Chapter 37

GREECE SUBSEQUENT TO THE ROMAN CONQUEST.

I. GREECE UNDER THE ROMANS.

The Romans conducted their administration of Greece with much wisdom and moderation, treating both its religion and municipal institutions with great respect. As MR. FINLAY says, "Under these circumstances prudence and local interests would everywhere favor submission to Rome; national vanity alone would whisper incitements to venture on a struggle for independence." [Footnote: "History of Greece from 146 B.C. to A.D. 1864;" by George Finlay, LL.D.] But the latter induced the Greeks to attempt to regain their liberties at the time of the first Mithridatic war, about 87 B.C. Sylla, the Roman general, marched into Greece at the head of a powerful army, and laid siege to Athens, which made a desperate defence. At last, their resources exhausted, the Athenians sent a deputation of orators to negotiate with the old Roman; and it is stated that "their spokesman began to remind him of their past glory, and was proceeding to touch upon Marathon, when the surly soldier fiercely replied, 'I was sent here to punish rebels, not to study history.' And he did punish them. Breaking down the wall, his soldiers poured into the city, and with drawn swords they swept through the streets." The severe losses sustained by Greece in this rebellion were never repaired. The same historian adds that both parties--Greeks and Romans-- "inflicted severe injuries on Greece, plundered the country, and destroyed property most wantonly. The foundations of national prosperity were undermined; and it henceforward became impossible to save from the annual consumption of the inhabitants, the sums necessary to replace the accumulated capital of ages which this short war had annihilated. In some cases the wealth of the communities became insufficient to keep the existing public works in repair."

Cilician pirates soon after commenced their depredations, and ravaged both the main-land and the islands until expelled by Pompey the Great. The civil wars that overthrew the Roman republic next added to the desolation of Greece; but on the establishment of the Roman empire the country entered upon a career of peace and comparative prosperity. Says a late compiler, [Footnote: Edward L. Burlingame, Ph.D.] "Augustus and his successors generally treated Greece with respect, and some of them distinguished her by splendid imperial favors. Trajan greatly improved her condition by his wise and liberal administration. Hadrian and the Antonines venerated her for her past achievements, and showed their good-will by the care they extended to her works of art, and their patronage of the schools." It was at this time, also, that the Christian religion was gaining great victories 'over the indifference of the people to their ancient rites,' and was thus essentially changing the moral and intellectual condition of Greece. Aside from its power to fill the void in the heart that philosophy, though strengthening the intellect, could not reach, Christianity bore certain relations to the ancient principles of government, that commended it to the acceptance of the Greeks. These relations, and their effects, are thus explained by DR. FELTON and a writer that he quotes: [Footnote: "Lecture on "Greece under the Romans."]

"Besides the peculiar consolations afforded by Christianity to the afflicted of all ranks and classes, there were popular elements in its early forms which could not fail to commend it to the regards of common men. It borrowed the designation ecclesia from the old popular assembly, and liturgy from the services required by law of the richer citizens in the popular festivities. It taught the equality of all men in the sight of God; and this doctrine could not fail to be affectionately welcomed by a conquered people. The Christian congregations were organized upon democratic principles, at least in Greece, and presented a semblance of the free assemblies of former times; and the daily business of communities was, equally with their spiritual affairs, transacted under these popular forms. 'From the moment a people,' says a recent writer, 'in the state of intellectual civilization in which the Greeks were, could listen to the preachers, it was certain they would adopt the religion. They might alter, modify, or corrupt it, but it was impossible they should reject it. The existence of an assembly in which the dearest interests of all human beings were expounded and discussed in the language of truth, and with the most earnest expressions of persuasion, must have lent an irresistible charm to the investigation of the new doctrine among a people possessing the institutions and the feelings of the Greeks. Sincerity, truth, and a desire to persuade others, will soon create eloquence where numbers are gathered together. Christianity revived oratory, and with oratory it awakened many of the characteristics which had slept for ages. The discussions of Christianity gave also new vigor to the commercial and municipal institutions, as they improved the intellectual qualities of the people.'"

Among the imperial friends of Greece, whose reign has been characterized by some writers as "the last fortunate period in the sad annals of that country," was the Emperor Julian, known as "The Apostate." He ascended the throne in 361 A.D.; and, although he sought to overthrow Christianity and re-establish the pagan religion, "he founded charities, aimed at the suppression of vice and profligacy, and was distinguished for his devotion to the happiness of the people." Well educated in early life, he became an accomplished and cultured sovereign, "and in many ways manifested his passionate attachment to Greece, her literature, her institutions, and her arts."

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II. CHANGES DOWN TO THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.

On the establishment of the Eastern empire of the Romans, with Byzantium for its capital, the Greeks began to exert a greater influence in the affairs of government, and, outside of the metropolis itself, the Roman spirit of the administration was gradually destroyed. In the third and fourth centuries Greece suffered from invasions by the Goths and Huns, and all apparent progress was stopped; but during the long reign of Justinian, from 527 to 565, many of its cities were embellished and fortified, and the pagan schools of Athens were closed. No farther events of importance affecting the condition of Greece occurred until the immigrations of the Slavonians and other barbarous races, in the sixth and eighth centuries. The population of Greece had dwindled rapidly, and its revenues were so small that the Eastern emperors cared little to defend it. Hence these northern migratory hordes rapidly acquired possession of its soil. Finally this great body of settlers broke up into a number of tribes and disappeared as a people, leaving behind them, however, still existing evidences of their influence upon the country and its inhabitants.

THE COURTS OF CRUSADING CHIEFTAINS.

The next important changes in the affairs of Greece were wrought by warriors from the West. In 1081 the Norman, Robert Guiscard, and in 1146 Roger, King of Sicily, conquered portions of the country, including Corinth, Thebes, and Athens; and in the time of the fourth Crusade to the Holy Land (1203), when Constantinople was captured by Latin princes (1204), Greece became a prize for some of the most powerful crusading chieftains, under whose rule the courts of Thessaloni'ca, Athens, and the Peloponnesus attained to considerable celebrity even throughout Europe. "But their magnificence," says a writer in the Edinburgh Review, "was entirely modern. It centered wholly round their own persons and interests; and although the condition of the people was in no respects worse, in some respects palpably better, still they did but minister to the glory of the houses of Neri or Acciajuoli, or De la Roche or Brienne. The beautiful structures of Athens and the Acropolis were prized, not as heirlooms of departed greatness, but as the ornaments of a feudal court, and the rewards of successful valor."

The Duchy of Athens was the most interesting and renowned of these Frankish kingdoms; and in one of his lectures PRESIDENT FELTON [Footnote: Lecture on "Turkish Conquest of Constantinople."] points out the traces which this duchy has left here and there in modern literature. "The fame of the brilliant court of Athens," he says, "resounded through the west of Europe, and many a chapter of old romance is filled with gorgeous pictures of its splendors. One of the heroines of Boccacio's Decameron, in the course of her adventurous life, is found at Athens, inspiring the duke by her charms. Dan'te was a contemporary of Guy II. and Walter de Brienne; and in his Divina Commedia he applies to Theseus, King of ancient Athens, the title so familiar to him, borne by the princely rulers in his own day. Chaucer, too--the bright herald of English poetry--had often heard of the dukes of Athens; and he too, like Dante, gives the title to Theseus. Finally, in the age of Elizabeth, when Italian poetry was much studied by scholars and courtiers, Shakspeare, in the delightful scenes of the Midsummer Night's Dream, introduces Theseus, Duke of Athens, as the conqueror and the lover of Hippol'yta, the warrior-queen of the Amazons."

Theseus. Hippolyta, I wooed thee with my sword, And won thy love, doing thee injuries; But I will wed thee in another key, With pomp, with triumph, and with revelling. --Act I. Scene I.

THE TURKISH INVASION.

Some of these Latin principalities and dukedoms existed until they were swept away by the Turks, who, after the fall of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire in 1453, by degrees obtained possession of Greece.

Then, Greece, the tempest rose that burst on thee, Land of the bard, the warrior, and the sage! Oh, where were then thy sons, the great, the free, Whose deeds are guiding stars from age to age? Though firm thy battlements of crags and snows, And bright the memory of thy days of pride, In mountain might though Corinth's fortress rose, On, unresisted, rolled th' invading tide! Oh! vain the rock, the rampart, and the tower, If Freedom guard them not with Mind's unconquered power.

Where were th' avengers then, whose viewless might Preserved inviolate their awful fane, When through the steep defiles to Delphi's height In martial splendor poured the Persian's train? Then did those mighty and mysterious Powers, Armed with the elements, to vengeance wake, Call the dread storms to darken round their towers, Hurl down the rocks, and bid the thunders break; Till far around, with deep and fearful clang, Sounds of unearthly war through wild Parnassus rang.

Where was the spirit of the victor-throng, Whose tombs are glorious by Scamander's tide, Whose names are bright in everlasting song, The lords of war, the praised, the deified? Where he, the hero of a thousand lays, Who from the dead at Marathon arose All armed, and, beaming on th' Athenian's gaze, A battle-meteor, guided to their foes? Or they whose forms, to Alaric's awe-struck eye, [Footnote: GIBBON says: "From Thermopylæ to Sparta the leader of the Goths (Alaric) pursued his victorious march without encountering any mortal antagonist; but one of the advocates of expiring paganism has confidently asserted that the walls of Athens were guarded by the goddess Minerva with her formidable ægis, and by the angry phantom of Achilles; and that the conqueror was dismayed by the presence of the hostile deities of Greece." But Gibbon characteristically adds, "The Christian faith which Alaric had devotedly embraced taught him to despise the imaginary deities of Rome and Athens."--Milman's "Gibbon's Rome," vol. ii., p. 215.] Hovering o'er Athens, blazed in airy panoply?

Ye slept, oh heroes! chief ones of the earth-- High demi-gods of ancient day--ye slept. There lived no spark of your ascendant worth, When o'er your land the victor Moslem swept; No patriot then the sons of freedom led, In mountain-pass devotedly to die; The martyr-spirit of resolve was fled, And the high soul's unconquered buoyancy; And by your graves, and on your battle-plains, Warriors, your children knelt, to wear the stranger's chains. --MRS. HEMANS.

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III. CONTESTS BETWEEN THE TURKS AND VENETIANS.

Greece was long the scene of severe contests between the Turks and the Venetians. Athens was first captured by the Turks in 1456, but they were driven from it in 1467 by the Venetians, who were in turn expelled from the city by the Turks in 1470. But Venice, as a French historian--COMTE DE LABOURDE--has observed, "Alone of the states of Europe could feel, from a merely material point of view, the force of the blow struck at Europe and her own commerce by the submission of almost the whole of Greece to Turkish rule;" and this feeling survived many centuries. In 1670 the Turks conquered Crete from the Venetians, and in 1684 the latter retaliated by offensive operations against the Peloponnesus, which was soon reconquered by the Venetian admiral Morosini. In 1687 Morosini crowned his successes by the capture of Athens. The Turkish garrison had retired to the Acropolis, and the victory is principally of interest on account of the irreparable injury done to the works of art on that "rock-shrine of Athens." Although he subsequently sought to evade all responsibility for the desolation that ensued, it was Morosini who directed his batteries to hurl their fatal burdens against the Acropolis, and it was he who afterward robbed it of many of its treasures. Hitherto the alterations made for military purposes, and the slight injuries inflicted at various times, had not marred the general beauty and effect of its buildings; but when the troops of Venice entered Athens, the Parthenon and others of that gorgeous assemblage of structures were in ruins, and the glory of the Athenian Acropolis survived only in the past. Contrasting its past glory and its present decay, a writer in a recent Review makes these interesting observations:

"No other fortress has embraced so much beauty and splendor within its walls, and none has witnessed a series of more startling and momentous changes in the fortunes of its possessors. Wave after wave of war and conquest has beaten against it. The city which lies at its feet has fallen beneath the assaults of the Persian, the Spartan, the Macedonian, the Roman, the Goth, the Crusader, and the Turk. Through all these and other vicissitudes the Acropolis passed, changing only in the character of its occupants, unchanged in its loveliness and splendor. With a few blemishes and losses, whether from the decaying taste of later times or the occasional robberies of a foreign conqueror, but unaffected in its general aspect, it presented to the eyes of the victorious Ottoman the same front of unparalleled beauty which it had displayed in the days of Pericles. To him who looks upon it now, however, the scene is changed indeed--changed not only in the loss of its treasures of decorative art (for of many of these it had been robbed before), but with its loveliest fabrics shattered, many reduced to hopeless ruin, and not a few utterly obliterated. Less than two centuries sufficed to bring about all this dilapidation: less than three months sufficed to complete the ruin. If the Venetian, by his abortive conquest, inflicted not more injury on the fair heritage of Athenian art than it had undergone from all preceding spoliations, he left it, not merely from the havoc of war, but by wanton subsequent mutilation, in that state which rendered the recovery of its ancient grace and majesty impossible."

The Venetians evacuated Athens in 1688, and a few years subsequently the Peloponnesus was their only possession in Greece. In 1715 a Turkish army of one hundred thousand men under Al'i Coumour'gi, the Grand Vizier of Ach'met III., invaded the Peloponnesus, and first attacked Corinth. Historians tell us that the garrison, weakened by several unsuccessful attacks, opened negotiations for a surrender; but, while these were in progress, the accidental firing of a magazine in the Turkish camp so enraged the infidels that they at once broke off the negotiations, stormed and captured the city, and put most of the garrison, with Signor Minotti, the commander, to the sword. Those taken prisoners were reserved for execution under the walls of Nauplia, within sight of the Venetians.

In BYRON'S Siege of Corinth, founded on the historical narrative; a poetical license is taken, and the death of Minotti and the remnant of his followers is attributed to the explosion of a powder-magazine fired by Minotti himself. From the fine descriptions which this poem contains we extract the following verses:

The Siege and Fall of Corinth.

On dim Cithæron's ridge appears The gleam of twice ten thousand spears; And downward to the Isthmian plain, From shore to shore of either main, The tent is pitched, the crescent shines Along the Moslem's leaguering lines; And the dusk Spä'hi's bands advance Beneath each bearded pä'sha's glance; And far and wide as eye can reach The turbaned cohorts throng the beach; And there the Arab's camel kneels, And there his steed the Tartar wheels; The Turcoman has left his herd, The sabre round his loins to gird; And there the volleying thunders pour, Till waves grow smoother to the roar. The trench is dug, the cannon's breath Wings the far hissing globe of death; Fast whirl the fragments from the wall, Which crumbles with the ponderous ball; And from that wall the foe replies, O'er dusty plain and smoky skies, With fires that answer fast and well. The summons of the Infidel.

The walls grew weak; and fast and hot Against them poured the ceaseless shot, With unabating fury sent From battery to battlement; And thunder-like the pealing din Rose from each heated culverin; And here and there some crackling dome Was fired before the exploding bomb; And as the fabric sank beneath The shattering shell's volcanic breath, In red and wreathing columns flashed The flame, as loud the ruin crashed, Or into countless meteors driven, Its earth-stars melted into heaven-- Whose clouds that day grew doubly dun, Impervious to the hidden sun, With volumed smoke that slowly grew To one wide sky of sulphurous hue.

Having made a breach in the walls, as morning dawns the Turks form in line, and wait for the word to storm the intrenchments. Coumourgi addresses them--the command is given, and with the irresistible force of an avalanche the infidels pour into Corinth.

