Part 2

Biographical Sketch of Lord Exmouth; Atrocities of the Algerines Prompt the English to Send a Fleet, Under Lord Exmouth, Against Them; A Dutch Fleet Joins Them at Gibraltar; Strength of the Combined Fleet; Fruitless Negotiations with the Algerines; Strength of their Fortifications; The Allied Fleets Open Fire on the Forts and City; A Tremendous Cannonade; The Dey Comes to Terms; Capture of the Place by the French, Fourteen Years Later. I-397

NAVARINO. A. D. 1827.

Assembly of the Allied English, French and Russian Fleets in the Mediterranean; Their Object; An Egyptian Fleet, with Troops, enters Navarino Harbor; History and Geographical Position of the Latter; Strength of the Opposing Fleets; Treachery of the Egyptians; The Battle Opens; Desperate Fighting; Bad Gunnery of the Turks; Destruction of Their Fleet. I-407

SINOPE. A. D. 1853.

History of Sinope; An Abuse of Superior Force on the Part of the Russians; They Encounter the Turkish Fleet in Sinope Harbor and Demand the Latter’s Surrender; They Decline and the Battle Opens Furiously; The Turkish Fleet Totally Destroyed and That of the Russians rendered Comparatively Useless; Appearance of the Town of Sinope. I-417

LISSA. A. D. 1866.

Position of the Island of Lissa; Its History; Attacked and Taken by the Italians; The Austrians Shortly After Come to its Relief; A Great Naval Battle Takes Place; Strength of the Opposing Fleets; The Ironclads That Took Part; Bad Management of the Italians Under Admiral Persano; They are Badly Beaten; Sketch of the Italian Admiral; His Court-Martial; William Baron Tegethoff, the Austrian Commander. I-420

SOME NAVAL ACTIONS BETWEEN BRAZIL, THE ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION AND PARAGUAY. A. D. 1865-68.

Origin of the Long and Deadly Struggle; The Brazilian Fleet Starts Out on a Cruise; Lopez, Dictator of Paraguay, Determines to Capture this Fleet; His Preparations; The Hostile Fleets Encounter each other; Details of the Fight; Bad Management on both sides; The Paraguayans Forced to Retire; Another Battle in March, 1866, on the Parana River; Full Account of the Desultory Fighting; The Paraguayans Driven Out of their Earthworks; Two Unsuccessful Attacks, in 1868, on the Brazilian Monitors lying off Tayi; Interesting Account of one of these Attacks. I-429

THE CAPTURE OF THE HUASCAR. OCTOBER 8TH, A. D. 1879.

Description of the Huascar; Her Earlier Exploits; Strength of the Chilian Squadron; The Latter Seek the Huascar; The Enemies Recognize each other; The Battle Begins at Long Range; Full Details of this Spirited Engagement; Terrible Loss of Life on Board the Huascar; She Finally Surrenders; Condition of the Chilian Fleet. I-445

BOMBARDMENT OF ALEXANDRIA. JULY 11TH, A. D. 1882.

Political Complications; Arabi Pasha; Important Events Preceding the Bombardment; England Demands that Work on the Fortifications Cease; Arabi Promises to Desist, but Renews the Work Secretly; A Powerful English Fleet Opens Fire on the Defences; Silenced by the Fleet and Abandoned; Alexandria Set on Fire and Pillaged; Sailors and Marines from the American and German Fleets Landed to Protect the Consulates; Injury Sustained by the English Fleet. I-458

THE WAR BETWEEN CHINA AND JAPAN.

The Opening of Japan to Foreign Nations; Japanese Geography and History; Early Explorers; Revolution of 1617; First American Efforts at Intercourse; Commander Glynn’s Attempt; Successful Expedition of Commodore Perry in 1852; First Treaty Signed; Subsequent Development of Japan; Outbreak of War with China; Sinking of the Kow-Shing; Historic Hostility between the Two Nations; Disputes over Korea; The Battle of the Yalu, September 17th, 1894; Details of the Fight; Results of this Battle; Importance to Naval Experts; Conclusions Derived; Succeeding Events of the War; Capture of Port Arthur; The Japanese Emperor; New Treaty with the United States. I-467

List of Illustrations.

