Part 7

Strictly speaking, the members of the various Religious Orders, in this country at least, are not =Monks=, but Friars. Only those who live completely isolated from the rest of mankind, as did St. Anthony, are entitled to the former designation, which, in common with the term =Monastery=, comes from the Greek _monos_, alone. Consequently, a Religious House is incorrectly described as a Monastery unless each individual within its walls occupies a separate cell, both by night and by day, and never suffers himself to have the least communion with his neighbour. Failing compliance with such a rule, the term =Convent=, derived from the Latin _con_, together, and _venire_, to come, is more fittingly applicable. This designation, however, is now borne by an institution reserved for a community of =Nuns=, so called from the Italian _nonna_, a grandmother, because they originally comprised only very aged women; albeit it was formerly the custom to speak of Monasteries and Convents without discrimination. An =Abbey= always indicated a Religious House in connection with a Church, as, for example, Westminster Abbey, the abode of the community attached to the West Minster, presided over by an =Abbot=, so styled in accordance with the Syriac and Latin _abba_, a father, or, in the case of a female community, by an =Abbess=; whereas a =Priory= denoted a lesser or branch establishment placed at some distance from the Abbey, and controlled by a =Prior= (or =Prioress=), signifying one who had a prior claim over the rest to the office of Abbot (or Abbess) in the original community.

A =Friar=, on the other hand, is--conformably to the Latin _fratre_ and the French _frère_, a brother--what the term implies, viz., one of a brotherhood. In olden times there existed four distinct and powerful Orders of Friars. These were the =Dominicans=, founded by St. Dominic to preach away the Albigensian heresies, also known as the =Black Friars=, on account of their black habits, and in France as the =Jacobins=, because their first convent was situated in the Rue St. Jacques, Paris; the =Franciscans=, or =Grey Friars=, named after St. Francis d’Assissi; the =Carmelites=, or =White Friars= of Mount Carmel; and the =Augustines=, or =Austin Friars=, whose origin is ascribed to St. Augustin or Austin, the first Archbishop of Canterbury, who died in 605. Eventually a fifth Order, styled the =Trinitarians=, or Friars of the Holy Trinity, otherwise the =Crutched Friars=, so called from the cross (Latin _cruciati_, crossed) embroidered on their habit, came into existence.

Referring to the Franciscans, those who conformed to the austere rules laid down by their founder were denominated =Observant Friars=, while those who, as time wore on, began to live in convents and coveted lands, chapels, and books, received the name of =Conventional Friars=. Out of the Franciscans there have sprung two lesser Orders, so to speak, chiefly distinguished by a slight change in the details appertaining to the habit worn by them. These are the =Capuchins=, so called from the _capuce_, or pointed cowl, that they wear, and the =Cordeliers=, from the knotted cord which encircles their waist in place of a girdle. In effect, however, these two offshoots of the Franciscans are the same, and subject to the like rules, as the parent institution.

Having disposed of the Friars, let us now turn to the Monks properly so called. Originally the sole existing order of monks was that of the =Benedictines= as established by St. Benedict, who introduced the monastic system into Western Europe in the year 529. No less than twelve large Monasteries were raised by him before he died; but notwithstanding the austere rules which obtained among the Benedictines, these were yet considered too lax by some individual members of the Order, with the result that first one and then another “Reformed Order” sprang into existence, the latest being in each case distinguished for a still more rigorous rule than that of its immediate predecessor. Thus, we now have the =Carthusians=, our English designation for the monks of La Chartreuse near Grenoble, by whom the celebrated liqueur known as =Chartreuse= is prepared; the =Cistercians=, or monks of Citeau; and the =Cluniacs=, or monks of Cluny, respectively named after the vicinity of their original monastery in France; while the =Bernardines= received their title from St. Bernard, who founded the famous Hospice of Mont St. Bernard in the year 962. From the Carthusians, also, there have sprung the =Basilians= founded by St. Basil, and from the Cistercians, the =Trappists=, or monks of La Trappe, originally established in the French district so denominated.