Tartar, and Spähi, and Turcoman, Strike your tents and throng to the van; Mount ye, spur ye, skirr the plain, That the fugitive may flee in vain When he breaks from the town; and none escape, Aged or young, in the Christian shape; While your fellows on foot, in a fiery mass, Bloodstain the breach through which they pass. The steeds are all bridled, and snort to the rein; Curved is each neck, and flowing each mane; White is the foam of their champ on the bit: The spears are uplifted, the matches are lit, The cannon are pointed, and ready to roar, And crush the wall they have crumbled before: The khan and the päshas are all at their post; The vizier himself at the head of the host. When the culverin's signal is fired, then on; Leave not in Corinth a living one-- A priest at her altars, a chief in her halls, A hearth in her mansions, a stone on her walls. God and the prophet-Ala Hu! Up to the skies with that wild halloo! "There the breach lies for passage, the ladder to scale; And your hands on your sabres, and how should ye fail? He who first downs with the red cross may crave His heart's dearest wish; let him ask it, and have!" Thus uttered Coumourgi, the dauntless vizier; The reply was the brandish of sabre and spear, And the shout of fierce thousands in joyous ire; Silence--hark to the signal--fire!

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As the spring-tides, with heavy plash, From the cliffs invading, dash Huge fragments, sapped by the ceaseless flow, Till white and thundering down they go, Like the avalanche's snow, On the Alpine vales below; Thus at length, outbreathed and worn, Corinth's sons were downward borne By the long and oft renewed Charge of the Moslem multitude. In firmness they stood, and in masses they fell, Heaped, by the host of the infidel, Hand to hand, and foot to foot: Nothing there, save death, was mute; Stroke, and thrust, and flash, and cry For quarter, or for victory, Mingle there with the volleying thunder, Which makes the distant cities wonder How the sounding battle goes, If with them or for their foes.

From the point of encountering blades to the hilt Sabres and swords with blood were gilt; But the rampart is won, and the spoil begun, And all but the after-carnage done. Shriller shrieks now mingling come From within the plundered dome: Hark to the haste of flying feet, That splash in the blood of the slippery street; But here and there, where 'vantage ground Against the foe may still be found, Desperate groups of twelve or ten Make a pause, and turn again-- With banded backs against the wall Fiercely stand, or fighting fall.

Minotti, though an old man, has an "arm full of might," and he disputes, foot by foot, the successful and deadly onslaughts of the Turks. He finally retires, with the remnant of his gallant band, to the fortified church, where lie the last and richest spoils sought by the infidels, and in the vaults beneath which, lined with the dead of ages gone, was also "the Christians' chiefest magazine." To the latter a train had been laid, and, seizing a blazing torch, his "last and stern resource,"

Darkly, sternly, and all alone, Minotti stands o'er the altar-stone,

and awaits the last attack of his foes. It soon comes.

So near they came, the nearest stretched To grasp the spoil he almost reached, When old Minotti's hand Touched with the torch the train-- 'Tis fired! Spire, vaults, the shrine, the spoil, the slain, The turbaned victors, the Christian band, All that of living or dead remain, Hurled on high with the shivered fane, In one wild roar expired! The shattered town, the walls thrown down, The waves a moment backward bent-- The hills that shake, although unrent, As if an earthquake passed-- The thousand shapeless things all driven In cloud and flame athwart the heaven, By that tremendous blast-- Proclaimed the desperate conflict o'er On that too long afflicted shore: Up to the sky like rockets go All that mingled there below: Many a tall and goodly man, Scorched and shrivelled to a span, When he fell to earth again Like a cinder strewed the plain: Down the ashes shower like rain; Some fell in the gulf, which received the sprinkles With a thousand circling wrinkles; Some fell on the shore, but, far away, Scattered o'er the isthmus lay.

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All the living things that heard That deadly earth-shock disappeared; The wild birds flew; the wild dogs fled, And howling left the unburied dead; The camels from their keepers broke, The distant steer forsook the yoke-- The nearer steed plunged o'er the plain, And burst his girth, and tore his rein; The bull-frog's note, from out the marsh, Deep-mouthed arose, and doubly harsh The wolves yelled on the caverned hill, Where echo rolled in thunder still; The jackal's troop, in gathered cry, Bayed from afar complainingly, With a mixed and mournful sound, Like crying babe, and beaten hound: With sudden wing and ruffled breast The eagle left his rocky nest, And mounted nearer to the sun, The clouds beneath him seemed so dun; Their smoke assailed his startled beak, And made him higher soar and shriek. Thus was Corinth lost and won!

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IV. FINAL CONQUEST OF GREECE BY TURKEY.

The fall of Corinth opened the way to a successful advance of the Turkish forces through the Peloponnesus, and the Venetians were soon compelled to abandon it. By the peace of Passä'rowitz, in 1718, the whole of Greece was again surrendered to Turkey, and under her rule the country, divided into military districts called Pasha'lics, sunk into a deplorable condition which the progress of time did nothing to ameliorate. The Greeks, being virtually reduced to bondage, suffered untold miseries from the rapacity and barbarism of their masters. Says the historian, SIR EMERSON TENNENT, "So undefined was the system of extortion, and so uncontrolled the power of those to whose execution it was intrusted, that the evil spread over the whole system of administration, and insinuated itself with a polypous fertility into every relation and ordinance of society, till there were few actions or occupations of the Greeks that were not burdened with the scrutiny and interference of their masters, and none that did not suffer, in a greater or less degree, from their heartless rapine." For four centuries and over the Greeks suffered under this despotism, which stamped out industry and education, and tended to the extinction of every manly trait in the people, while it also developed the native vices of the Hellenic character.

In a poem written in 1786 by the afterward celebrated British statesman, GEORGE CANNING, the writer, after paying a handsome tribute to the greatness and glory of the Greece of olden time, draws the following truthful picture of her degeneracy in his own day:

The Slavery of Greece.

Oh, how changed thy fame, And all thy glories fading into shame! What! that thy bold, thy freedom-breathing land Should crouch beneath a tyrant's stern command! That servitude should bind in galling chain Whom Asia's millions once opposed in vain, Who could have thought? Who sees without a groan Thy cities mouldering and thy walls o'erthrown; That where once towered the stately, solemn fane, Now moss-grown ruins strew the ravaged plain; And, unobserved but by the traveller's eye, Proud, vaulted domes in fretted fragments lie; And the fallen column, on the dusty ground, Pale ivy throws its sluggish arms around?

Thy sons (sad change!) in abject bondage sigh; Unpitied toil, and unlamented die; Groan at the labors of the galling oar, Or the dark caverns of the mine explore. The glittering tyranny of Othman's sons, The pomp of horror which surrounds their thrones, Have awed their servile spirits into fear; Spurned by the foot, they tremble and revere. The day of labor, night's sad, sleepless hour, The inflictive scourge of arbitrary power, The bloody terror of the pointed steel, The murderous stake, the agonizing wheel, And (dreadful choice!) the bowstring or the bowl, Damps their faint vigor and unmans the soul. Disastrous fate! Still tears will fill the eye, Still recollection prompt the mournful sigh, When to the mind recurs thy former fame, And all the horrors of thy present shame.

In 1810-'11 the poet BYRON spent considerable time in Greece, visiting its many scenes of historic interest, and noting the condition of its people. Here he wrote the second canto of Childe Harold, in which the following fine apostrophe and appeal To Greece, still under Moslem rule, are found:

Fair Greece! sad relic of departed worth! Immortal, though no more; though fallen, great! Who now shall lead thy scattered children forth, And long accustomed bondage uncreate? Not such thy sons who whilom did await, The hopeless warriors of a willing doom, In bleak Thermopylæ's sepulchral strait-- Oh, who that gallant spirit shall resume, Leap from Euro'ta's banks, and call thee from the tomb?

Spirit of Freedom! when on Phy'le's brow Thou sat'st with Thrasybu'lus and his train, Couldst thou forebode the dismal hour which now Dims the green beauties of thine Attic plain? Not thirty tyrants now enforce the chain, But every carle can lord it o'er thy land; Nor rise thy sons, but idly rail in vain, Trembling beneath the scourge of Turkish hand, From birth till death enslaved; in word, in deed, unmanned.

In all, save form alone, how changed! and who That marks the fire still sparkling in each eye, Who but would deem their bosoms burned anew With thy unquenched beam, lost Liberty! And many dream withal the hour is nigh That gives them back their father's heritage: For foreign arms and aid they fondly sigh, Nor solely dare encounter hostile rage, Or tear their name defiled from Slavery's mournful page.

Hereditary bondsmen! know ye not Who would be free themselves must strike the blow? By their right arms the conquest must be wrought? Will Gaul or Muscovite redress thee? No! True, they may lay your proud despoilers low, But not for you will Freedom's altars flame. Shades of the Helots! triumph o'er your foe! Greece! change thy lords, thy state is still the same; Thy glorious day is o'er, but not thy years of shame.

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When riseth Lacedæmon's hardihood, When Thebes Epaminondas rears again, When Athens' children are with hearts endued, When Grecian mothers shall give birth to men, Then may'st thou be restored; but not till then. A thousand years scarce serve to form a state; An hour may lay it in the dust: and when Can man, in shattered splendor renovate, Recall its virtues back, and vanquish Time and Fate?

FIRST STEPS TO SECURE LIBERTY.

Although the oppressive domination of the Turks was tamely submitted to for so many centuries, the Greeks did not entirely lose their national spirit, nor their devotion to their religion and their domestic institutions; and long before Byron wrote, Greece began preparations to break the Turkish yoke. The preservation of the national spirit was largely due to the warlike inhabitants of the mountainous regions of the north, who maintained their independence against the bloody tyranny of the Turks, and continually harassed their camps and villages. These mountaineers were known as Klephts; and though they were literally robbers, ofttimes plundering the Greeks as well as the Turks, yet, on the decline of the Armato'li--the Christian local militia which the Turks attempted to crush out--the Klephts acquired political and social importance as a permanent class in the Greek nation; and, as DR. FELTON says, "When the Revolution broke out, the courage, temperance, and hardihood of these bands were among the most effective agencies in rescuing Greece from the blighting tyranny of the Turks." This writer characterizes the ballads of the Klephts as "full of fire, and redolent of the mountain life, which had an irresistible charm for young and adventurous spirits chafing under the domination of the Turks in the lowlands;" and to him we are indebted for a literal version of one of these ballads, representing the feelings of a young man who had resolved to leave his mother's home and betake himself to the mountains, and "illustrating at once the impatient spirit of rebellion against the Turks, and the sweet flow of natural poetry which was ever welling up in the hearts of the people." [Footnote: This ballad is taken from "a collection published by Zampelios, a Greek gentleman, and a native of Leucadia."]

"Mother, I can no longer be a slave to the Turks; I cannot--my heart fights against it. I will take my gun and go and become a Klepht; to dwell on the mountains, among the lofty ridges; to have the woods for my companions, and my converse with the beasts; to have the snow for my covering, the rocks for my bed; with sons of the Klephts to have my daily habitation. I will go, mother, and do not weep, but give me thy prayer. And we will pray, my dear mother, that I may slaughter many a Turk. Plant the rose, and plant the dark carnation, and give them sugar and musk to drink; and as long, O mother mine, as the flowers blossom and put forth, thy son is not dead, but is warring with the Turks. But if a day of sorrow come, a day of woe, and the plants fade away, and the flowers fall, then I too shall have been slain, and thou must clothe thyself in black.'

"Twelve years passed, and five months, while the roses blossomed and the buds bloomed; and one spring morning, the first of May, when the birds were singing and heaven was smiling, at once it thundered and lightened, and grew dark. The carnation sighed, the rose wept, both withered away together, and the flowers fell; and with them the hapless mother became a lifeless heap of earth."

The last half of the eighteenth century witnessed, in Greece, the first general desire for liberty. Secret societies were formed to aid in the emancipation of the country, and "eminent writers, at home and abroad, appealed to the glorious recollections of Greece in order to excite a universal enthusiasm for freedom." Among the latter may be mentioned CONSTANTINOS RHIGAS, a native of Thessaly, born in 1753, a man of fine accomplishments and an ardent patriot, whose lyric ballads are said to have "rung through Greece like a trumpet," and who has been styled "the Tyrtæ'us of modern Greece." One of his war-songs has been thus translated:

Sons of the Greeks, arise! The glorious hour's gone forth, And, worthy of such ties, Display who gave us birth.

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Then manfully despising The Turkish tyrant's yoke, Let your country see you rising, And all her chains are broke. Brave shades of chiefs and sages, Behold the coming strife! Hellenes of past ages, Oh start again to life! At the sound of my trumpet, breaking Your sleep, oh join with me! And the seven-hilled city [Footnote: Constantinople] seeking, Fight, conquer, till we're free.

Sparta, Sparta, why in slumbers Lethargic dost thou lie? Awake, and join thy numbers With Athens, old ally! Leonidas recalling, That chief of ancient song, Who saved ye once from falling-- The terrible! the strong! Who made that bold diversion In old Thermopylæ, And warring with the Persian To keep his country free; With his three hundred waging The battle, long he stood, And, like a lion raging, Expired in seas of blood. --Trans. by BYRON.

Another poet, POLYZOIS, writes in a similar vein:

Friends and countrymen, shall we Slaves of Moslems ever be, Of the old barbaric band, Tyrants o'er Hellenic land? Draws the hour of vengeance nigh-- Vengeance! be our battle-cry.

It may be stated that Rhigas, having visited Vienna with the hope of rousing the wealthy Greek residents of that city to immediate action, was barbarously surrendered to the Turks by the Austrian government. On the way to execution he broke from his guards and killed two of them, but was overpowered and immediately beheaded.

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v. THE GREEK REVOLUTION.

The various efforts made by the Greeks in behalf of freedom, or, as more comprehensively stated by a recent writer, "The constancy with which they clung to the Christian Church during four centuries of misery and political annihilation; their immovable faithfulness to their nationality under intolerable oppression; the intellectual superiority they never failed to exhibit over their tyrants; the love of humane letters which they never, in all their sorrows, lost; and the wise preparation they made for the struggle by means of schools, and by the circulation of editions of their own ancient authors, and translations of the most instructive works in modern literature" --these were the influences which finally impelled the Greeks to seek their restoration in armed insurrection, that first broke out in the spring of 1821, and that ushered in the great Greek Revolution. On the 7th of March Alexander Ypsilanti, a Greek, who had been a major-general in the Russian army, proclaimed from Moldavia the independence of Greece, and assured his countrymen of the aid of Russia in the approaching contest. But the Russian emperor declined intervention; and the Porte took the most vigorous measures against the Greeks, calling upon all Mussulmen to arm against the rebels for the protection of Islamism. The wildest fanaticism raged in Constantinople, where thousands of resident Greeks were remorselessly murdered; and in Moldavia the bloody struggle was terminated by the annihilation of the patriot army, and the flight of Ypsilanti to Trieste, where the Austrian government seized and imprisoned him.

In southern Greece, however, no cruelties could quench the fire of liberty; and sixteen days after the proclamation of Ypsilanti the revolution of the Morea began at Suda, a large village in the northern part of Acha'ia, and spread over Achaia and the islands of the Æge'an. The ancient names were revived; and on the 6th of April the Messenian senate, assembled at Kalamä'ta, proclaimed that Greece had shaken off the Turkish yoke to preserve the Christian faith and restore the ancient character of the country. A formal address was made by that body to the people of the United States, and was forwarded to this country. It declared that, "having deliberately resolved to live or die for freedom, the Greeks were drawn by an irresistible impulse to the people of the United States." In that early stage of the struggle, however, the address failed to excite that sympathy which, as we shall see farther on, the progress of events and a better understanding of the situation finally awakened.