PAGE

0. RETURN OF THE GREEKS FROM SALAMIS _Frontispiece_ 1. NAVAL BATTLE, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY I-20 2. A NORSE GALLEY I-35 3. CAPTURE OF THE CARTHAGINIAN FLEET BY THE ROMANS I-36 4. ROMAN GALLEY I-47 5. BATTLE OF ACTIUM I-53 6. THE PTOLEMY PHILOPATER I-55 7. BATTLE OF LEPANTO I-68 8. THE ENGLISH FLEET FOLLOWING THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA I-85 9. A SPANISH GALEASS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY I-102 10. SIR FRANCIS DRAKE IN CENTRAL AMERICA I-103 11. HENRY GRACE DEDIEU I-111 12. A CARAVEL OF THE TIME OF COLUMBUS I-156 13. NORMAN SHIP OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY I-173 14. VENETIAN GALLEY OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY I-182 15. BUCENTORO I-186 16. LE SOLEIL ROYAL I-195 17. HOWE’S ACTION OF JUNE 1, 1794 I-196 18. BATTLE OF CAPE ST. VINCENT I-229 19. ENGLISH FLEET OFF TENERIFFE I-244 20. BATTLE OF THE NILE I-259 21. NELSON WOUNDED AT TENERIFFE I-270 21a. DUTCH MAN-OF-WAR, 17TH CENTURY. I-270 22. CAPTURE OF ADMIRAL NELSON’S DISPATCHES I-293 23. SIEGE OF ACRE, 1799 I-308 24. CAPTURE OF ALEXANDRIA, 1801 I-318 25. BATTLE OF COPENHAGEN I-341 26. NELSON’S VICTORY AT TRAFALGAR I-356 27. SINOPE, 1853 I-417 28. BATTLE OF LISSA, 1866 I-420 29. FERDINAND MAX RAMMING THE RE D’ITALIA I-424 30. THE DREADNAUGHT I-444 31. APPEARANCE OF THE HUASCAR AFTER CAPTURE I-456 32. STEEL TORPEDO BOAT AND POLE I-457 33. BOMBARDMENT OF ALEXANDRIA I-465 34. THE ALEXANDRA I-466 35. BATTLE OF THE YALU I-482

NAVAL BATTLES, ANCIENT AND MODERN

INTRODUCTION.

The Ancients were full of horror of the mysterious Great Sea, which they deified; believing that man no longer belonged to himself when once embarked, but was liable to be sacrificed at any time to the anger of the Great Sea god; in which case no exertions of his own could be of any avail.

This belief was not calculated to make seamen of ability. Even Homer, who certainly was a great traveler, or voyager, and who had experience of many peoples, gives us but a poor idea of the progress of navigation, especially in the blind gropings and shipwrecks of Ulysses, which he appears to have thought the most natural things to occur.

A recent writer says, “Men had been slow to establish completely their dominion over the sea. They learned very early to build ships. They availed themselves very early of the surprising power which the helm exerts over the movements of a ship; but, during many ages, they found no surer guidance than that which the position of the sun and of the stars afforded. When clouds intervened to deprive them of this uncertain direction, they were helpless. They were thus obliged to keep the land in view, and content themselves with creeping timidly along the coasts. But at length there was discovered a stone which the wise Creator had endowed with strange properties. It was observed that a needle which had been brought in contact with that stone ever afterwards pointed steadfastly to the north. Men saw that with a needle thus influenced they could guide themselves at sea as surely as on land. The Mariner’s compass loosed the bond which held sailors to the coast, and gave them liberty to push out into the sea.”

As regards early attempts at navigation, we must go back, for certain information, to the Egyptians. The expedition of the Argonauts, if not a fable, was an attempt at navigation by simple boatmen, who, in the infancy of the art, drew their little craft safely on shore every night of their coasting voyages. We learn from the Greek writers themselves, that that nation was in ignorance of navigation compared with the Phenicians, and the latter certainly acquired the art from the Egyptians.