Foremost among the Religious Orders not comprised in any of the brotherhoods cited above are the =Jesuists=, properly styled “The Society of Jesus,” an organization founded upon a military basis by St. Ignatius Loyola in 1534, which extends its influence all over the globe. Next in point of importance come the =Servites=, otherwise “The Religious Servants of the Holy Virgin,” established by seven Florentine merchants in 1283; the =Passionists=, a community of priests solemnly agreed to preach “Jesus Christ and Him crucified,” founded by Paul Francis, better known as St. Paul of the Cross, in 1737; and the =Redemptorists=, or preachers of the Redemption, also styled the =Liguorians=, after St. Francis Liguori, who originated this Order in 1732. Each of these, except, of course, the lay members of the Jesuists, are professedly Monks; and yet these are not really Monks, but _Friars_, because they live in community, and at times mingle freely with the people. In short, they are =Missionary Friars=.

_PAPER AND PRINTING._

The word =Paper= comes from the Latin _papyrus_, and Greek _papyros_, the designation of an Egyptian plant from whose reeds the earliest kind of writing material was obtained. =Parchment= is an Anglicized form of the French _parchemin_, from the Greek _pergamenos_, named after the ancient city of Pergamos, in Asia Minor, where the skins of goats were first prepared for writing upon at a time when Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of the papyrus from Egypt.

=Hand-paper= was originally so called from its watermark, which was that of a hand; =Pot-Paper=, of a pot; =Post-paper=, of a post-horn; =Crown-paper=, of a crown; and =Foolscap=, of a fool’s head with the cap and bells. =India-paper= formerly came from the Far East, whereas =Nepaul-paper= is made in the district of Nepaul, Northern India. =Cap-paper= is so designated because, prior to being used by grocers for wrapping up sugar and other commodities sold by weight, it is folded into a cap-like form. Among papers of a stiffer kind, that are chiefly intended for drawing upon, we have =Elephant=, so called from its large size (28 inches by 23), =Cartridge-paper=, originally manufactured for soldiers’ cartridges, and =Bristol-board=, formerly made only at Bristol.

By the term =Folio=, derived from the Latin _folium_, a leaf, is meant a sheet of paper folded but once, thus making two leaves or four pages; a =Quarto= (written 4to), is a sheet folded into quarters or four leaves, making eight pages; an =Octavo= (8vo), so styled in accordance with the Latin _octa_, eight, one folded into eight leaves or sixteen pages; a =Duodecimo= (12mo), the Latin for “two and ten,” one making twelve leaves or twenty-four pages, and so forth.

When Caxton set up the first printing press in this country, in the year 1476, there were many among the vulgar who regarded it as an invention of the devil; and the clergy, no doubt, fostered this idea, foreseeing that in the event of the Bible being distributed to the masses by this means, the way would be thrown open to the production of spurious editions of Sacred Writ, and the perversion of religious doctrine, which up to that period had been free to all who chose to attend daily instruction in the monasteries. Hence, printing was popularly described as “The Black Art,” while the boys who took the sheets off the press, from the fact of generally smearing their faces with ink, came to be known as Imps or Devils. This will explain why a printer’s errand-boy still bears the nickname of a =Printer’s Devil=.

Our Parliamentary Records, Debates, Reports of Meetings, and Accounts, have received the name of =Hansards= because they are printed by the large printing firm established by Luke Hansard in 1752; whereas a =Blue Book= is so called on account of its stiff cover of blue paper. The French Government reports are styled =Yellow Books= for a similar reason. The term =Book= comes from the Danish _bog_, a beech-tree, which abounds in Denmark and whose wood is much used for engraving-blocks. The =Leaf= of a book is in allusion to the ancient custom of writing on the bark of trees; while =Volume= is derived from the Latin _volvo_, I roll, relative to the Egyptian papyri, each one of which when rolled up formed a document or volume complete in itself. A storehouse for books is styled a =Library=, in accordance with the Latin _librarium_, a book-case, derived in the first instance from _liber_, a book.