During the summer months the Turks committed great depredations among the Greek towns on the coast of Asia Minor; the inhabitants of the Island of Candia, who had taken no part in the insurrection, were disarmed, and their archbishop and other prelates were murdered. The most barbarous atrocities were also committed at Rhodes and other islands of the Grecian Archipelago, where the villages were burned and the country desolated. But in August the Greeks captured the strong Turkish fortresses of Monembasi'a and Navarï'no, and in October that of Tripolit'za, and took a terrible revenge upon their enemies. In Tripolitza alone eight thousand Turks were put to death. The excesses of the Turks showed to the Greeks that their struggle was one of life and death; and it is not surprising, therefore, that they often retaliated when the power was in their hands. In September of the same year the Greek general Ulysses defeated a large Turkish army near the Pass of Thermopylæ; but, on the other hand, the peninsula of Cassandra, the ancient Pelle'ne, was taken by the Turks, and over three thousand Greeks were put to the sword. The Athenian Acropolis was seized and garrisoned by the Turks, and the people of Athens, as in olden time, fled to Sal'amis for safety; but in general, throughout all southern Greece, the close of the year saw the Turks driven from the country districts and shut up in the principal cities.

A PROPHETIC VISION OF THE STRUGGLE.

When the revolution of the Greeks broke out the English poet SHELLEY was residing in Italy. It was during the first year of the war that Shelley, filled with enthusiasm for the Greek cause, wrote, from the scanty materials that were then accessible, his beautiful dramatic poem of Hellas; and although he could at that time narrate but few events of the struggle, yet his prophecies of the final result came true in their general import. Forming his poem on the basis of the Persians of Æschylus, the scene opens with a chorus of Greek captive women, who thus sing of the course of Freedom, from the earliest ages until the light of her glory returns to rest upon and renovate their benighted land:

In the great morning of the world The Spirit of God with might unfurled The flag of Freedom over Chaos, And all its banded anarchs fled, Like vultures frightened from Ima'us, [Footnote: A Scythian mountain-range.] Before an earthquake's tread,

So from Time's tempestuous dawn Freedom's splendor burst and shone: Thermopylæ and Marathon Caught, like mountains beacon-lighted, The springing fire, The winged glory On Philippi half alighted [Footnote: The republican Romans, under Brutus and Cassius, were defeated here by Octavius and Mark Antony, 42 B.C.] Like an eagle on a promontory.

Its unwearied wings could fan The quenchless ashes of Milan. [Footnote: Milan was the center of the resistance of the Lombard league against the Austrian tyrant Frederic Barbarossa. The latter, in 1162, burned the city to the ground; but liberty lived in its ashes, and it rose, like an exhalation, from its ruins.] From age to age, from man to man It lived; and lit, from land to land, Florence, Albion, Switzerland. [Footnote: Florence freed itself from the power of the Ghibelline nobles, and became a free republic in 1250. Albion--England: Magna Charta wrested from King John: the Commonwealth. Switzerland: the great victory of Mogarten, in 1315, led to the compact of the three cantons, thus forming the nucleus of the Swiss Confederation.]

Then night fell; and, as from night, Re-assuring fiery flight From the West swift Freedom came, [Footnote: The American Revolution.] Against the course of heaven and doom, A second sun, arrayed in flame, To burn, to kindle, to illume. From far Atlantis its young beams [Footnote: The fabled Atlantis of Plato; here used for America.] Chased the shadows and the dreams.

France, with all her sanguine streams, Hid, but quenched it not; again, [Footnote: Referring to the French Revolution.] Through clouds, its shafts of glory rain From utmost Germany to Spain. [Footnote: Referring to the revolutions that broke out about the year 1820.] As an eagle, fed with morning, Scorns the embattled tempest's warning, When she seeks her aerie hanging In the mountain cedar's hair, And her brood expect the clanging Of her wings through the wild air, Sick with famine; Freedom, so, To what of Greece remaineth, now Returns; her hoary ruins glow Like orient mountains lost in day; Beneath the safety of her wings Her renovated nurslings play, And in the naked lightnings Of truth they purge their dazzled eyes. Let Freedom leave, where'er she flies, A desert, or a paradise; Let the beautiful and the brave Share her glory or a grave.

In the farther prosecution of his narrative, the poet represents the Turkish Sultan, Mahmoud, as being strongly moved by dreams of the threatened overthrow of his power; and he accordingly sends for Ahasuerus, an aged Jew, to interpret them. In the mean time the chorus of women sings the final triumph of the Cross over the crescent, and the fleeing away of the dark "powers of earth and air" before the advancing light of the "Star of Bethlehem:"

A power from the unknown God, A Promethean conqueror came; Like a triumphal path he trod The thorns of death and shame. A mortal shape to him Was like the vapor dim Which the orient planet animates with light; Hell, sin, and slavery came, Like bloodhounds mild and tame, Nor preyed until their lord had taken flight. The moon of Ma'homet Arose, and it shall set; While, blazoned as on heaven's immortal noon, The Cross leads generations on.

Swift as the radiant shapes of sleep, From one whose dreams are paradise, Fly, when the fond wretch wakes to weep, And day peers forth with her black eyes; So fleet, so faint, so fair, The powers of earth and air Fled from the rising Star of Bethlehem. Apollo, Pan, and Love, And even Olympian Jove Grew weak, for killing Truth had glared on them. Our hills, and seas, and streams, Dispeopled of their dreams-- Their waters turned to blood, their dew to tears-- Wailed for the golden years.

In the language of Hassan, an attendant of Mahmoud, the poet then summarizes the events attending the opening of the struggle, giving a picture of the course of European politics--Egypt sending her armies and fleets to aid the Sultan against the rebel world; England, Queen of Ocean, upon her island throne, holding herself aloof from the contest; Russia, indifferent whether Greece or Turkey conquers, but watching to stoop upon the victor; and Austria, while hating freedom, yet fearing the success of freedom's enemies. The poet could not foresee that change in English politics which subsequently permitted England, aided by France and Russia, to interfere in behalf of Greece. Hassan says:

"The anarchies of Africa unleash Their tempest-winged cities of the sea, To speak in thunder to the rebel world. Like sulphurous clouds, half shattered by the storm, They sweep the pale Ægean, while the Queen Of Ocean, bound upon her island throne, Far in the West, sits mourning that her sons, Who frown on Freedom, spare a smile for thee: Russia still hovers, as an eagle might Within a cloud, near which a kite and crane Hang tangled in inextricable fight, To stoop upon the victor; for she fears The name of Freedom, even as she hates thine; But recreant Austria loves thee as the grave Loves pestilence; and her slow dogs of war, Fleshed with the chase, come up from Italy, And howl upon their limits; for they see The panther Freedom fled to her old cover Amid seas and mountains, and a mightier brood Crouch around."

Although Hassan recounts the numbers of the Sultan's armies, and the strength of his forts and arsenals, yet the desponding Mahmoud, watching the declining moon, thus symbolizes it as the wan emblem of his fading power:

"Look, Hassan, on yon crescent moon, emblazoned Upon that shattered flag of fiery cloud Which leads the rear of the departing day, Wan emblem of an empire fading now! See how it trembles in the blood-red air, And, like a mighty lamp whose oil is spent, Shrinks on the horizon's edge--while, from above, One star, with insolent and victorious light Hovers above its fall, and with keen beams, Like arrows through a fainting antelope, Strikes its weak form to death."

As messenger after messenger approaches, and informs the Sultan of the revolutionary risings in different parts of his empire, he refuses to hear more, and takes refuge in that fatalistic philosophy which is an unfailing resource of the followers of the Prophet in all their reverses:

"I'll hear no more! too long We gaze on danger through the mist of fear, And multiply upon our shattered hopes The images of ruin. Come what will! To-morrow and to-morrow are as lamps Set in our path to light us to the edge, Through rough and smooth; nor can we suffer aught Which He inflicts not, in whose hands we are."

When the Jew, Ahasuerus, at length arrives, he speaks in oracular terms, and calls up visions which increase the Sultan's fears; and when the latter hears shouts of transient victory over the Greeks, he regards it but as the expiring gleam which serves to make the coming darkness the more terrible. He thus soliloquizes:

"Weak lightning before darkness! poor faint smile Of dying Islam! Voice which art the response Of hollow weakness! Do I wake, and live, Were there such things? or may the unquiet brain, Vexed by the wise mad talk of the old Jew, Have shaped itself these shadows of its fear? It matters not! for naught we see, or dream, Possess or lose, or grasp at, can be worth More than it gives or teaches. Come what may, The future must become the past, and I As they were, to whom once the present hour, This gloomy crag of time to which I cling, Seemed an Elysian isle of peace and joy Never to be attained."

Although the poet predicts series of disasters and periods of gloom for struggling Greece, yet, at the close of the poem, a brighter age than any she has known is represented as gleaming upon her "through the sunset of hope."

The year 1822 opened with the assembling of the first Greek congress at Epidau'rus, the proclaiming of a provisional constitution on the 13th of January, and the issuing, on the 27th, of a declaration that announced the union of all Greece, with an independent federative government under the presidency of Alexander Mavrocordä'to. But the Greeks, unaccustomed to exercise the rights of freemen, were unable at once to establish a wise and firm government: they often quarreled among themselves; and those who had exercised an independent authority under the government of the Turks were with difficulty induced to submit to the control of the central government. The few men of intelligence and liberal views among them had a difficult task to perform; but the wretchedly undisciplined state of the Turkish armies aided its successful accomplishment. The principal military events of the year were the terrible massacre of the inhabitants of the Island of Scio by the Turks in April; the defeat of the latter in the Morea, where more than twenty thousand of them were slain; the successes of the Greek fire-ships, by which many Turkish vessels were destroyed; and the surrender to the Greeks of Nap'oli di Roma'nia, the ancient Nauplia, the port of Argos. By the destruction of the Island of Scio a paradise was changed into a scene of desolation, and more than forty thousand persons were killed or sold into slavery. Soon after, one hundred and fifty villages in southern Macedonia experienced the fate of Scio; and the pasha of Saloni'ca boasted that he had destroyed, in one day, fifteen hundred women and children.

Goaded to desperation, rather than disheartened by their reverses and the remorseless cruelties of the Turks, the Greeks struggled bravely on, and during the year 1823 the results of the contest were generally in their favor. They often proved themselves worthy sons of those who fell

"In bleak Thermopylæ's strait,"

or on the plains of Marathon. Their patriotic determination to be free, or die in the attempt, is happily reflected in the following lines by the poet CAMPBELL, whose heart beat in sympathy with their efforts for liberty.

Song of the Greeks.

Again to the battle, Achaians! Our hearts bid the tyrants defiance! Our land--the first garden of Liberty's tree-- It hath been, and shall yet be, the land of the free; For the Cross of our faith is replanted, The pale, dying crescent is daunted, And we march that the footprints of Mahomet's slaves May be washed out in blood from our forefathers' graves. Their spirits are hovering o'er us, And the sword shall to glory restore us.

Ah! what though no succor advances, Nor Christendom's chivalrous lances Are stretched in our aid? Be the combat our own! And we'll perish or conquer more proudly alone! For we've sworn by our country's assaulters, By the virgins they've dragged from our altars, By our massacred patriots, our children in chains, By our heroes of old, and their blood in our veins, That, living, we shall be victorious, Or that, dying, our deaths shall be glorious!

A breath of submission we breathe not: The sword that we've drawn we will sheathe not; Its scabbard is left where our martyrs are laid, And the vengeance of ages has whetted its blade. Earth may hide, waves ingulf, fire consume us; But they shall not to slavery doom us. If they rule, it shall be o'er our ashes and graves: But we've smote them already with fire on the waves, And new triumphs on land are before us-- To the charge!--Heaven's banner is o'er us.

This day shall ye blush for its story, Or brighten your lives with its glory. Our women--oh say, shall they shriek in despair, Or embrace us from conquest, with wreaths in their hair? Accursed may his memory blacken, If a coward there be who would slacken Till we've trampled the turban, and shown ourselves worth Being sprung from, and named for, the godlike of earth. Strike home! and the world shall revere us As heroes descended from heroes.

Old Greece lightens up with emotion! Her inlands, her isles of the ocean, Fanes rebuilt, and fair towns, shall with jubilee ring, And the Nine shall new hallow their Helicon's spring. Our hearths shall be kindled in gladness, That were cold and extinguished in sadness; While our maidens shall dance, with their white waving arms, Singing joy to the brave that delivered their charms, When the blood of yon Mussulman cravens Shall have crimsoned the beaks of our ravens!

AMERICAN SYMPATHY WITH GREECE.

The progress of events in 1822 and 1823 made friends for the Greeks wherever free principles were cherished; and from England and America large contributions of money, clothing, and provisions, were forwarded to relieve the sufferings inflicted by the wanton cruelties of the Turks. It was the United States, however, as the first American Minister to Greece, MR. TUCKERMAN, says, that first responded, "in the words of President Monroe, Webster, Clay, Everett, Dwight, and hosts of other lights," to the appeal of the Greek senate at Kalamäta, made in 1821. When Congress assembled in December, 1823, President Monroe made the revolution in Greece the subject of a paragraph in his annual message, in which he expressed the hope of success to the Greeks and disaster to the Turks; and Mr. Webster subsequently introduced a resolution in the House of Representatives providing for the appointment of an agent or commissioner to Greece. These were the first official expressions favorable to the struggling country uttered by any government; and in speaking to his resolution in January, 1824, Mr. Webster began his remarks as follows:

"An occasion which calls the attention to a spot so distinguished, so connected with interesting recollections, as Greece, may naturally create something of warmth and enthusiasm. In a grave political discussion, however, it is necessary that those feelings should be chastened. I shall endeavor properly to repress them, although it is impossible that they should be altogether extinguished. We must, indeed, fly beyond the civilized world; we must pass the dominion of law and the boundaries of knowledge; we must, more especially, withdraw ourselves from this place, and the scenes and objects which here surround us, if we would separate ourselves entirely from the influence of all those memorials of herself which ancient Greece has transmitted for the admiration and the benefit of mankind. This free form of government, this popular assembly--the common council for the common good--where have we contemplated its earliest models? This practice of free debate and public discussion, the contest of mind with mind, and that popular eloquence which, if it were now here, on a subject like this, would move the stones of the Capitol--whose was the language in which all these were first exhibited? Even the edifice in which we assemble, these proportioned columns, this ornamented architecture, all remind us that Greece has existed, and that we, like the rest of mankind, are greatly her debtors.

"But I have not introduced this motion in the vain hope of discharging anything of this accumulated debt of centuries. I have not acted upon the expectation that we who have inherited this obligation from our ancestors should now attempt to pay it to those who may seem to have inherited from their ancestors a right to receive payment. My object is nearer and more immediate. I wish to take occasion of the struggle of an interesting and gallant people in the cause of liberty and Christianity, to draw the attention of the House to the circumstances which have accompanied that struggle, and to the principles which appear to have governed the conduct of the great states of Europe in regard to it, and to the effects and consequences of these principles upon the independence of nations, and especially upon the institutions of free governments. What I have to say of Greece, therefore, concerns the modern, not the ancient--the living, and not the dead. It regards her, not as she exists in history, triumphant over time, and tyranny, and ignorance, but as she now is, contending against fearful odds for being, and for the common privileges of human nature."