We know that naval battles, that is, battles between bodies of men in ships, took place thousands of years before the Christian era. On the walls of very ancient Egyptian tombs are depicted such events, apparently accompanied with much slaughter.

History positively mentions prisoners, under the name of _Tokhari_, who were vanquished by the Egyptians in a naval battle fought by Rameses III, in the fifteenth century before our era. These _Tokhari_ were thought to be Kelts, and to come from the West. According to some they were navigators who had inherited their skill from their ancestors of the lost Continent, Atlantis.

The Phenicians have often been popularly held to have been the first navigators upon the high seas; but the Carians, who preceded the Pelasgi in the Greek islands, undoubtedly antedated the Phenicians in the control of the sea and extended voyages. It is true that when the Phenicians did begin, they far exceeded their predecessors. Sidon dates from 1837 before Christ, and soon after this date she had an extensive commerce, and made long voyages, some even beyond the Mediterranean.

To return to the Egyptians. Sesostris had immense fleets 1437 years before Christ, and navigated not only the Mediterranean, but the Red Sea. The Egyptians had invaded, by means of veritable fleets, the country of the Pelasgi. Some of these ancient Egyptian ships were very large. Diodorus mentions one of cedar, built by Sesostris, which was 280 cubits (420 to 478 feet) long.

One built by Ptolemy was 478 feet long, and carried 400 sailors, 4000 rowers, and 3000 soldiers. Many other huge vessels are mentioned. A bas-relief at Thebes represents a naval victory gained by the Egyptians over some Indian nation, in the Red Sea, or the Persian Gulf, probably 1400 years before Christ.

The Egyptian fleet is in a crescent, and seems to be endeavoring to surround the Indian fleet, which, with oars boarded and sails furled, is calmly awaiting the approach of its antagonist. A lion’s head, of some metal, at the prow of each Egyptian galley, shows that ramming was then resorted to. These Egyptian men-of-war were manned by soldiers in helmets, and armed as those of the land forces.

The length of these vessels is conjectured to have been about 120 feet, and the breadth 16 feet. They had high raised poops and forecastles, filled with archers and slingers, while the rest of the fighting men were armed with pikes, javelins, and pole-axes, of most murderous appearance, to be used in boarding. Wooden bulwarks, rising considerably above the main-deck, protected the rowers. Some of the combatants had bronze coats of mail, in addition to helmets of the same, and some carried huge shields, covered, apparently, with tough bull’s hide. These vessels had masts, with a large yard, and a huge square sail. They are said to have been built of acacia, so durable a wood that vessels built of it have lasted a century or more. They appear to have had but one rank of oars; although two or three tiers soon became common. None of the ancient Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek or Roman monuments represent galleys with more than two tiers of oars, except one Roman painting that gives one with three. Yet quinqueremes are spoken of as very common. It is not probable that more than three tiers were used; as seamen have never been able to explain how the greater number of tiers could have been worked; and they have come to the conclusion that scholars have been mistaken, and that the term _quinquereme_, or five ranks of oars, as translated, meant the arrangement of the oars, or of the men at them, and not the ranks, one above another, as usually understood.

Much learning and controversy has been expended upon this subject, and many essays written, and models and diagrams made, to clear up the matter, without satisfying practical seamen.

The Roman galleys with three rows of oars had the row ports in tiers. These ports were either round or oval, and were called _columbaria_, from their resemblance to the arrangement of a dove-cote. The lower oars could be taken in, in bad weather, and the ports closed.

The “long ships” or galleys of the ancient Mediterranean maritime nations--which were so called in opposition to the short, high and bulky merchant ships--carried square or triangular sails, often colored. The “long ships” themselves were painted in gay colors, carried flags and banners at different points, and images upon their prows, which were sacred to the tutelary divinities of their country. The “long ships” could make with their oars, judging from descriptions of their voyages, perhaps a hundred miles in a day of twelve hours. In an emergency they could go much faster, for a short time. It is reliably stated that it took a single-decked galley, 130 feet long, with 52 oars, a fourth of an hour to describe a full circle in turning.