A =Pamphlet= owes its description to Pamphila, a Greek lady who left behind her a kind of commonplace book containing notes, epitomes, and anecdotes. The French equivalent for a pamphlet is a =Brochure=, so called from the verb _brocher_, to stitch, because such a book consists only of a few pages stitched together. The word =Chart= comes from the Latin _charta_, a leaf of paper; a chart, therefore, is not printed on canvas like a map, but on a single sheet of paper. =Map= traces its origin from _mappa_, a Punic word which signified a signal-cloth, also a napkin, because in ancient times military and other landmarks were sketched upon a cloth in the absence of parchment and paper. Nowadays, a book of maps designed for school use is called an =Atlas=, after the fabled King of Mauritania of this name, who was believed by the ancients to support the world on his shoulders. The figure of Atlas with the globe first appeared as a frontispiece to “Mercator’s Projections,” published about the year 1560.

A =Cartoon=, as we understand the term, is a representation of political significance, usually coloured and printed on stiff paper. To some extent this kind of publication owes its origin to the celebrated ‘Cartoons’ of Raffaelle, now in the South Kensington Museum, so called because they were drawn upon _cartone_, the Italian for pasteboard. A =Broadside= consists of a large sheet of paper having the matter printed straight across, instead of in columns, so as to admit of being read at one broad view. The reverse side of the sheet is left blank. A =Poster= bears its name from the fact that formerly the sidewalks of London streets, instead of being paved as now, were distinguished from the centre, or sedan-chair and riding way, by a series of posts; and upon these, theatrical and other announcements were _posted_. In France, the theatre bills are exhibited upon the lamp-posts on the Boulevards in a similar manner. In conclusion, the distinction between BOOKSELLERS and STATIONERS was originally this: the former were itinerant sellers of books, like hawkers, and pedlars, whereas the latter had stalls at the corners of streets or in open market; and as the _stationarii_, or stationary booksellers, were enabled to display a more varied stock than the itinerants who carried books only, such articles as writing-paper, pens, ink, and other materials in course of time received the name of =Stationery=.

_POLITICAL NICKNAMES._

The utmost difficulty exists in reconciling the various opinions expressed by different authors concerning the origin of the terms =Whig= and =Tory=. And yet, if we but consider the reasons why these nicknames were first bestowed upon the two great political factions of this country during the reign of Charles II., we may possibly attain a much-desired end. In the year 1648 (_temp._ Charles I.) there occurred a rising, or sally, of the peasantry inhabiting the south-western districts of Scotland against the Royalists. This was known as the =Whigamore Raid=, the term _whigamore_ being applied to the teamsters and ploughmen of those parts because they used the twin-syllabic cry of “Whi-gam!” to drive their horses. When, therefore, in the early days of the Restoration, the ultra-Protestant party opposed certain measures of the Government, the Catholics reproached them with favouring the fanatical opinions of the Scottish Covenanters and Whigamores, and styled them =Whigs=. In return the Protestants bestowed upon their opponents the nickname of =Tories=, the familiar designation of a band of Irish outlaws who sought refuge in the bog districts of Ireland. The word Tory, or rather _Toree_, is Irish, signifying a robber. From that time down to the present =Toryism= has been considered to denote a steadfast adherence to constitutional principles and the maintenance of royalty and the peerage, as opposed to the progressive and more _liberal_ views appertaining to =Whiggism=, which advocates constitutional reform and a moderate extension of democratical powers. The word =Liberal= was first employed by Lord Byron and his friends as the title of a periodical intended to set forth the political aims of the advanced Whig party in 1828. The term =Conservative= (derived from the Latin _con_, together, and _servare_, to keep, to preserve) first appeared in an article in _The Quarterly Review_, January, 1830, and was permanently adopted by the Tory party on the passing of the Reform Bill two years afterwards. The still more advanced section of the Whig party which came into prominence in 1816 were styled =Radicals=, or =Radical Reformers=, from their desire to institute a _thorough_ reformation in the national policy. In our own day the Radicals and the Democrats may be set down as one and the same party; while the =Socialists= eminently carry out the principles of the primitive Radicals of the time of Charles I., who styled themselves =Levellers= because they strove to reduce society to a common level. The word =Democrat= is derived from the Greek _demos_, people, and _kratein_, to govern; therefore denoting one who upholds the principle of government by the people themselves, and diametrically opposed to an =Aristocracy= (Greek, _aristos_, best, and _kratein_, to govern), or government by the bravest and best. These terms were first brought into notice by the French Revolutionists of 1790.