In an argument of some length Mr. Webster forcibly condemns the then existing policy of the European Powers, who, holding that all changes in legislation and administration "ought to proceed from kings alone," were therefore "wholly inexorable to the sufferings of the Greeks, and entirely hostile to their success." He demands that the protest of this government shall be made against this policy, both as it is laid down in principle and as it is applied in practice; and he closes his address with the following references to the determination of the Greeks and the sympathy their struggle should receive:

"Constantinople and the northern provinces have sent forth thousands of troops; they have been defeated. Tripoli, and Algiers, and Egypt have contributed their marine contingents; they have not kept the ocean. Hordes of Tartars have crossed the Bosphorus; they have died where the Persians died. The powerful monarchies in the neighborhood have denounced the Greek cause, and admonished the Greeks to abandon it and submit to their fate. They have answered that, although two hundred thousand of their countrymen have offered up their lives, there yet remain lives to offer; and that it is the determination of all--'yes, of ALL'--to persevere until they shall have established their liberty, or until the power of their oppressors shall have relieved them from the burden of existence. It may now be asked, perhaps, whether the expression of our own sympathy, and that of the country, may do them good? I hope it may. It may give them courage and spirit; it may assure them of public regard, teach them that they are not wholly forgotten by the civilized world, and inspire them with constancy in the pursuit of their great end. At any rate, it appears to me that the measure which I have proposed is due to our own character, and called for by our own duty. When we have discharged that duty we may leave the rest to the disposition of Providence. I am not of those who would, in the hour of utmost peril, withhold such encouragement as might be properly and lawfully given, and, when the crisis should be past, overwhelm the rescued sufferer with kindness and caresses. The Greeks address the civilized world with a pathos not easy to be resisted. They invoke our favor by more moving considerations than can well belong to the condition of any other people. They stretch out their arms to the Christian communities of the earth, beseeching them, by a generous recollection of their ancestors, by the consideration of their desolated and ruined cities and villages, by their wives and children sold into an accursed slavery, by their blood, which they seem willing to pour out like water, by the common faith and in the name which unites all Christians, that they would extend to them at least some token of compassionate regard."

THE SORTIE AT MISSOLONGHI.

One of the noted exploits of the Greeks in 1823, and one that has been commemorated in many ways, occurred at Missolon'ghi, the capital of Acarnania and Ætolia, while that town was besieged by a Turkish army; and the name of Marco Boz-zar'is, the commander of the garrison, has ever since been classed with that of Leonidas and other heroes of ancient Greece who fell in the moment of victory. In his Crescent and the Cross; or, Romance and Realities of Eastern Travel, the English author WARBURTON thus tells the story of the well-known deed that saved Missolonghi to the Greeks and hastened the delivery of their country:

"When Missolonghi was beleaguered by the Turkish forces, Marco Bozzaris commanded a garrison of about twelve hundred men, who had barely fortifications enough to form breastworks. Intelligence reached him that an Egyptian army was about to form a junction with the formidable besieging host. A parade was ordered of the garrison, 'faint and few, but fearless still.' Bozzaris told them of the destruction that impended over Missolonghi, proposed a sortie, and announced that it should consist only of volunteers. Volunteers! The whole garrison stepped forward as one man, and demanded the post of honor and of death. 'I will only take the Thermopylæ number,' said their leader; and he selected the three hundred from his true and trusty Suliotes. In the dead of night this devoted band marched out in six divisions, which were placed, in profound silence, around the Turkish camp. Their orders were simply, 'When you hear my bugle blow seek me in the pasha's tent.'

"Marco Bozzaris, disguised as an Albanian bearing dispatches to the pasha from the Egyptian army, passed unquestioned through the Turkish camp, and was only arrested by the sentinels around the pasha's tent, who informed him that he must wait till morning. Then wildly through the stillness of the night that bugle blew; faithfully it was echoed from without; and the war-cry of the avenging Greek broke upon the Moslem's ear. From every side that terrible storm seemed to break at once; shrieks of agony and terror swelled the tumult. The Turks fled in all directions, and the Grecian leader was soon surrounded by his comrades. Struck to the ground by a musket-ball, he had himself raised on the shoulders of two Greeks; and, thus supported, he pressed on the flying enemy. Another bullet pierced his brain in the hour of his triumph, and he was borne dead from the field of his glory." But Missolonghi was saved, and under Constantine and Noto Bozzaris, brothers of the dead hero, it withstood repeated assaults of the Turks, until, in 1826, after having been besieged for over a year by a very large naval and military force, it was finally taken. Those left of the small garrison who were able to fight, placing the women in the center, sallied forth at midnight of the 22d of April, and cut their way through the Turkish camp; while those who were too feeble to attempt an escape assembled in a large mill that was used as a powder-magazine, and blew themselves and many of the incoming Turks to atoms.

Some fifteen years after the death of Marco Bozzaris, the American traveller and author, Mr. John L. Stephens, visited Greece, and, at Missolonghi, was presented to Constantine Bozzaris and the widow and children of his deceased brother. In the account which the author gives of this interview, in his Incidents of Travel in Greece, he describes Constantine Bozzaris, then a colonel in the service of King Otho, as a man of about fifty years of age, of middle height and spare build, who, immediately after the formal introduction, expressed his gratitude as a Greek for the services rendered his country by America; and added, "with sparkling eye and flushed cheek, that when the Greek revolutionary flag sailed into the port of Napoli di Romania, among hundreds of vessels of all nations, an American captain was the first to recognize and salute it." Mr. Stephens thus describes the widow of the Greek hero: "She was under forty, tall and stately in person, and habited in deep black. She looked the widow of a hero; as one worthy of those Grecian mothers who gave their hair for bow-strings and their girdles for sword-belts, and, while their heartstrings were cracking, sent their husbands to fight and perish for their country. Perhaps it was she who led Marco Bozzaris from the wild guerilla warfare in which he had passed his early life, and fired him with the high and holy ambition of freeing his country. I am certain that no man could look her in the face without finding his wavering purposes fixed, and without treading more firmly in the path of high and honorable ambition."

Mr. Stephens closes the account of his interview with the widow and family as follows: "At parting I told them that the name of Marco Bozzaris was as familiar in America as that of a hero of our own Revolution, and that it had been hallowed by the inspiration of an American poet. I added that, if it would not be unacceptable, on my return to my native country I would send the tribute referred to, as an evidence of the feeling existing in America toward the memory of Marco Bozzaris." The promised tribute was the following Beautiful and stirring poem by FITZ-GREENE HALLECK:

Marco Bozzaris.

At midnight, in his guarded tent, The Turk was dreaming of the hour When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, Should tremble at his power: In dreams, through camp and court, he bore The trophies of a conqueror; In dreams his song of triumph heard; Then wore his monarch's signet-ring; Then pressed that monarch's throne--a king; As wild his thoughts, and gay of wing, As Eden's garden-bird.

At midnight, in the forest shades, Bozzaris ranged his Suliote band, True as the steel of their tried blades, Heroes in heart and hand. There had the Persian's thousands stood, There had the glad earth drunk their blood On old Platæa's day; And now there breathed that haunted air The sons of sires who conquered there, With arm to strike, and soul to dare, As quick, as far as they.

An hour passed on--the Turk awoke; That bright dream was his last; He woke to hear his sentries shriek "To arms! they come! the Greek! the Greek!" He woke, to die 'mid flame and smoke, And shout, and groan, and sabre-stroke, And death-shots falling thick and fast As lightnings from the mountain-cloud, And heard, with voice as trumpet loud, Bozzaris cheer his band: "Strike! till the last armed foe expires; Strike! for your altars and your fires; Strike! for the green graves of your sires, God, and your native land!"

They fought like brave men, long and well; They piled that ground with Moslem slain; They conquered; but Bozzaris fell, Bleeding at every vein. His few surviving comrades saw His smile when rang their proud hurrah, And the red field was won, Then saw in death his eyelids close, Calmly as to a night's repose-- Like flowers at set of sun.

Come to the bridal chamber, Death! Come to the mother, when she feels, For the first time, her first-born's breath; Come when the blessed seals That close the pestilence are broke, And crowded cities wail its stroke; Come in consumption's ghastly form, The earthquake shock, the ocean storm; Come when the heart beats high and warm With banquet song, and dance, and wine; And thou art terrible: the tear, The groan, the knell, the pall, the bier, And all we know, or dream, or fear Of agony, are thine.

But to the hero, when his sword Has won the battle for the free, Thy voice sounds like a prophet's word, And in its hollow tones are heard Thanks of millions yet to be. Come, when his task of fame is wrought; Come, with her laurel-leaf, blood-bought; Come, in her crowning hour--and then Thy sunken eye's unearthly light To him is welcome as the sight Of sky and stars to prisoned men; Thy grasp is welcome as the hand Of brother in a foreign land; Thy summons welcome as the cry That told the Indian isles were nigh To the world-seeking Genoese, When the land-wind, from woods of palm, And orange-groves, and fields of balm, Blew o'er the Haytien seas.

Bozzaris! with the storied brave Greece nurtured in her glory's time, Rest thee--there is no prouder grave, Even in her own proud clime. She wore no funeral weeds for thee, Nor bade the dark hearse wave its plume, Like torn branch from death's leafless tree, In sorrow's pomp and pageantry, The heartless luxury of the tomb; But she remembers thee as one Long loved, and for a season gone: For thee her poet's lyre is wreathed, Her marble wrought, her music breathed; For thee she rings the birthday bells; Of thee her babes' first lisping tells; For thine her evening prayer is said At palace couch and cottage bed; Her soldier, closing with the foe, Gives for thy sake a deadlier blow; His plighted maiden, when she fears For him, the joy of her young years, Thinks of thy fate and checks her tears. And she, the mother of thy boys, Though in her eye and faded cheek Is read the grief she will not speak, The memory of her buried joys, And even she who gave thee birth, Will, by their pilgrim-circled hearth, Talk of thy doom without a sigh: For thou art Freedom's now, and Fame's-- One of the few, the immortal names That were not born to die!

About the time of the exploit of Bozzaris, Lord Byron arrived in Greece, to take an active part in aid of Greek independence, and proceeded to Missolonghi in January, 1824. No warmer friend of the Greeks than Byron ever lived; but while he sympathized with, and was anxious to aid in every way possible, those who, in his own words, "suffered all the moral and physical ills that could afflict humanity," it was evidently his honest belief that the only salvation for Greece lay in her becoming a British dependency. In his notes to Childe Harold, penned before the revolution broke out, but while all Greece was ablaze with the desire for liberty, he wrote as follows: "The Greeks will never be independent; they will never be sovereigns, as heretofore, and God forbid they ever should! but they may be subjects without being slaves. Our colonies are not independent, but they are free and industrious, and such may Greece be hereafter." These words show that he considered Greece incapable of self-government, should she ever regain her liberty; and he therefore deprecated a return to her ancient sovereignty. That this was his view, and that he subsequently designed to give it effect in his own person, we are assured from the well-founded belief, derived from his own declarations, that when he joined the Greek cause he had a mind to place himself at its head, hoping and perhaps believing that he might become King of Hellas, under the protection of Great Britain. But whatever his plans may have been, they were cut short by his death, at Missolonghi, on the 19th of April following his arrival there.

INTERFERENCE OF THE GREAT POWERS.

In the campaign of 1824, while the Greeks lost Candia and the strongly fortified rocky isle of Ip'sara, a Turkish fleet was repulsed off Samos, and a large Egyptian fleet, sent to attack the Morea, was frustrated in all its designs. The campaign of 1825, however, was opened by the landing, in the Morea, of a large Egyptian army, under Ibrahim Päsha, son of the Viceroy of Egypt. Navarï'no soon fell into his power; and at the time of the fall of Missolonghi, in the following year, be was in possession of most of southern Greece, and many of the islands of the Archipelago. The foundation of an Egyptian military and slave-holding state now seemed to be laid in Europe; and this danger, combined with the noble defence and sufferings at Missolonghi and elsewhere, attracted the serious attention of the European governments and people; numerous philanthropic societies were formed to aid the Greeks, and finally three of the great European powers were moved to interfere in their behalf. On the 6th of July, 1827, a treaty was concluded at London between England, Russia, and France, stipulating that the Greeks should govern themselves, but that they should pay tribute to the Porte.

To enforce this treaty a combined English, French, and Russian squadron sailed to the Grecian Archipelago; but the Turkish Sultan haughtily rejected the intervention of the three powers, and the troops of Ibrahim Pasha continued their devastations in the Morea. On the 20th of October the allied squadron, under the command of the English admiral, Edward Codrington, entered the harbor of Navarino, where the Turkish-Egyptian fleet lay at anchor; and a sanguinary naval battle followed, in which the allies nearly destroyed the fleet of the enemy. Although this action was spoken of by the British government as an "untoward event," Admiral Codrington was rewarded both by England and Russia; and the poet CAMPBELL, in the following lines on the battle, naturally praises him for planning and striking this decisive blow for Grecian liberty:

The Battle of Nava'rino.

Hearts of Oak, that have bravely delivered the brave, And uplifted old Greece from the brink of the grave! 'Twas the helpless to help, and the hopeless to save, That your thunderbolts swept o'er the brine; And as long as yon sun shall look down on the wave The light of your glory shall shine.

For the guerdon ye sought with your bloodshed and toil, Was it slaves, or dominion, or rapine, or spoil? No! your lofty emprise was to fetter and foil The uprooter of Greece's domain, When he tore the last remnant of food from her soil, Till her famished sank pale as the slain!

Yet, Navarï'no's heroes! does Christendom breed The base hearts that will question the fame of your deed? Are they men?--let ineffable scorn be their meed, And oblivion shadow their graves! Are they women?--to Turkish sérails let them speed, And be mothers of Mussulmen slaves!

Abettors of massacre! dare ye deplore That the death-shriek is silenced on Hellas' shore? That the mother aghast sees her offspring no more By the hand of Infanticide grasped? And that stretched on yon billows distained by their gore Missolonghi's assassins have gasped?

Prouder scene never hallowed war's pomp to the mind Than when Christendom's pennons wooed social the wind, And the flower of her brave for the combat combined-- Their watchword, humanity's vow: Not a sea-boy that fought in that cause but mankind Owes a garland to bon or his brow! No grudge, by our side, that to conquer or fall Came the hardy, rude Russ, and the high-mettled Gaul: For whose was the genius that planned, at its call, When the whirlwind of battle should roll? All were brave! but the star of success over all Was the light of our Codrington's soul.

That star of thy day-spring, regenerate Greek! Dimmed the Saracen's moon, and struck pallid his cheek: In its fast flushing morning thy Muses shall speak, When their love and their lutes they reclaim; And the first of their songs from Parnassus's peak Shall be "Glory to Codrington's name!"

The result of the conflict at Navarino so enraged the Turks that they stopped all communication with the allied powers, and prepared for war. In the following year (1828) France and England sent an army to the Morea: Russia declared war for violations of treaties, and depredations upon her commerce; and on the 7th of May a Russian army of one hundred and fifteen thousand men, under Count Witt'genstein, crossed the Pruth, and by the 2d of July had taken seven fortresses from the Turks. In August a convention was concluded with Ibrahim Päsha, who agreed to evacuate the Morea, and set his Greek prisoners at liberty. In the mean time the Greeks continued the war, drove the Turks from the country north of the Corinthian Gulf, and fitted out numerous privateers to prey upon the commerce of their enemy. In January, 1829, the Sultan received a protocol from the three allied powers, declaring that they took the Morea and the Cyc'lades under their protection, and that the entry of any military force into Greece would be regarded as an attack upon themselves. The danger of open war with France and England, as well as the successes and alarming advances of the Russians, now commanded by Marshal Die'bitsch, who had meantime taken Adrianople, within one hundred and thirty miles of the Turkish capital, induced the Sultan to listen to overtures of peace; and on the 14th of September "the peace of Adrianople" was signed by Turkey and Russia, by which the former recognized the independence of Greece.