Carthage was founded by the Phenicians, 1137 years before our era; and not very long after the Carthaginians colonized Marseilles. Hanno accomplished his _periplus_, or great voyage round Africa, 800 years B. C., showing immense advance in nautical ability, in which the Greeks were again left far behind. Still later, the Carthaginians discovered the route to the British Islands, and traded there--especially in Cornish tin--while 330 years B. C. _Ultima Thule_, or Iceland, was discovered by the Marseillais Pitheas. Thus Carthage and her colonies not only freely navigated the Atlantic, but some have thought that they actually reached northern America.

Four hundred and eighty years before the Christian era the Grecian fleet defeated that of the Persians, at Salamis; and the next year another naval battle, that of Mycale (which was fought on the same day as that of Platæa on land), completely discomfited the Persian invaders, and the Greeks then became the aggressors.

Herodotus, who wrote about 450 years B. C., gives accounts of many naval actions, and even describes several different kinds of fighting vessels. He mentions the prophecy of the oracle at Delphi, when “wooden walls” were declared to be the great defence against Xerxes’ huge force--meaning the fleet--just as the “wooden walls of England” were spoken of, up to the time of ironclads. Herodotus says the Greek fleet at the battle of Artemisium, which was fought at the same time as Thermopylæ, consisted of 271 ships, which, by their very skillful handling, defeated the much larger Persian armament, which latter, from its very numbers, was unwieldy.

At Artemisium, the Greeks “brought the sterns of their ships together in a small compass, and turned their prows towards the enemy.” And, although largely outnumbered, fought through the day, and captured thirty of the enemy’s ships. This manner of manœuvring was possible, from the use of oars; and they never fought except in calm weather.

After this, the Greeks, under Alexander, renewed their energies, and his fleet, under the command of Nearchus, explored the coast of India and the Persian Gulf. His fleets principally moved by the oar, although sails were sometimes used by them.

Among other well authenticated naval events of early times, was the defeat of the Carthaginian fleet, by Regulus, in the first Punic war, 335 years B. C. This victory, gained at sea, was the more creditable to the Romans, as they were not naturally a sea-going race, as the nations to the south and east of the Mediterranean were.

When they had rendered these nations tributary, they availed themselves of their nautical knowledge; just as the Austrians of to-day avail themselves of their nautical population upon the Adriatic coast, or the Turks of their Greek subjects, who are sailors.

Of naval battles which exercised any marked influence upon public events, or changed dynasties, or the fate of nations, the first of which we have a full and definite description is the battle of Actium. But before proceeding to describe that most important and memorable engagement, we may look at two or three earlier sea fights which had great results, some details of which have come down to us.

NAVAL BATTLES, ANCIENT AND MODERN.

I.

SALAMIS. B. C. 480.

This great sea fight took place at the above date, between the fleet of Xerxes and that of the allied Greeks.

Salamis is an island in the Gulf of Ægina, ten miles west of Athens. Its modern name is Kolouri. It is of about thirty square miles surface; mountainous, wooded, and very irregular in shape.

It was in the channel between it and the main land that the great battle was fought.

Xerxes, in the flush of youth, wielding immense power, and having boundless resources in men and money, determined to revenge upon the Greeks the defeat of the Persians, so many of whom had fallen, ten years before, at Marathon. After years of preparation, using all his resources and enlisting tributary powers, he marched northward, in all the pomp and circumstance of war, and laid a bridge of boats at the Hellespont, over which it took seven days for his army to pass. His fleet consisted of over 1200 fighting vessels and transports, and carried 240,000 men.

Previous to the naval battle of which we are about to speak, he lost four hundred of his galleys in a violent storm; but still his fleet was immensely superior in number to that of the Greeks, who had strained every nerve to get together the navies of their independent States. Such leaders as Aristides and Themistocles formed a host in themselves, while the independent Greeks were, man for man and ship for ship, superior to the Persians and their allies. Of the Greek fleet the Athenians composed the right wing; the Spartans the left, opposed respectively to the Phenicians and the Ionians; while the Æginetans and Corinthians, with others, formed the Greek reserve.

