irrigated, three or four cuttings may be obtained during the summer, yielding 25 to 30 tons of green food per scala. It is greedily eaten by cattle. Some plants grown by the Department attained a height of 11 ft. 3 in. and of others which were left to ripen their seed, one had 93 stems and weighed 26 okes, though the leaves had begun to shrivel and had lost weight.

This plant is gradually becoming known and may be found growing on some of the more progressive farms.

_Sudan-grass_

Seed of this fodder grass was imported in 1915 and very satisfactory crops have been obtained each year since then from the experimental plots. The grass seems well suited to Cyprus and gives a useful yield even when unirrigated. Occasional irrigation produces a valuable crop. Trial sowings are now being made on a few private farms.

_Teff-grass_ (_Eragrostis abyssinica_)

This has also been tried experimentally with good results and it is hoped that its cultivation will extend as it becomes more known.

_Mangold Wurzel_

This crop has been grown for several years at the Government Farm, Athalassa, where it has done well and forms an important part of the cows' rations. It has been grown successfully on a small scale in some of the Nursery Gardens.

As irrigation, deep ploughing, thorough cultivation of the soil and special cultural operations are needed, this crop cannot be generally recommended to farmers, but it is being grown by a few progressive stock owners under Departmental advice.

The wild beet (_Beta vulgaris_) is a native of the seacoasts of South-eastern Europe, and the garden beet-root is much grown in Cyprus in certain localities, so, if carefully cultivated, mangold wurzel, which is a variety of _B. vulgaris_, might also do well in many parts and be of great advantage to stock owners.

_Prickly Pear_ (_Opuntia_)

The prickly pear grows wild as a hedge plant in Cyprus. The fruit is eaten to some extent by villagers, but no attempt has yet been made to use the stems as food for animals. In Sicily very large quantities are so utilised, and now that milch cows are coming more into demand in Cyprus the value of the plant for fodder may become recognised. Successful experiments have been made by the Agricultural Department in mixing the juice of the stems with lime for giving brilliance and permanence to ordinary whitewash. There has been an occasional export of the fruit to Egypt for consumption by Arabs.

SPICES

_Coriander Seed_

Coriander seed is the product of _Coriandrum sativum_, Linn., an annual herb belonging to the natural order Umbelliferæ. The "seed," or more strictly fruit, of the plant is employed in confectionery in making bonbons, in the preparation of certain liqueurs and as an ingredient for disguising the taste of medicines. In Cyprus it is commonly used as a flavouring in cooking.

A sample sent to the Imperial Institute in 1917 was examined as a source of volatile oil, and the residue remaining after distillation was analysed as a feeding-stuff. On steam distillation the ground seed yielded 0.48 per cent. of an almost colourless volatile oil with the characteristic and pleasant odour of coriander. This yield is below that furnished by Russian and German coriander, but is about equal to that obtained from Morocco seed. The results of the examination indicate that the residue has a fairly high feeding-value, and it would be quite suitable for the ordinary use of coriander residue, _i.e._ as a cattle food.

A sample of the seeds was submitted to brokers in London, who reported that they were very stalky, but that their value would be from 50_s._ to 60_s._ per cwt. (January 1917) as compared with 10_s._ to 15_s._ per cwt. before the war. (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 301).

_Aniseed_

Aniseed, the fruit of an umbelliferous herb (_Pimpinella Anisum_, Linn.), is grown on a comparatively small scale in Cyprus, the exports in recent years varying from 1,000 to 2,000 cwts. per annum. In 1917, 1,015 cwts., valued at £3,164, were exported, all of which went to Egypt.

Seed sent for examination to the Imperial Institute was reported to consist of aniseed in good condition and practically free from extraneous matter.

A sample of the seed was submitted to brokers in London, who stated that at that time (January 1917) stocks of aniseed were quite exhausted, and the prices therefore much inflated, small stocks of Spanish aniseed having changed hands in London at 110_s._ per cwt. Such price could not be secured if any quantity of aniseed were placed on the market. The value of the Cyprus sample before the war would have been about 27_s._ 6_d._ per cwt. (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 300).

White Cumin Seed

White cumin is also an umbelliferous herb (_Cuminum Cyminum_, Linn.); an account of the cultivation and uses of this and other spices is given in the BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, pp. 131-136.

A sample of the seed sent to the Imperial Institute was submitted to brokers in London, who stated that it was rather small and stalky, but that it would probably be worth between 70_s._ and 80_s._ per cwt. (January 1917), although they were of opinion that its pre-war value would not have been much over 20_s._ per cwt. (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 302).

_Black Cumin Seed_

These seeds, sometimes known as fennel-flower seeds, are the product of _Nigella sativa_, Linn. (Nat. Ord. Ranunculaceæ). The plant is an annual, native to the Mediterranean region, and the seeds, which are used in the East for flavouring curries, etc., and in Egypt as comfits on cakes, have an aromatic fennel-like odour when fresh and a slightly acrid taste. There is a small export of black cumin seed from Cyprus. There is, however, but little demand for this seed (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 304).