* * * * *

VI. GREECE UNDER A CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY.

Though freed from her Turkish oppressors, Greece was severely agitated by domestic discontents, jealousies, and even manifest turbulence. Count Cä'po d'Is'tria, a Greek in the service of Russia, who had been chosen, in 1828, president of the provisional government, aroused suspicions that he designed to establish a despotism in his own person, and he was assassinated in 1831. A period of anarchy followed. The great powers had previously determined to erect Greece into a monarchy, and had first offered the crown to Prince Leopold, afterward King of Belgium, who, having accepted the offer, soon after declined it on account of the unwillingness of the Greeks to receive him, and their dissatisfaction with the territorial boundaries prescribed for them. Finally, the boundaries of the kingdom having been more satisfactorily determined by a treaty between Turkey and the powers in 1832, the crown was conferred on Otho, a Bavarian prince, who arrived at Nauplia, the then capital of Greece, in 1833. Athens became the seat of government in 1835. Says a writer in the British Quarterly, "The Greeks neither elected their own sovereign nor chose their national polity. In a spirit of generous confidence they allowed the three protecting powers to name a king for them, and the powers rewarded them by making the worst selection they could. They gave the Greeks a boy of seventeen, with neither a character to form nor an intellect to develop."

The treaty by which Otho was placed on the throne made no provision for a constitution, but one was expected; and, after ten years of oppressive subjection by the king and his Bavarian minions, both the people and a revolted soldiery surrounded the palace, and demanded a constitution. The king acquiesced, a national assembly was held, and a constitution was framed which received the king's approval in March, 1844. In this bloodless revolution we have an instance both of the determination, and peaceable, orderly, and well-disposed tendencies of the Greek people. An eye-witness of the scene has thus described it:

"I well recollect the uprising of 1843. Exasperated by the miserable rule of Otho, a plot was hatched to wrench a constitution from him, and when everything was ripe the Athenians arose. At midnight the hoofs of horses were heard clanging on the pavements, and the flash of torches gleamed in the streets, as the populace and military hurried toward the palace; and when the amber-colored dawn lighted the Acropolis and the plain of Athens, the king found himself surrounded by his happy subjects, and discovered two field-pieces pointing into the entrance of the royal residence. A constitution was demanded in firm but respectful terms--it being suggested at the same time that, if the request were not granted by four o'clock in the afternoon, fire would be opened on the palace. In the mean while all Athens was gathered in the open space around the palace, chatting, cracking jokes, taking snuff, and smoking, as if they had assembled to witness a show or hear the reading of a will. Not a shot was fired; no violence was offered or received; and precisely as the limiting hour arrived, the obstinate king succumbed to his besiegers, and the multitude quietly dispersed to their homes." [Footnote: B. G. W. Benjamin, in "The Turk and the Greek."]

The Constitution which the Greeks secured contained no real guarantee for the legislative rights of the people, and the minor benefits it gave them were ignored by the government. A continuance of the severe contests between the national party and foreign intriguers materially interfered with the prosperity of the country. Other events, also, now occurred to disturb it. In 1847 a diplomatic difficulty with Turkey, and, in 1848, a difference with England, that arose from various claims of English subjects, and that continued for several years, assumed threatening proportions, and were only terminated by the submission of Greece to the demands made upon her. When the Crimean war broke out, Greece took a decided stand in favor of Russia; but England and France soon compelled her to assume and maintain a strictly neutral position. In 1859 the residents of the Ionian Islands, which were under the protectorate of England, sought annexation to Greece, and manifested their intentions in great popular demonstrations, and even insurrections; but Greece, though sympathizing with them, was too feeble to aid them, and no change was then made in their relations.

THE DEPOSITION OF KING OTHO.

While these events were transpiring, the feeling of hostility toward King Otho and the royal family was taking deeper root with the Greek people, and open demonstrations of violence were frequently made. The king promised more liberal measures of government; but these fell short of the popular demand, and the Greeks resolved to dethrone the dynasty. In October, 1862, after several violent demonstrations elsewhere, matters culminated in a successful revolution at Athens. A provisional government was established by the leaders of the popular party, who decreed the deposition of the king. Otho, who was absent from Athens at the time, on a visit to Napoli, finding himself without a throne did not return to Athens, but issued a proclamation taking leave of Greece, and sailed for Germany in an English frigate. He had occupied the throne just thirty years. MR. TUCKERMAN thus describes him: "An honest-hearted man, but without intellectual strength, dressed in the Greek fustinella, he endeavored to be Greek in spirit; but under his braided jacket his heart beat to foreign measures, and his ear inclined to foreign counsels. But for the quicker-witted Amelia, the queen, his follies would have worn out the patience of the people sooner than they did." The condition of Greece under his government is thus described by the writer in the British Quarterly, who wrote immediately after the coup d'état: "To outward appearance, the Greece which the Philhel'lenists of the days of Canning declared to be re-animated and restored, has presented, during thirty years of settled government, the aspect of a country corrupt, intriguing, venal, and poor. The government has kept faith neither with its subjects nor with its creditors; it has endeavored, by all means in its power, to crush the constitutional liberties of its subjects; and by refusing, throughout this period, to pay a single drachma of its public debt, it has stamped itself either hopelessly bankrupt or scandalously fraudulent. The people, meanwhile, crushed by the incubus of a dishonest and extravagant foreign rule, remain in nearly the situation they held on the first establishment of their kingdom. In a word, Greece was thirty years ago transferred from one despotism to another. The Bavarian rule was no appreciable mitigation of the Turkish rule. If the Christian monarch hated his Hellenic subjects less than the Mussulman monarch, he was still more ignorant of the conditions of prosperous government."

THE ACCESSION OF KING GEORGE.

If it has ever had an existence, Greek independence may be properly dated from the deposition of the Bavarian dynasty. In December, 1862, a committee appointed by the provisional government ordered the election of a new king. The national assembly shortly after met at Athens, and, having first confirmed the deposition of Otho, of those proposed as candidates for the vacant throne by the European powers, Prince Alfred of England was elected by an immense majority on the first ballot. This choice of a scion of the freest and most stable of the constitutional monarchies of Europe, was an expression of the desire and the resolve of the Greek people to secure as full political and civil liberties as was possible for them under a monarchical government. But Prince Alfred was held ineligible in consequence of a clause in the protocol of the protecting powers, which declared that the government of Greece should not be confided to a prince chosen from the reigning families of those states. Thereupon, in March, 1863, Prince George of Denmark, the present king, was unanimously elected by the assembly, and his election was confirmed by the great powers in the following July. There is every reason to suppose that England assumed the honor of choosing Prince George. On the withdrawal of Prince Alfred she expressed her willingness to abandon her protectorate of the Ionian Islands, and cede them to Greece, provided a king were chosen to whom the English government could not object. The Ionian Islands were ceded to Greece within two months after the accession of King George; and Mr. Tuckerman relates that, "when Prince Christian, King of Denmark, was in London, attending the marriage of his daughter to the Prince of Wales, Lord John Russell discovered the second son of Prince Christian in the uniform of a midshipman, and suggested his name as the successor of Otho."

King George took the constitutional oath in October, 1863. In 1866 the revolution in Crete, or Candia, broke out, and, owing to Greek sympathy with the insurrectionists, thousands of whom found an asylum in Greece, grave complications arose between Greece and Turkey, which were only settled by a conference of the great powers in 1869. By the treaty with the Porte in 1832 the boundary line of Greece had been settled in an arbitrary manner, by running it from the Gulf of Volo along the chain of the Othrys Mountains to the Gulf of Arta--by which Greece was deprived of the high fertile plains of Thessaly and Epirus, the largest and richest of classical Greece. At the close of the late Russian-Turkish war, however, the boundary line was changed by the powers so as to include within the kingdom a large portion of those ancient possessions; but this change occasioned serious conflicts between the government and the people of the annexed districts, and difficulties also arose with Turkey in consequence. But these were finally settled by an amendment to the treaty, passed in 1881."

With the exceptions just noted, no important events have disturbed the peace of Greece since the accession of King George. In him the country has a ruler of capacity, who is in great measure his own adviser, and who comprehends the chief wish of his subjects, "that Greece shall govern Greece." As MR. TUCKERMAN has said of him, "Unlike his predecessor, he is a Greek by sympathy of language and ideas. He feels the popular pulse and tries to keep time with it, not more as a matter of policy than from national sympathy; and his hands are comparatively free of the impediment of those foreign ministerial counselors who, each struggling for supremacy, united only in checking the political advancement of the kingdom." It was no fault of the Greek people that, under King Otho, Greece failed to make the internal advancement that was expected of her on her escape from Moslem tyranny. It was the fault of the government; for, when a better government came, there was a corresponding change in the inner life of the people; and at the present time, with the freest of constitutional monarchies, and under the guidance of a ruler so sympathetic, competent, and popular, redeemed Greece is making rapid strides in intellectual and material progress. Of this progress we have the following account by a prominent American divine, a recent visitor to that country:

Progress in Modern Greece. [Footnote: Rev. Joseph Cook, in the New York Independent, February, 1883.]

"You lean over the parapet of the Acropolis, on the side toward the modern city, and look in vain for the print of that Venetian leprous scandal and that Turkish hoof which for six hundred years trod Greece into the slime. In the long bondage to the barbarian, the Hellenic spirit was weakened, but not broken. The Greek, with his fine texture, loathes the stolid, opaque temperament of the polygamistic Turk. Intermarriages between the races are very few. The Greek race is not extinct. In many rural populations in Greece the modern Hellenic blood is as pure as the ancient. Only Hellenic blood explains Hellenic countenances, yet easily found; the Hellenic language, yet wonderfully incorrupt; and the Hellenic spirit, omnipresent in liberated Greece. Fifty years ago not a book could be bought at Athens. To-day one in eighteen of the whole population of Greece is in school. In 1881 thirteen very tall factory chimney-stacks could be counted in the Piræ'us, not one of which was there in 1873. It is pathetic to find Greece at last opening, on the Acropolis and in the heart of Athens, national museums for the sacred remnants of her own ancient art, which have been pillaged hitherto for the enrichment of the museums of all Western Europe. During sixty years of independence the Hellenic spirit has doubled the population of Greece, increased her revenues five hundred per cent., extended telegraphic communication over the kingdom, enlarged the fleet from four hundred and forty to five thousand vessels, opened eight ports, founded eleven new cities, restored forty ruined towns, changed Athens from a hamlet of hovels to a city of seventy thousand inhabitants, and planted there a royal palace, a legislative chamber, ten type-foundries, forty printing establishments, twenty newspapers, an astronomical observatory, and a university with eighty professors and fifteen hundred students. After little more than half a century of independence, the Hellenic spirit devotes a larger percentage of public revenue to purposes of instruction than France, Italy, England, Germany, or even the United States. Modern Greece, sixty years ago a slave and a beggar, to-day, by the confession of the most merciless statisticians, stands at the head of the list of self-educated nations."

INDEX.

[Names in CAPITALS denote authors to whom prominent reference is made, or from whom selections are taken.]

Aby'dos. Xerxes and his army at. Acade'mla, or Ac-a-deme'. A public garden or grove, the resort of the philosophers at Athens. Acarna'ni-a, description of; aids Athens. Achæ'ans, the; origin of. Achæ'an League, the. Achæ'us, son of Xuthus, and ancestor of the Achæans. Acha'ia, description of. Name given to Greece by the Romans. Achelo'us, the river, described. Ach'eron, the river; described. Acheru'sia (she-a), the lake, described. Achil'les, accompanies expedition to Troy; contends with Agamemnon, and withdrawn; refuses to enter the contest, puts his armor on Patroclus, and the armor is lost; description of his new armor; he enters the fight; encounters Æneas, who escapes; kills Hector; delivers the body to Priam; death of. Acri'si-us (she-us), King of Argos. Acrop'olis, the Athenian; seizure of, by Cylon; by Pisistratus; by the Persians; famous structures of; its splendors in the time of Pericles; injury to, inflicted by the Venetians. Actæ'on, the fable of. Adme'tus, King of Pheræ. Æge'an Sea. Ægi'na, island of; war of, with Athens. Æ'gos-pot'ami. Defeat of Athenians at. Æmo'nia, same as Hæmonia, an early name of Thessaly. Æne'as, a Trojan hero, and subject of Virgil's Æne'id; wounded, and put to flight by Diomed; fights for the body of Patroclus; encounters Achilles, and is preserved by Neptune; account of his escape from Troy. Æne'id, the. Æo'lians, the; colonies of. Æ'olus, progenitor of the Æolians. ÆS'CHI-NES, the orator; prosecutes Demosthenes; exile of; oratory of. Extracts from: The Death of Darius; Oration against Ctesiphon. ÆS'CHYLUS, poet and tragedian. Life and works of. Extracts from: Punishment of Prometheus; Retributive justice of the gods; The taking of an oath; The name "Helen"; Beacon fires from Troy to Argos; Battle of Salamis; Murder of Agamemnon. Æscula'pius, god of the healing art. Shrine of. Æ'son, King of Iolcus. Æt'na, a city in Sicily, founded by Hiero. Æto'lia. Agamem'non, King of Mycenæ; commands the expedition against Troy; contends with Achilles; demands restoration of Helen; return to Greece and is murdered. Agamemnon, the. Extracts from. Aganip'pe, fountain of. Ag'athon, a tragedian. Agesan'dros, a Rhodian sculptor. Agesila'us, King of Sparta. Defeats the Persians at Sardis. A'gis, King of Sparta. Agrigen'tum, in Sicily. A'jax. Goes with the Greeks to Troy; fights for the body of Patroclus; his death. AKENSIDE, MARK.--Character of Solon; of Pisistratus, and his usurpation; Alcræs; Anacreon; Melpomene. ALAMANNI, LUIGI.--Flight of Xerxes. ALCÆ'US, a lyric poet.--Life and writings of. Extracts from: The spoils of war; Sappho. ALCÆ'US, of Messene.--Epigrams of, on Philip V. Alcestis, the. Alcibi'ades. Artifices of; retires to Sparta; intrigues of, against Athens; is condemned to death, but escapes; is recalled to Athens; is banished; death of. Alcin'o-us, King. Gardens of. "Al'ciphron, or the Minute Philosopher". ALC'MAN, a lyric poet.--Life and writings of. Alexander the Great. Quells revolt of the Grecian states; invades Asia; defeats Darius; further conquests of; feast of, at Persepolis; invades India; dies at Babylon; career, character, and burial of; wars that followed his death. Alexandria, in Egypt. Founded by Alexander. Alex'is, a comic poet. ALISON, ARCHIBALD.-Earthquake at Sparta, and Spartan heroism. Alphe'us, river. Legends of. A'mor, son of Venus, and god of love. Amphic'tyon, Amphicty'ones, and Amphictyon'ic Council. Amphip'olis, in Thrace. Amphis'sa, town of. Amy'clæ, town of. Anab'asis, the. ANAC'REON, a lyric poet.--Life and writings of. An'akim, a giant of Palestine. Anaxag'oras, the philosopher; attacks upon, at Athens; life, works, and death of. Anaximan'der, the philosopher. Anaxim'enes, the philosopher. Anchi'ses, father of Æne'as. Androm'a-che, wife of Hector. Lamentation of, over Hector's body. An'gelo, Michael. ANONYMOUS.--Tomb of Leonidas; Queen Archidamia. Antæ'us, son of Neptune and Terra. Encounter with Hercules. Antal'cidas, the peace of. Anthe'la, village of. ANTHON, CHARLES, LL.D.--Apelles and Protogenes. Antig'o-ne, the. Antig'onus, one of Alexander's generals; conquests and death of. Antig'onus II., a king of Macedon.--War of, with Phyrrus; becomes master of Greece, and death of. Antil'ochus (in the Iliad). Anti'ochus, King of Syria. ANTIP'ATER, of Sidon.--Extracts from: The birthplace of Homer; Sappho; Desolation of Corinth; The painting of Venus rising from the sea. Antip'ater, one of Alexander's generals. Is given command of Macedon and Greece; suppresses a Spartan revolt; the Athenian revolt; is given part of Macedonia and Greece; death of. Antiph'anes, a comic poet. An'tiphon, orator and rhetorician. An'tium (an'she-um); a city of Italy. An'tonines, the. Treatment of Greece by. An'ytus, the accuser of Socrates. Apel'les, an Ionian painter; anecdote of. Aphrodi'te. (See Venus.) Apollo, the god of archery, etc.; aids the Trojans; character of; conflict of, with Python. Apollo Bel've-dere, statue of. Apollodo'rus, of Athens, a painter. Apollo'nia, town in Illyria. Ap'pius Claudius, the Roman consul. Arach'ne, tower of. Arbe'la. Battle of. Arca'dia and Arcadians. Arcadians assist Messenia; assist Thebes in war with Sparta. Archidami'a, Queen of Sparta. Archela'us, King of Macedon. Archida'mus, King of Sparta. Archil'ochus, lyric poet. Archime'des, the Syracusan; Cicero visits the tomb of. Architecture.--First period. Second period. Third period. Ar'chons. Institution of, in Athens. Areop'agus, or Hill of Mars. Court of; changes in power of. A'res (same as Mars). Arethu'sa, fountain of. A're-us, King of Sparta. Ar'gives, the. Ar'go, the ship. Argol'ic Gulf. Ar'golis. Argonau'tic expedition, the. Ar'gos, city of. Ari'on, the poet. Aristi'des, the Athenian general and statesman. At Marathon; rise of, in Athenian affairs; banishment of, and return to fight at Salamis; leadership and death of. Aristi'des, a painter. Aristoc'rates, King of Arcadia. Aristode'mus, one of the Heraclidæ. Aristogi'ton. Conspiracy of, against the Pisistratidæ, and death of; tribute to. Aristom'enes, a Messenian leader. ARISTOPH'ANES, the comic poet. Life and works of. Extracts from: The Wasps; Cleon the Demagogue; The Clouds; The Birds. Aristot'le, the philosopher. Life and works of. ARNOLD, EDWIN.--The Academia. Ar'ta, Gulf of. Artaba'nus, uncle of Xerxes. Artapher'nes, Persian governor of Lydia. Artaxerx'es Longim'anus. Artaxerxes Mne'mon. Ar'temis. (See Diana.) Artemis'ia (she-a), Queen of Carin. Artemis'ium. Naval conflict at. Arts. (See Literature.) As'cra. Birthplace of Hesiod. A'sius (a'she-us). A marshy place near the river Ca-ys'ter, in Asia Minor. Aso'pus, the river, in Bœotia. Aspa'sia (she-a). Attacks upon. Asty'anax, Hector's son. Fate of. A'te, goddess of revenge. Athe'na. (See Minerva.) Athenodo'rus, a Rhodian sculptor. Athens, and the Athenians; founding of the city; early history of; legislation of Draco and Solon; usurpation of Pisistratus; birth of democracy at; battle of Marathon; affairs of, under Aristides and Themistocles; war of, with Ægina, and settlement of; abandonment of city; successes of, at Artemisium and Salamis; at Platæa; empire of Athens; Athens rebuilt; affairs of, under Cimon; at battle of Eurymedon; jealousy of Sparta against; affairs of, under Pericles; changes in Constitution of; war of, with Sparta; reverses of, in Egypt, decline of, and thirty years' truce of, with Sparta; the "Age of Pericles"; war of, with Sparta; the plague at; violates the Peace of Nicias; Sicilian expedition of; war of, with Sparta, and revolt of allies; reverses and humiliation of; fall of Athens; the rule of the Tyrants; lead of, in intellectual progress; literature and art of; adornment of; glory of; alliance of, with Sparta; engages in the Sacred War; leads against Macedon; censured by Demosthenes; allies of, defeated by Philip; first open rupture with Macedon; alliance of, with Thebes, and defeat at Chæronea; revolt of, against Alexander; captured by Antigonus; late architecture, sculpture, and painting of; immortal influence of; the Duchy of Athens; captured by Turks and Venetians; revolution at, against Otho. A'thos, Mount, in Macedonia. Atos'sa, mother of Xerxes. Atri'dæ, the. A term meaning "sons of Atreus," and applied by Homer to Agamemnon and Menelaus. Attica. "Attic Wasp," the. Augustus, the Roman emperor. Au'lis, on the Euripus. Auso'nian, or Au'sones. An ancient race of Italy. Aver'nus, lake of.