The day of the battle was a remarkably fair one, and we are told that, as the sun rose, the Persians, with one accord (both on sea and land, for there was a famous land battle as well on that day), prostrated themselves in worship of the orb of day. This was one of the oldest and greatest forms of worship ever known to man, and it still exists among the Parsees. It must have been a grand sight; for 240,000 men, in a thousand ships, and an immense force on the neighboring land, bowed down at once, in adoration.

The Greeks, with the “canniness” which distinguished them in their dealings with both gods and men, sacrificed to all the gods, and especially to Zeus, or Jupiter, and to Poseidon, or Neptune.

Everything was ready for the contest on both sides. Arms, offensive and defensive, were prepared. They were much the same as had been used for ages, by the Egyptians and others. Grappling irons were placed ready to fasten contending ships together; gangways or planks were arranged to afford sure footing to the boarders, while heavy weights were ready, triced up to the long yards, to be dropped upon the enemy’s deck, crushing his rowers, and perhaps sinking the vessel. Catapults and balistæ (the first throwing large darts and javelins, the second immense rocks) were placed in order, like great guns of modern times. Archers and slingers occupied the poops and forecastles; while, as additional means of offence, the Rhodians carried long spars, fixed obliquely to the prows of their galleys, and reaching beyond their beaks, from which were suspended, by chains, large kettles, filled with live coals and combustibles. A chain at the bottom capsized these on the decks of the enemy, often setting them on fire. Greek fire, inextinguishable by water, is supposed, by many, to have been used thus early; while fire ships were certainly often employed.

Just as the Greeks had concluded their religious ceremonies, one of their triremes, which had been sent in advance to reconnoitre the Persian fleet, was seen returning, hotly pursued by the enemy.

An Athenian trireme, commanded by Ameinas, the brother of the poet Æschylus, dashed forward to her assistance. Upon this Eurybiades, the Greek admiral, seeing that everything was ready, gave the signal for general attack, which was the display of a brightly burnished brazen shield above his vessel. (This, and many other details may be found in Herodotus, but space prevents their insertion here.)

As soon as the shield was displayed the Grecian trumpets sounded the advance, which was made amid great enthusiasm, the mixed fleets, or contingents, from every state and city, vying with each other as to who should be first to strike the enemy. The right wing dashed forward, followed by the whole line, all sweeping down upon the Persians, or Barbarians, as the Greeks called them.

On this occasion the Greeks had a good cause, and were fighting to save their country and its liberties. Undaunted by the numbers of the opposing fleet, they bent to their long oars and came down in fine style. The Athenians became engaged first, then the Æginetans, and then the battle became general. The Greeks had the advantage of being in rapid motion when they struck the Persian fleet, most of which had not, at that critical moment, gathered way. The great effect of a mass in motion is exemplified in the act of a river steamboat running at speed into a wharf; the sharp, frail vessel is seldom much damaged, while cutting deep into a mass of timber, iron and stone. Many of the Persian vessels were sunk at once, and a great gap thereby made in their line. This was filled from their immense reserve, but not until after great panic and confusion, which contributed to the success of the Greeks. The Persian Admiral commanding the left wing, seeing that it was necessary to act promptly in order to effectually succor his people, bore down at full speed upon the flagship of Themistocles, intending to board her. A desperate hand-to-hand struggle ensued, and the vessel of Themistocles was soon in a terrible strait; but many Athenian galleys hastened to his rescue, and the large and magnificent Persian galley was sunk by repeated blows from the sharp beaks of the Greeks, while Ariamenes, the Admiral, was previously slain and thrown overboard. At this same moment the son of the great Darius, revered by all the Asiatics, fell, pierced by a javelin, at which sight the Persians set up a melancholy wailing cry, which the Greeks responded to with shouts of triumph and derision.

Still, the Persians, strong in numbers, renewed and maintained the battle with great fury; but the Athenian fleet cut through the Phenician line, and then, pulling strong with starboard and backing port oars, turned short round and fell upon the Persian left flank and rear.