ESSENTIAL OILS AND PERFUMES

_Origanum Oil_

Different opinions have been held as to the botanical identification of the plant from which the Cyprus origanum oil is produced. An interesting series of articles on this subject by E. M. Holmes appears in the _Perfumery and Essential Oil Record_, 1913, from which it would seem that this oil is derived from _Origanum majoranoides_, Wild.; while Dr. Stapf, of Kew, regards the plant as _O. dubium_, Boiss. (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, p. 50). Other varieties growing wild in Cyprus are _O. Onites_, _O. hirtum_, both of which are locally called "rigani," _O. Bevani_ (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 305) and _O. majorana_.

In its wild state the plant from which origanum oil is distilled is a small perennial shrub, but, if cultivated, its size may be doubled or even trebled. The first crop, consisting of shoots and flowers, may give from 300 to 500 okes per donum; in subsequent years up to 1,000-1,500 okes per donum. The latter quantity would produce 40 to 60 okes of origanum oil, which is largely used in England for perfuming soap and other purposes.

For twenty years the distillation of origanum oil has been made under Government control. The industry was started in 1899 and, though not large, has steadily grown. It has been found that the Cyprus origanum oil is exceptionally rich in carvacrol (over 80 per cent.), a powerful antiseptic, and to this substance the oil owes mainly its characteristic thyme-like odour. Frequent analyses have shown that the Cyprus origanum oil is remarkably constant in character.

This oil has the slight disadvantage of darkening considerably on exposure to light and air, which renders it unsuitable for use in light-coloured soaps, but a method has been worked out at the Imperial Institute of refining the oil so as to yield a product which will remain practically colourless for long periods.

A report furnished by the Imperial Institute (BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. iv. 1906, p. 299), after giving a detailed description of the oil, states:

"The foregoing results show that this oil sells readily in this country at prices which should be fairly remunerative to producers in Cyprus. It should, however, be borne in mind that the demand for this oil is somewhat limited, and that it competes with the thyme oil produced in France and Spain, and with the 'origanum oil' produced in Smyrna, and that consequently a sudden increase in production in Cyprus might lead to a considerable fall in price. The Cyprus oil has, however, the advantage that it is very rich in the odorous and antiseptic constituent carvacrol, and it is probably due to its richness in this constituent, as revealed by the analyses made at the Imperial Institute, that the comparatively high prices realised for these consignments were obtained at a time when 'red thyme oils' were selling at lower rates. It would be advantageous if a refined white oil could be prepared by some simple method from this material, as this probably would fetch an enhanced price, and be applicable to other purposes for which the 'red oil' is unsuitable."

Until 1910 the distillation was made by the Department, but since then it has been undertaken by private contract, permission being given to collect the wild plant from the forest. The annual production is now about 2,750 lb., and the price has steadily risen from about 3_s._ per lb. to 8_s._ 6_d._ per lb. at the present time. But whereas the cost of transport to London before the war was £8 per ton, it has risen to the prohibitive rate of £200 per ton, and the 1917 oil still remains in store at Alexandria.

The supply of the wild plant is limited and its cultivation is under consideration.

The following table shows the exports of origanum _oil_ in recent years:

Year. Quantity. _lb._

1902 2,092 1903 No distillation 1904 2,410 1905 1,463 1906 2,200 1907 1,745 1908 2,051 1909 1,530[4] 1910 2,842 1911 2,276 1912 2,230 1913 2,455 1914 3,776 1915 3,709 1916 2,756 1917 2,696 1918 2,066

_Marjoram Oil_

This is not yet a regular product, but samples of locally produced oil have been examined at the Imperial Institute and pronounced to be superior to European marjoram oil and about equal in value to sweet fennel oil (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, p. 50). It is distilled from a plant which is abundant in the forests of Kyrenia and Paphos, and which has been referred by Dr. Stapf to _O. majoranoides_, Wild., and by Mr. Holmes to _O. Maru_, Linn. The market is, however, restricted.

_Laurel Oil_

Samples of oil distilled from the leaves of _Laurus nobilis_ which were examined at the Imperial Institute were found to have an aroma inferior to that of the oils usually met with in commerce (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, p. 430). The demand for the oil is said to be small.

_Otto of Roses_

This has been prepared since 1897 in a very small way with native stills at the village of Milikouri, where the Damask rose is abundant. The cultivation of this rose has now spread to other hill villages. The closing of the market for Bulgarian otto of roses owing to the war has given an impetus to the industry in Cyprus. The Agricultural Department has for two years sent qualified officers to superintend the work at Milikouri and to carry out an experimental distillation.

A report from the Director, Imperial Institute, upon samples of the 1917 distillation states that "the constants of the Cyprus oil agree closely with those recorded for Bulgarian otto of roses." It was found that the odour of the Cyprus oil was fairly good, but rather weak. The otto sold at 70_s._ per ounce, less 2-1/2 per cent., which "in view of the very small quantity must be considered satisfactory." At the time of sale French otto was quoted at 78_s._ to 85_s._ per ounce.

_Acacia Farnesiana_

This tree is but sparsely represented in Cyprus, but wherever found it is vigorous and healthy. It belongs to the Mimosa tribe of the order Leguminosæ and, as other species are common in the Island and thrive remarkably well, there would seem no reason why this species also should not become more general.

It is known elsewhere under different names; that of "sweet briar" (in Barbados) on account of its numerous thorns and the exquisite scent of its flowers, and "stinking cossie" (in Antigua) owing to the highly disagreeable smell of its wood. The word "cossie" may be a corruption of acacia.