Babylon. Bacchus, god of vintage or wine; theatre of. Bel'i-des, a surname given to daughters of Belus. Beller'ophon, son of Glaucus. BENJAMIN, S. G. W.--Revolution against Otho. Bes'sus, satrap of Bactria. Bias, one of the Seven Sages. Birds, the. BLACKIE, J. STUART.--Value of Greek fables. Fancies of the Greek mind. Legend of Pandora. Prometheus. Story of Tantalus. The founding of Athens. Pythagoras. Legends of Marathon. Xerxes and the battle of Salamis. Bœo'tla. Boz-zar'ls, Marco.--Bravery and death of. Constantine Bozzaris, and Noto Bozzaris. Bras'idas, the Spartan. Brazen Age, the. British Quarterly Review.--The choice of Otho; and Greece under his rule. Bria're-us (or Bri'a-reus). BROUGHAM, LORD.--Demosthenes' Oration on the Crown. The style of Demosthenes. The doctrine of Plato. BROWNE, R. W.--Thucydides and Herodotus. Aristotle. BULWER, EDW. LYTTON.--Merits of a "Tyranny." The battle of Platæa, and importance of. Xerxes at Sardis. Earthquake, and revolt of Helots at Sparta. Changes in Athenian Constitution, Oratory of Pericles. The Drama. Adornment of Athens. BURLINGAME, EDW. L.--Roman treatment of Greece. BYRON, LORD.--Dodona. Parnassus. Allusions to Attica. The Corinthian rock. The Isles of Greece. The dead at Thermopylæ. Xerxes at Salamis. Deathless renown of Greek heroes. The Athenian prisoners at Syracuse. The revenge of Orestes. Alexander's career. Siege and fall of Corinth. Greece under Moslem rule. Views of Greek independence. Byzan'tium (she-um).

Cadmus, founder of Cadme'a. Cadmea, citadel of Thebes. Cal'amis, the sculptor. Calaure'a, island of. Callic'ra-tes, a Spartan soldier. Callicrates, an architect. Callicrat'i-das, a Spartan officer. Callim'achus, the Pol'emarch. CALLI'NUS, a lyric poet.--Writings of. Calli'o-pe, the goddess of epic poetry. CALLIS'TRATUS.--Tribute to Harmodius. Calyp'so, the nymph, island of. Cambunian mountains. CAMPBELL, THOMAS.--Music of the Spartans. Song of the Greeks. Battle of Navari'no. Can'dla, island of (Crete). Can'næ, in Apulia. Battle at. CANNING, GEORGE.--The Slavery of Greece. CANTON, WILLIAM.--Death of Anaxagoras. Capo d'Istria, Count. Capys, a Trojan. Carthaginians, the. Caspian Gates, the. Cassan'der, son of Antipater.--Master of Greece and Macedon; death of. Cassan'dra, daughter of Priam. Castalian Fount, the. Cat'ana, in Sicily. Cau'casus, Mount. Ca-ys'ter, the river, in Asia Minor. Ce'crops. Cecro'plan hill (Acropolis). Celts, the. Cephalo'nia, island of. Cephis'sus, the river. Ceraunian mountains. Ce'res, goddess of grain, etc. Chærone'a, in Bœotia; battle of. Chal'cis, in Euboea. Cha'os. Cha'res, a Rhodian sculptor. Cher'siphron, a Cretan architect. Story of. Chersone'sus. the Thracian. Chi'lo, one of the Seven Sages. Chion'i-des, a comic poet. Chi'os, island of. Choëph'oroe, the. Christianity in Greece. Chro'nos, or Saturn. Cicero, the Roman orator. Visits tomb of Archime'des. Cili'cia (she-a). Ci'mon (meaning Milti'a-des). Cimon, son of Miltiades, and an Athenian general and statesman; successes and rise of, at Athens; wins battle of Eurym'edon; aids Sparta; the fall and banishment of; recall of, expedition to Cyprus, and death of. Cithæ'ron, Mount. Ci'tium (she-um), in Cyprus. Clazom'enæ, on an island off the Dorian coast. CLE-AN'THES.--Hymn to Jupiter. Cle-ar'chus, a Spartan general. Cleo-bu'lus, one of the Seven Sages. Cle'on, the Athenian.--Causes the Mityleneans to be put to death; conduct and character of, and attacks upon, by Aristoph'anes. Cle'on of Lampsacus. Cleon'ymus of Sparta. Clouds, the. Clis'thenes (eze), last despot of Si'çyon. Clisthenes, founder of democracy at Athens; reforms of. Clytemnes'tra, wife of Agamemnon. Cocy'tus, the river. Codrington, Admiral. Co'drus, early King of Athens. Col'chis. COLERIDGE, HENRY N.--The poems of Homer. COLERIDGE, SAMUEL T.--Pythagore'an influences. COLLINS, MORTIMER.--Fable of Hercules and Antæ'us. Colonies, the Greek. In Asia Minor; history of, in Magna Groeca, etc.; in Sicily, Italy, Africa, etc. Col'ophon, in Ionia. Comedy. The Old; the New. COOK, REV. JOSEPH.--Progress in Modern Greece. Corcy'ra, or Corfu, island of. Corinna, a Bœotian poetess. Corinth, and the Corinthians; conquest of; despotisms of; war of, with Corcyra; aids Syracuse; destruction of; capture of, by the Turks. Corinthian Architecture. Corinthian Gulf, the. Corone'a, plains of. Athenian defeat at. Coumour'gi, Äl'i, the Turkish Grand Vizier. Successes of. Councils, the National. CRANCH, CHRISTOPHER P.--Temples at Pæstum. Cran'non, battle of. Crat'erus, one of Alexander's generals. Crati'nus, a comic poet. Creation, the. Account of. Cre'on. Cresphon'tes, of the Heraclidæ. Crete, island of; conquered by the Turks; revolution in. Cris'sa, town of. Crissæ'an plain. Cri'ti-as (cri'she-as), chief of the Thirty Tyrants. Croe'sus, King of Lydia. CROLY, GEORGE.--Pericles. Death of Pericles. Croto'na, in Italy. Crusaders, the. Courts of, in Greece. Ctes'iphon, who proposed a crown for Demosthenes. Cu'mæ, in Italy. Cumæ'an Sibyl, the. Myth of. CURTIUS, ERNST.--The Oration of Pericles. Retreat of the Ten Thousand. Pelopidas and Epaminondas. Cyc'la-des, the (islands). Cyc'lic poets, the. Cy'clops, or Cyclo'pes, the. Cy'lon, the Athenian. Cynoceph'alæ, In Thessaly. Battle of. Cyprian queen (Venus). Cyprus, Island of. Cyrena'ica, colony of. Cy-re'ne, colony of. Cyropoedi'a, the. Cyrus the Elder. Conquers Lydia. Cyrus the Younger. Cys'icus, Island of. Victory of Alcibiades at. Cyth'era, island of. Cytheræ'a, name given to Venus.

Damon and Pythias. Dan'a-ë, Lamentation of. Dan'a-i, the. Dan'a-us, founder of Argos. Dar'danus, son of Jupiter and Electra. Dari'us I. (Hystas'pes), King of Persia; dominion of; he suppresses the Ionic revolt; invades Greece; death of. Darius III., King of Persia. Defeated at Issus, and at Arbe'la; Flight and death of. De-iph'obus, a Trojan hero. De'lium, in Bœotia. Battle of. Del'phi, or Delphos. City, temple, and oracle of. De'los, island of; Confederacy of States at. Deme'ter. (See Ceres.) Deme'trius, son of Antigonus. Seizes the throne of Macedon. Demos'the-nes, the Athenian general. Captures Pylus; defeat and death of, at Syracuse. DEMOS'THE'NES, the orator; pious fraud of; measures against, at Athens, and attack upon, by Æschines; death of; oratory of.--Extracts from: The First Philippic. Oration on the Crown. Deuca'lion, son of Prometheus. Deluge of. Diana, or Ar'temis, temple to, at Ephesus. Die'bitsch, Marshal. Di'o-cles, of Syracuse. Diodo'rus, the historian. Diog'enes, the Cretan. DIOG'ENES LAER'TIUS.--Xenophon. Di'omed, a Greek hero in the Trojan war; valor of; fate of. Di'on, of Syracuse. Dionysian Festivals, the. Dionysius of Col'ophon, a painter. Dionysius the Elder, of Syracuse. Dionysius the Younger, of Syracuse. Dionysius, the Roman historian. Diopl'thes, the general. Dipoe'nus, the sculptor. Dis, a name given to Pluto. Dodo'na, city and temple of. Do'rians, the, migrations and colonies of. Dor'ic architecture. Do'ris. Do'rus, progenitor of the Dorians. Dra'co, the Athenian legislator. Drama, the. Before Peloponnesian wars; characterization of; influence of; the drama after Peloponnesian war. Dry'ads, or Dry'a-des, the. Wood-nymph. DRYDEN, JOHN.--Alexander's feast at Persep'olis.

Edinburgh Review. Courts of Crusaders. Eges'ta, in Sicily. E'lea, in Lucania. Eleatic philosophy. Elec'tra, the. Eleu'sis, and the Eleusinian Mysteries. Eleu'therre, in Attica. E'lis and E'leans. Elo'ra, temple of. Elora is a town in south-western Hindostan, noted for its splendid cave-temples, cut from a hill of red granite, black basalt, and quartz rock. Of these, that called "Paradise," to which reference is here made, is 100 feet high, 401 feet deep, and 185 feet in greatest breadth. It is "a perfect pantheon of the gods of India." Elysium, the. Ema'thia, or Macedon. En'nius. The Fate of Ajax. Eny'o, a war-goddess. E'os, The same as Aurora, a term applied to the eastern parts of the world. Epaminon'das, the Theban. Character of, and his successes against Sparta. Eph'esus. Ephi-al'tes. Epichar'mus. Epicu'rus, Life and works of. Epidau'rus, in Argolis. Epime'theus (thuse). Epi'rus. Er-ech'the-um, the. Erech'theus (thuse). Ere'tria. Erin'nys. (See Furies.) Euboe'a, island of. Euboe'an Sea. Eu'menes, Alexander's general. Eumen'i-des, the. Euphra'nor, a sculptor. Eu'polis, a comic poet. Eupom'pus, a Siçyonian painter. EURIP'IDES. Life and works of. Extracts from: The Greek Armament. Alcestis preparing for death. Euri'pus, or Euboean Sea. Euro'tas. Eurybi'ades, a Spartan general. Euryd'i-ce. Eurym'edon, in Pamphylia.

Farnese Bull, the. Sculpture of. Fates, the. FELTON, C. C., D.D.--Ionian language and culture, Unity of the Iliad. Works of Hesiod. Christianity in Greece. The Duchy of Athens. The Klephts. Festivals, the Grecian. FINLAY, GEORGE, LL.D.--The Revolt against Rome. Flamin'ius, Titus, Roman consul. Frogs, the. Furies, the. Future State, the. Greek views of.