Adverting to the protracted struggle between the =Royalists= under Charles I. and the =Parliamentarians= under the Cromwellian Parliament, no two nicknames could have been more suggestive of their origin than those respectively of the =Cavaliers= and the =Roundheads=. The latter arose out of the Puritan fashion of cropping the hair close round the head, the former from the cavalier manner in which a number of gentlemen offered themselves as a permanent escort to the King after he had been subjected to insult in December, 1641. The word Cavalier is synonymous with the French _chevalier_, a mounted knight, from _cheval_, a horse, derived from the Latin _caballus_, and the Greek _kaballes_, an inferior horse.

The Protestants in Ireland received the name of =Orangemen= owing to their adherence to William III., Prince of Orange, while the Roman Catholics were styled =Jacobites= from their adhesion to James II., _Jacobus_ being the Latin form of the King’s name. The =Peep o’ Day Boys= were so called because they broke into the houses of the people at dawn of day in quest of arms; and the =White Boys=, from the white smocks they wore over their clothing. The depredations of both these insurgents were finally put an end to by the Insurrection Acts, passed in 1786-7. The secret brotherhood of the =Fenians=, organized for the overthrow of the English rule in Ireland, derived its name from Fiona Mac Cumhal, better known as Fingal, after whom FINGAL’S CAVE is designated. The correct interpretation of the Gaelic word _Fenian_ is “a hunter.” Another secret society of quite recent origin is that of the =Irish Invincibles=, established, as was publicly stated by Carey the Informer, for the “making of history by killing tyrants.” Their title is due to the boast that they defy extermination. The =Ribbonmen= take their name from the distinctive badge which they wear. =Emergency Men= are the more active members of the Irish Defence Association. The =Separists= and the =Parnellites= are one and the same, sworn to support the measures of Mr. Parnell and the Irish National Party in promoting Home Rule for Ireland. The now familiar word =Boycotting=, in connection with Irish affairs, arose out of the troubles experienced by Captain Boycott, of Lough Mask Farm, near Ballinrobe, County Mayo, the land agent of Lord Erne. His house was besieged, his labourers were threatened, his crops remained ungathered, and tradesmen refused to supply him with goods. This occurred on the 11th and 12th of November, 1880, after which the military was despatched to his aid, and a “Boycott Fund” subscribed for his benefit. The expression “to boycott” a man practically means to place him beyond the pale of civilization.

The lowest order of the French Revolutionists were denominated =Sansculottes=, literally, “without breeches,” because they rejected those very serviceable articles of attire as being emblematical of the aristocracy. The same term was also applied to the Republican leaders as a reproach for the negligence of their dress; but after a time they themselves adopted the title with pride. The =Red Republicans= were so called for a two-fold reason. In the first place, they did not hesitate to steep their hands in human blood to accomplish their political aims; and, secondly, they wore the red cap, symbolical of Liberty from the days of the Romans downwards. The two antagonistic parties of the Revolution were styled =The Mountain= and =The Plain= for the reason that the former sat upon the most elevated benches in the Hall of Assembly, while the latter occupied the ground floor. The Plain was for the most part composed of the =Girondists=, or deputies from the Department of the Gironde.