Gan-y-me'de, Jove's cup-bearer. Gedro'sia (she-a), in Persia. Ge'la, in Sicily. Ge'lon, despot of Gela. Becomes despot of Syracuse; dynasty of, extinguished. GEM'INUS, TULLIUS.--Themistocles. George, Prince of Denmark. Is chosen King of Greece; progress of Greece under. Giants, the; battle with Jupiter. GILLIES, JOHN, LL.D.--Memorial to Miltiades. Aristophanes and Cleon. The works of Phidias. Gladiator, the Dying. GLADSTONE, WM. EWART.--The humanity of the gods. Glau'cus, a Trojan hero. Glaucus, a sculptor. Gods, the. Personifications and deifications of; moral characteristics of; deceptions of. Golden Age, the. Gor'gias, the Sophist. Gorgo'pis, lake, near Corinth. Goths, the. Overrun Greece. Government, forms of, and changes in. Graces, the. Grani'cus, the river. Battle at. GRAY, THOMAS.--Pindar. GROTE, GEORGE.--The Trojan war. The Cumæan Sibyl. Increase of power among Sicilian Greeks. The Seven Sages. Lesson from the fate of Miltiades. Transitions of tragedy. Aristophanes. The Sophists and Socrates. Demosthenes' first Philippic. The Influence of Phocion. Conquests of Alexander. The Oration on the Crown. Guiscard (ges-kar'), Robert. Conquests of. Gy'ges, the. Gylip'pus, a Spartan general. Gyth'e-um (or Gy-the'-nm), port of Sparta.

Ha'des. Ha'drian, the Roman emperor. Hæ'mus, mountain chain of. Halicarnas'sus, in Caria. HALLECK, FITZ-GREENE.--Marco Bozzaris. Hamil'car, a Carthaginian general. Hannibal, a Carthaginian general. Harmo'dius, an Athenian. Harpies, the. Winged monsters with female faces and the bodies, claws, and wings of birds. HAYGARTH, WILLIAM.--Acheron and Acherusia. Ancient Corinth. Sparta's invincibility. Battle of Thermopylæ. Athens in time of peace. Temple of Theseus. The Academia. Immortality of Grecian genius. He'be, goddess of youth. Hecatæ'us, the historian. Hec'tor, eldest son of Priam, King of Troy; parting of, with Androma-che; exploits of; encounters Achilles, is slain, and his body given up to Priam; lamentation over, by Andromache and Helen. HEE'REN (ha'ren).--Authority of Homer. Freedom in colonies. Character of a "tyranny". He-ge'sias (she-as), the sculptor. Helen of Troy. Abduction of; the name of; laments Hectors death; supposed career of, after the Trojan war. Hel'icon, Mount, in Bœotia. Hel'las, or Greece; survival. Hellas, the. Helle'nes, and Hellen'ic (Hellen). Spirit of, in modern Greece. Hellen'ica, the. Hellen'ics, the. Hel'lespont, the. He'lots, the. The revolt of. HEMANS, FELICIA.--Mount Olympus, 2. Vale of Tempe, 3. City and temple of Delphi, T. Mycenæ. Spartan march to battle. Legend of Marathon. The Parthenon. The Turkish invasion. Hephæs'tus, or Vulcan, M. He'ra. (See Juno.) Her-a-cli'dæ, the return of the. Heracli'tus, the philosopher. Hercules, frees Prometheus; twelve labors, &c., of; fable of; encounter of, with Antæ'ns; sails with Argonautic expedition; legends of, at Marathon; statue of. Hermes. (See Mercury.) Hermi'o-ne. HEROD'OTUS, the historian. Life and writings of; compared with Thucydides.--Extracts from: Xerxes at Abydos. Introduction to history. Heroic Age, the. Some events of; arts and civilization in. Heros'tratus. Hertha, goddess of the earth. HE'SI-OD. Life and works of.--Extracts from: Battle of the Giants. Origin of Evil, etc. The justice of the gods. Winter. Hi'ero I. Despot of Gela; becomes despot of Syracuse. Hiero II. Despot of Syracuse. Him'era, in Sicily. Hippar'chus. Hip'pias, son and successor of Pisistratus. Is driven from Athens; leads the Persians against Greece. Hippocre'ne (or crene' in poetry), fountain of. Hippopla'çia (also Hypopla'kia). Same as The'be, in Mysia, and so called because supposed to lie at the foot of or under Mount Plakos. History. To close of Peloponnesian wars; subsequent period of. HOLLAND. J. G.-The La-oc'o-on. HOMER. Life and works of.--Extracts from: The gardens of Alcin'o-us, Prayer to the gods. The taking of an oath. The Future State. The descent of Orpheus. The Elysium. Punishment of Ate. Ulysses and Thersites. Parting of Hector and Andromache. Death of Patroclus. The shield of Achilles. Death of Hector. Priam begging for Hector's body. Lamentation of Andromache; of Helen. Artifice of Ulysses. The Raft of Ulysses. Similes of Homer. Jupiter grants the request of Thetis. HORACE.--Description of Pindar. Greece the conqueror of Rome. Horolo'gium, the, at Athens. HOUGHTON, LORD.--The Cyclopean walls. HUME, DAVID.--The style of Demosthenes. Huns, the. Overrun Greece. Hy'las, legend of. Hymet'tus, Mount. Hype'ria's Spring, in Thessaly.

Ib'rahim Pä'sha (or pa-shä'). Ica'ria, island of. Ictinus, the architect. I'da, Mount. Idalian queen (same as Venus). Il'iad. Il'i-um, or Troy. Grecian expedition against; the fate of; fall of, announced to the Greeks; discoveries on site of. Illyr'ia. Im'bros, island of. In'achus, son of Oceanus. In'arus, a Libyan prince. Iol'cus, in Thessaly. I'on, son of Xuthus. ION, of Chios. The power or Sparta. Io'nla, and Ionians; language and culture of. Colonies of. Ionian Sea. Ion'ic Architecture. Ionic Revolt, the. I'os, island of. Ip'sara, isle of. I'ra, fortress of, in Messenia. I'ris, the rainbow goddess. Isag'oras, the Athenian. Isles of Greece, the. Isoc'ra-tes, an Athenian orator. Is'sus, in Cilicia. Battle of. Isthmian Games, the. Italy, Greek colonies in. Ithaca, island of. Itho'me, fortress of. Ixi'on. The punishment of.

Jason. Jove. (See Jupiter.) Julian, the Roman emperor. Juno, or Hera, temple of, at Samos; temple of, near Platæa. Jupiter, Jove, or Zeus. Court of; temple of, and games sacred to; hymn to; divides dominion of the universe; statue of, at Tarentum. Justin, the Latin historian. JUVENAL.--Stories about Xerxes. Flight of Xerxes from Salamis. Alexander's tomb.

Kalamä'ta. KENDRICK, A. C., LL.D.--Plato and his writings. Klephts, the. Knights, the. Kot'tos.

Laç-e-dæ'mon, or Sparta. Laco'nia. Lævi'nus, M. Valerius. Lam'achus, an Athenian general. Lamp'sacus, on the Hellespont. LANDOR, WALTER SAVAGE.--Reconciliation of Helen and Menelaus. LANG, A.--Venus visits Helen of Troy. Reconciliation of Helen and Menelaus. La-oc'o-on, a priest of Apollo. Statuary group of the Laocoon. Lap'ithæ, a people of Thessaly. LAWRENCE, EUGENE.--The murder of Agamemnon. Herodotus. Menander. Aristotle. Lebade'a, temple and oracle of. LEGARÉ (le-gre'), HUGH S.--Character of a Greek democracy. The eloquence of Æschines. The eloquence of Demosthenes. Lem'nian (relating to Vulcan). Lem'nos, island of. Leon'idas, a Spartan king. Bravery and death of, at Thermopylæ; the tomb of. Leotych'i-des. Lepan'to. Lernæ'an Lake. Les'bos, island of. Le'the. Leu'cas, or Leucadia. Leu'ce, in the Euxine Sea. Leuc'tra, in Bœotia. Battle of. LIDDELL, HENRY G., D.D.--Legends of the Greeks. Literature and the Arts. In the Ionian colonies; the poems of Homer. 1. Progress of, before the Persian wars; poems of Hesiod; lyric poetry; philosophy; early architecture; early sculpture. 2. Progress of, from the Persian to close of Peloponnesian wars; lyric poetry; the Drama-tragedy; old comedy; early history; philosophy; sculpture and painting; architecture. 3. Progress of, after Peloponnesian wars; the drama; oratory; philosophy; history; architecture and sculpture; painting. Livy, the Roman historian. Lo'cris, and Locrians. LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL.--A Pythagorean fantasy. LÜB'KE, WILHELM.--Art at Athene. Phidias and his work. The Dying Gladiator. LU'CAN.--The Delphic oracle. Alexander's career and character. LUCRE'TIUS (she-us).--The plague at Athens. Epicurus. Lyce'um, the, at Athens. Lycur'gus, the Spartan law-giver; legislation of. Lyric Poetry. Before the Persian wars; from Persian to close of Peloponnesian wars. Lysan'der, a Spartan general. Acts of. Ly'si-as (she-as), an Athenian orator. Lysic'rates, monument to. Lysim'achus, Alexander's general. Lysip'pus, of Sicyon. Works of.

Maca'ria, plain of. MACAULAY, LORD.--Herodotus. Literature of Athens, and her immortal influence. Maç'edon, or Maçedo'nia. Invasion of, by the Persians; by Xerxes; Athenian colonies in; supremacy of; sketch of; interference of, in affairs of Greece; war of, with Greece; with Persia; revolt of Sparta against; invasion of, by Celts, and war with Pyrrhus; conquest of, by Rome. Macis'tus, Mount, in Euboea, near Eretria. Mæ-o'tis, same as Sea of Azof. MAHAFFY, J. P.--The society of Olympus. Political life of the Greeks. Domestic life in the Heroic Age. Hesiod's description of the Styx. Archilochus. Stesich'orus. Barbarities in the Peloponnesian wars. Simonides. Æschylus. The "Alcestis" of Euripides. Thucydides. The Sophists. Socrates. Late Greek tragedy. Aristotle. Magne'sia (she-a). Mah'moud, the Sultan. Mantine'a, in Arcadia. Mar'athon, the plains of; battle of, and legends connected with. Mardo'nius, Persian general. First invasion of Greece; his second Invasion and defeat at Marathon; defeated at Platæa, and is slain. Mars. Mavrocordä'to, Alexander. Mede'a. Medea, the. Meg'ara. Me'llan nymphs. They watched over gardens and flocks of sheep. Me'los, island of. Melpom'e-ne, inventress of tragedy. Memno'nian Palace. So called because said to have been founded by the father of Memnon. Memorabil'ia, the. MENAN'DER, the comic poet. Life and works of. Fragment from. Men-e-la'us. Men'tor, a friend of Ulysses. Mercury, or Her'mes. Messa'na, in Sicily. Messa'pion, Mount, in Bœotia. Messe'nia, and Messe'nians, wars of, with Sparta. Messenian Gulf. Messenian wars, the. Metamorphoses, the. Mi'con, a painter. Mile'tus, in Ionia. Milti'a-des, the Athenian general, etc. Commands at Marathon; disgrace and death of; lesson of. MILTON, JOHN.--Cocytus and Acheron. Heroic times foretold. Xerxes crosses the Hellespont. Reference to Alcestis. Socrates. Oratory. Mi'mas, a mountain-range of Ionia. Minerva, temple of; statue of, at Athens. Mi'nos, Cretan law-giver. Minot'ti. Story of. Missolon'ghi. The sortie at. MITCHELL, THOMAS.--The Old Comedy. Style of Plato. Xenophon. MITFORD, WILLIAM.--Æschylus's account of Salamis. Character of Pericles. Mityle'ne. Mnemos'y-ne, mother of the Nine Muses. Mnes'icles, a sculptor. Mnes'theus.--A great-grandson of Erechtheus, who deprived Theseus of the throne of Athens, and led the Athenians in the Trojan war. Molda'via. Monembasï'a. On the south-east coast of Laconia. More'a. Morosi'ni, a Venetian admiral. Mum'mius, a Roman consul. MURE, WILLIAM.--The "Works and Days" of Hesiod. Alcman. Muses, the Nine. Mye'a-le. Defeat of Persians at. Myce'næ. My'ron, a painter. Myr'tis, a poetess. Mys'la (she-a). Mythology, Grecian.

Na-i'a-des, or Nai'ads, the. Nap'oli di Roma'nia. Naupac'tus. Nau'pli-a. Navarï'no; battle of. Nax'os, in Sicily. Ne-ap'olis, in Italy. Ne'mea, city of. Ne'mean games. Ne'mean lion. Nem'esis, a female avenging deity. Neptune or Posei'don; temple of. Ner-e'i-des, or Ner'e-ids. Nestor, a Greek hero and sage. Niçi-as (she-as), the Peace of. Niçi-as, the Athenian general. Niçi-as, a painter. Ni'o-be, and her children.

Oaths, of the gods, etc. O-ce-an'i-des, the.--Ocean-nymphs and sisters of the rivers; supposed personifications of the various qualities and appearances of water. O-ce'anus, god of the ocean. O-de'um, the. Qdy'ssey, the. OEd'ipus Tyran'nus, the. OE'ta, Mount. Olym'pia, in E'lis; statue of Jupiter at. Olym'piad. Olym'pian Jove. Temple of; statue of. Olym'pus, Mount; society of. Olyn'thus, in Macedonia. Oratory. O're-ads, the. Ores'tes, son of Agamemnon. Or'pheus (pheus), the musician. Orthag'oras of Sicyon. Ortyg'ia, in Sicily. Os'sa, Mount. Otho, King of Greece; revolution against and deposition of. O'thrys Mountains. OV'ID.--Apollo. The Creation. Deluge of Deucalion. The Descent of Orpheus. Apollo's Conflict with Python.