The =Hats= and the =Caps= were the two great political factions in Sweden, so called on account of the French _chapeaux_ worn by the partisans of the French interest on the one side, and the Russian caps worn by the partisans of the Russian interest on the other. _Apropos_ of Russia, the word =Nihilist= (derived from the Latin _nihil_, nothing), originally denoted a social rather than a political party opposed to the tyranny of custom. Its significance is well expressed by Turgeneff, who first introduced it in his novel “Fathers and Sons,” published in 1862:--“A Nihilist is a man who bows before no authority, who accepts no principle without examination, no matter what credit the principle has.” At the present day a Nihilist is a revolutionary Socialist of the most pronounced degree.

The Italian =Carbonari=, being the plural of _carbonaro_, a coal-man, a charcoal-burner, who first came into notice in 1820, assumed their designation from the fact of their meetings being originally held in the huts of the charcoal-burners, and because they held charcoal to be the symbol of purification. The =Black Cloaks= were the upper classes of Naples, distinguished by the colour and quality of their cloaks from the =Lazzari=, or beggars. Regarded as a political party, the Neapolitan Black Cloaks no longer exist; but the =Lazzaroni=, so called from the Hospital of St. Lazarus, which serves for their refuge, are still to be met with in all quarters of the city. Then, again, we must not omit mention of the =Guelphs= and the =Ghibellines=, names of two powerful families whose rival partisanship of the Papal and the Imperial supremacy in Italy threatened the peace of Europe during the long period embraced between the years 1250 and 1500.

The word =Federal= comes from the Latin _fœdus_, a league or compact. A federal form of government is one under which a number of States, while retaining their individual institutions and autonomy, unite together for purposes of defence and for a larger national existence, delegating to a representative national government certain specified powers. The most noteworthy examples in history of this form of government are the Achaean League, the Swiss Republic, and the United States of America. In the early history of the United States the term “Federal” was applied to that one of the two great political parties which was supposed to be more particularly in sympathy with English standards and to favour an English alliance, and which desired a strong central government. Their opponents, who preferred a French alliance, and who opposed a strong central government, were then termed “Republicans.”

About 1830 the “Federals” became =Whigs=, and in 1856 they assumed the name of =Republicans= (from _res publica_, the State), the States-rights party having in the meantime taken the name of “Democrats” (from _demos_, the people). During the civil war of 1861-1865 the Northerners were all termed “Federals” (or by their opponents “Yankees” or “Yanks”), while the Southerners had taken the name of =Confederates=, because their Constitution instituted a weaker central government and favoured the independent action of the several States.

The Southerners were also given the nickname of “Corn-feds,” in allusion to the chief article of their diet. The term =Yankee= above alluded to dates back to the seventeenth century, and is a modification of the name “Yengees,” an attempt by the Massachusetts Indians to pronounce the name “English.”

By the residents of the Northern States, the term is limited to the inhabitants of the six States of New England. During the civil war of 1861-1865, the members of a political faction in the North received the name of =Copperheads=, because they were regarded as secret foes to the national cause. The allusion was to the poisonous copperhead serpent, which gives no warning of its approach. The =Know-nothings= were a secret political party in the United States (1848-1860), whose chief aim was the checking of foreign immigration and the political influence of foreigners by the repeal of the Naturalization Laws, and the reserving of public appointments for native-born Americans. The answer given by its members to all questions about the party organization was, “I don’t know.”

The =Tammany Ring= was the name used to designate an organization among certain officials and their backers in the city of New York in 1870-1871, who succeeded for a time in enriching themselves at the expense of the city. The ring was overthrown in 1871, and its leaders imprisoned or banished. The name of the ring arose from Tammany Hall, the headquarters of a society originally founded (in 1805) for benevolent purposes, but which had become a political power, and which is again (1892) controlling the government of New York.

The term =Mugwump= first came into political use in 1884. It was then applied to voters who had been “Republicans,” but who, on various grounds, preferred the Democratic candidate Cleveland to the Republican Blaine, and who succeeded in electing the former. It has since been given generally to citizens, who, while actively interested in politics, refuse to be bound closely by party ties, considering causes such as free trade, civil service reform, honest money, &c., as more important than party labels or party success. The name “Mugwump” is said to be derived from an Indian word signifying “wise chief.”