Pæs'tum. Ruins of temples at. Pagasæ, Gulf of. Painting. Palame'des, a Greek hero. Pal'las (same as Minerva). Pami'sus, the river. Pam'philus, a painter. Pan; legend of.--The god of shepherds, in form both man and beast, having a horned head and the thighs, legs, and feet of a goat. Pan'darus, a Trojan hero. Pando'ra, legend of. Paradise Lost, the. Par'çæ, or Fates. Paris, of Troy. Abducts Helen; combat of, with Menelaus; kills Achilles. Parmen'ides. Parnas'sus, Mount. Par'nes, mountains of. Par'non, mountains of. Pa'ros an island of the Cyclades group. Parrha'sius (she-us). Anecdotes of. Par'thenon, the; glories of; destruction of. Passä'rowitz, in Servia. The peace of. Concluded between Austria And Venice on the one side, and Turkey on the other. Pa'træ. Patro'cius, a Greek hero. Pausa'nias, a Spartan general. At Platæa; treason, punishment, and death of. Pax'os, island of. Pegasus, the winged horse. Pelas'gians, the. Pe'leus. Pe'li-as. Pe'li-on, Mount. Pelle'ne, or Cassandra, in Achaia. Pelop'idas, the Theban. Peloponne'sus, the. Peloponnesian wars, the; the first war; the second war. Pe'lops. Penel'o-pe, wife of Odysseus. Pene'us, the river. Pentel'icus, or Mende'li, Mount. Pen'theus, King of Thebes. Perdic'cas, Alexander's general. Perian'der, despot of Corinth; one of the Seven Sages. Per'icles, the Athenian general, etc. Accedes to power in place of Cimon; constitutional changes made by, at Athens; measures of, for war with Sparta; defeat of, at Tanagra; recalls Cimon; progress under his rule; attacks upon, at Athens; declares war against Sparta; oration of; death and character of. Persep'olis. Alexander's feast at. Per'seus (or se'us). Per'seus, King of Macedon. Persians, the. Persian wars, the. Account of. Phoe'do, the. Phale'rum, bay of. Phe'ræ, in Thessaly. Phid'ias, the sculptor; the work and masterpieces of. PHILE'MON, the comic poet. Life and works or. Philip of Macedon; interference of, in Grecian affairs; invades Thessaly; attacks of Demosthenes against; captures Olynthus; reveals his designs against Greece, and defeats Athens and Thebes at Chæronea; is invested with supreme command, and declares war against Persia; death of. Philip V. of Macedon; defeat of, at Apollonia and Cynocephalæ. Philippics, the. Phil'ocles, bravery of. Philopoe'men. Philosophy. Before the Persian wars; to close of Peloponnesian wars; subsequent to Peloponnesian wars. Phleg'ethon, or Pyr-iphleg'ethon. Pho'cion (she-on), Athenian statesman. Opposes the policy of Demosthenes. Pho'cis and Phocians, sacrilege of, and war with. Phoe'bus, the sun-god (Apollo). Phoe'nix, warrior and sage. PHRYN'ICHUS. Tribute to Sophocles. Phy'le. A fortress in a pass of Mount Parnes, north-west from Athens. This was the point seized by Thrasybulus in the revolt against the Thirty Tyrants. Pi-e'ri-an fount. Pi-er'i-des, name given to the Muses. Pi'e-rus, or Pl-e'ri-a, Mount. Pi'e-rus, King of Emathia. PIN'DAR. Life and writings of. Extracts from: The Greek Elysium; Christening of the Argo; Spartan music and poetry; Tribute to Theron; Athenians at Artemisium; Threnos; Founding of Ætna; Hiero's victory at Cumæ; Admonitions to Hiero. Pin'dus, mountains of. Piræ'us, the. Pi'sa and Pisa'tans. Pisis'tratus and the Pisistrat'idæ; usurpation of Pisistratus; death and character of; family of, driven from Athens. Pit'tacus, one of the Seven Sages. Plague, the, at Athens. Platæ'a and the Platæ'ans; battle of Platæa; results of; attack on, by Thebans. PLATO, the philosopher. Life and works of. PLATO, the comic poet.--Tomb of Themistocles; Aristophanes. PLINY.--Story of Parrhasius and Zeuxis. PLUMPTRE, E. H., D.D.--Personal temperament of Æschylus. PLUTARCH.--Songs of the Spartans; Solon's efforts to recover Salamis; Incident of Aristides's banishment; Artemisium; Lysander and Phil'ocles. Pluto. Pnyx, the. Polyb'ius. Life and works of. Pol'ybus, King of Corinth. Polycle'tus, a sculptor. Polyc'ra-tes, despot of Samoa. Polydec'tes, a Spartan king. Polydec'tes, King of Seri'phus. Polydo'rus, a Rhodian sculptor. Polygno'tus, of Thasos. POLYZO'IS.--war song. POPE, ALEXANDER.--The Pierian Spring; Tribute to Homer; Description of Pindar; Aristotle. Posei'don, (See Neptune.) Potidæ'a, revolt of. Praxit'eles, an Athenian sculptor. Priam, King of Troy. Prie'ne, in Carla. PRIOR, MATTHEW.--Description of Pindar. Prod'icus, the Sophist. Prome'theus. Legend of; Hesiod's tale of. Prome'theus Bound, the. Propon'tic Sea. Propylæ'a, at Athens. Pros'erpine, daughter of Ceres. Protag'oras, the Sophist. Pro'teus (or te-us), a sea-deity. Protog'enes, a Rhodian painter. Ptol'emy Cerau'nus, of Macedon. Ptol'emy Philadelphus, King of Egypt. Ptol'emy So'ter, Alexander's general. Pyd'na, in Macedonia. Battle of. Py'lus, in Messenia. Pyr'rha, wife of Deucalion. Pyr'rhus, a son of Achilles. Pyr'rhus, King of Epirus; war of, with Macedon; with Sparta; death of. Pythag'oras, the philosopher; doctrines of, etc.. Pythag'oras, a painter. Pyth'ia, priestess of Apollo. Pythian games. Py'thon; Apollo's conflict with. Py'thon, an orator of Macedon.

Quintil'ian, the historian.

Rhadaman'thus, son of Jupiter and Europa. Rhapsodists, the. Rhe'a, daughter of Coelus and Terra (Heaven and Earth). Rhe'gium, in Magna Groecia. RHI'GAS, CONSTANTINE. War song. Rhodes, island of; sculptures of. Rhoe'cus, a sculptor. Roger, King of Sicily. Rome and the Romans; called into Sicily, and become masters of the island; defeat of, at Cannæ, and victory of, at Cynocephalæ; become masters of Greece and Macedon; their administration of Greece. RUSKIN, JOHN.--The "Clouds" of Aristophanes.

Sacred War, the. Sages, the Seven. Sal'amis, island of; naval battle at. Saler'no, bay of, in Italy. Saloni'ca, once Thessaloni'ca. Sa'mos, island of. SAP'PHO (saf'fo), a poetess. Lire, writing, and characterization of. Sar'dis, in Asia Minor. Saron'ic Gulf (Thermaic). Sarpe'don, a Trojan hero. Sat'urn. (See Chro'nos.) Sa'tyrs, the. Scæ'an Gates, the, of Troy. Scaman'der, river in Asia Minor. Scaptes'y-le, in Thrace. SCHILLER.--The building of Thebes; the poet's lament; wailing of the Trojan women; Damon and Pythias--The Hostage; a visit to Archimedes. SCHLEGEL, A. W., von.--Character of the Agamemnon. Sçil'lus, In E'lis. Sçl'o, island of.--Massacre at. Sco'pas, the sculptor. Sculpture.--Before the Persian wars; from Persian to close of Peloponnesian wars; subsequent to Peloponnesian wars. Sçyl'lis, a sculptor. Sçy'ros, Island of. Seleu'cus, Alexander's general; the Seleucidæ. Seli'nus.--Ruins of temples at. Seneca, Roman philosopher. Seri'phus, island of. Seven Chiefs against Thebes, the. SEWELL, WILLIAM.--Anecdote of Chrys'ostom. SHELLEY, PERCY BYSSHE.--The sufferings of Prometheus; an image of Athens; a prophetic vision of the Greek Revolution. Shield of Hercules, the. Sicilian Expedition, the. Sicily, Island of.--Colonies in; invasion of, by Carthaginians; by the Athenians; affairs in the colonies under Hiero, Dionysius, etc.; the Roman conquer. Si'çy-on and Siçy-o'nians (sish'i-on); sculpture of; painting of. Slle'nus, a demi-god. The nurse, preceptor, and attendant of Bacchus, to whom Socrates was wont to compare himself. SIM'MIAS.--Tribute to Sophocles. Sim'o-is, a river of Troas. Simon'ides of Amorgos. SIMON'IDES OF CEOS.--Life and writings of. Extracts from: Epitaphs on the fallen at Thermopylæ; battle of Eurym'edon; Lamentation of Dan'ae. Slavonians, the.--Influences of. SMITH, WILLIAM, LL.D.--Socrates. Aristotle. SOCRATES; attack upon, by Aristophanes. Life and works of. Extracts from: His Defence. Views of a Future State. Solon, the Athenian law-giver.--Life and legislation of; capture of Salamis by; his integrity; protests against acts of Pisistratus; voluntary exile and death of; classed as one of the Seven Sages. Extracts from: Ridicule to which his integrity exposed him. Estimate of his own character and services. Sophists, the. SOPH'OCLES. Life and works of. Extracts from: The taking of an oath. Chariot-race of Orestes. The OEdipus Tyrannus. SOUTHEY, ROBERT.--The battle of Platoon. Sparta and the Spartans; Sparta is assigned to sons of Aristodemus; early history of; education and patriotism of; their poetry and music; conquests by; colonize Tarentum; reject the demands of Darius, but refuse to help Athens at Marathon; efforts of, to unite states against Persia; in battle of Thermopylæ; monuments and epitaphs to; in battle of Salamis; or Platæa; on coasts of Asia Minor; loses command in war against Persia; earthquake at Sparta, and revolt of the Helots; accepts aid from Athens; alliance of, with Athens, renounced, and war begun; defeats Athens at Tanagra, and is defeated; truce of, with Athens; begins Peloponnesian war; concludes the peace of Nicias; war of, with Argives, and victory at Mantinea; aids Syracuse against Athens; successes of, against Athens; occupies Athens, and withdraws from Attica; supremacy of Sparta; her defeat and humiliation by Thebes; engages in the Sacred War; revolt of, against Macedon; war with Pyrrhus; with Antigonus. Spor'a-des, the (islands). Sta-gi'ra, in Macedonia. Stati'ra, daughter of Darius, STEPHENS, JOHN L--A visit to Missolonghi. Stesich'orus, the poet. STORY, WILLIAM W.--Chersiphron, and the Temple of Diana. Stroph'a-des, the (islands). Stry'mon, the river. Styx. A celebrated torrent in Arcadia--now called "Black water" from the dark color of the rocks over which it flows--from which the fabulous river of the same name probably originated. Su'da, in Achaia. Su'sa, capital of Persia. Susa'rion, a comic poet. Syb'aris, in Italy; destroyed by Crotona. Sylla, a Roman general. SYMONDS, JOHN ADDINGTON.--The "Theogony" of Hesiod; Archilochus; the ladies of Lesbos; Sappho and her poems; the era of Athenian greatness; Pindar; Euripides; Menander. Syracuse, in Sicily.--Founded by Corinthians; progress of, under Gilon, and war with Carthage; destroys the Athenian expedition; affairs of, under Hiero and succeeding rulers. Syrts, two gulfs in Africa.

TALFOURD, THOMAS NOON.- Unity of the Iliad; Sophocles; the glory of Athens. Tan'agora, in Bœotia, battle of. Tan'talus, the story of. Taren'turn, in Italy. Tar'tarus, the place of punishment. Ta-yg'etus, mountain-range of. TAYLOR, BAYARD.--Legend of Hylas. Te'gea, in Arcadia. Teg'y-ra, battle at. Tem'enus, of the Heraclidæ. Tem'pe, Vale of. Ten'edos, island of. TENNENT, EMERSON.--Turkish oppression in Greece. Ten Thousand Greeks, retreat of. Te'os, in Ionia. TERPAN'DER, the poet; Spartan valor and music. Te'thys, wife of Ocean. Tha'is, an Athenian beauty. Tha'les, one of the Seven Sages; philosophy of. Theag'enes, despot of Megara. The'be, a city of Mysia. Thebes, city of; Thebans at Thermopylæ; attack of Thebans on Platæa; sympathy of, with Athens; seizure of, by the Spartans; rise and fall of Thebes; defeat of, at Charonea. The'mis, goddess of justice, or law. Themis'to-cles, Athenian general and statesman; at Marathon; rise of, in Athenian affairs; character and acts of; at Artemisium, and at Salamis; banishment, disgrace, and death of; monuments and tributes to. THEOC'RITUS.--Ptolemy Philadelphus. Theodo'rus, the sculptor. THEOG'NIS, poet of Megara.--The Revolutions in Megara. Theog'ony, the. The'ra, island of. Therma'ic Gulf (Saronic). Thermop'ylæ, pass of; battle at. The'ron, ruler of Agrigentum. Thersi'tes; a Greek warrior. The'seus (or se-us), first king of Athens; temple to, at Athens; legends of; temple of. Thes'piæ and the Thespians. Thes'pis. Thes'salus, son of Pisistratus. Thes'saly and the Thessa'lians. The'tis, a sea-deity; "Thetis' son" (Achilles). THIRLWALL, CONNOP, D.D.--The Trojan war. Want of political union among the Greeks. Character of an ochlocracy. Effects of the fall of oligarchy. Writings of Theognis. The rule of Pisistratus. Reforms of Clisthenes. The "Theogony" of Hesiod. Progress of Sculpture. Themistocles. Pericles. Pindar. The Greeks in the Sacred War. Last struggles of Greece. THOMSON, JAMES.--The Apollo-Belvedere. Sparta. Tribute to Solon. Teachings or Pythagoras. Architecture. Aristides. Cimon. Socrates. Architecture. Retreat of the Ten Thousand. Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The Dying Gladiator. The La-oc'o-on. The painting by Protog'enes at Rhodes. Thrace. Thrasybu'lus, an Athenian patriot. Thrasybulus, despot of Syracuse. THUCYD'IDES, the historian. Life and Works of. Extracts from: Speech of Pericles for war; Funeral Oration of Pericles; Athenian defeat at Syracuse. Thu'rii, in Italy. Tigra'nes. Timo'leon, a Corinthian.--Rebuilds Syracuse, and restores her prosperity. Timo'theus. Tire'sias (shi-as), priest and prophet. (See OEdipus Tyrannus.) Tir'yns, in Argolis. Tissapher'nes, Persian satrap. Ti'tans, the. Tit'y-us, punishment of. Tragedy.--At Athens; decline of. Tra'jan, the Roman emperor. Tripolit'za, modern capital of Arcadia. Tri'ton. A sea-deity, half fish in form, the son and trumpeter of Neptune. He blew through a shell to rouse or to allay the sea. Trojan War, the.--Account of; consequences of. Troy. (See Ilium.) TUCKERMAN.--American sympathy with Greece. Character of Otho. Of King George. Turks, the; invade Greece; contests of, with the Venetians; Siege and capture of Corinth by; final conquest of Greece; Greek revolution against; compelled to evacuate Greece. Tydl'des, a patronymic of Diomed. TYLER, PROF. W. S.--The divine mission of Socrates. TYMNÆ'US.--Spartan patriotic virtue. Tyn'darus, King of Sparta. Tyrant, or despot.--Definition of. Tyrants, the Thirty. The Ten Tyrants. Tyre, city of. TYRÆ'US.--Spartan war-song.

Ulys'ses, subject of the Odyssey; goes to Troy; rebukes Thersites; advises construction of the wooden horse; wanderings of; character of; raft of, described. Ulys'ses, a Greek general. U'ranus, or Heaven.

Venetians, the; contests of, with the Turks; capture the Peloponnesus and Athens; evacuate Athens; abandon Greece. Ve'nus, or Aphrodi'te, goddess of love; appears to Helen; statue of; painting of, rising from the sea. Vesta. VIRGIL.--Landing of Æneas. The taking of an oath. The fate of Troy. The Cumæan Cave. The Eleusinian Mysteries. Vo'lo, gulf of. Vulcan, god of fire.

WARBURTON, ELIOT B. G.--The sortie at Missolonghi. Wasps, the. WEBSTER, DANIEL.--Appeal of, for sympathy with the Greeks. WEYMAN, C. S.--Changes in statuary. WILLIS, N. P.--Parrhasius and his captive. WINTHROP, ROBERT C.--Visit of Cicero to tomb of Archimedes. WOOLNER, THOMAS.--Venus risen from the sea. WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM.--Fancies of the Greek mind. The joy of the Greeks at the Isthmian games. Works and Days, the.

Xan'thus, or the river Scamander. Xenoph'anes, the philosopher. Xen'ophon, the historian.--Leads the retreat of the Ten Thousand. Life and works of. Xerxes, King of Persia; prepares to invade Greece, and reviews his troops at Abydos; stories of; bridges and crosses the Hellespont; defeats the Spartans at Thermopylæ: is defeated at Salamis: his flight; death of. Xu'thus, son of Helen.

YOUNG, EDWARD.--The persuasive Nestor. Ypsilan'ti, Alexander.--The first to proclaim the liberty of Greece.

Zacyn'thus, Island of. Ze'no, a philosopher of Elea. Ze'no, the Stoic philosopher, of Citium.--Life and works of. Zeux'is, the painter.--Anecdote of.

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