PART II. SPECIAL MORAL THEOLOGY

INTRODUCTION (743)

Question I. THE DUTIES OF ALL CLASSES OF MEN

THE INFUSED VIRTUES (744-745)

Art. 1. THE VIRTUE OF FAITH

Introduction (746-749).--The Meaning of Faith (750-753).--The Object of Faith (754-781).--The Acts of Faith (782-796).--The Habit of Faith (797-807).--The Gifts of Understanding and Knowledge (808-811).

Art. 2. THE SINS AGAINST FAITH

Introduction (812).--The Sin of Unbelief (813-825).--Heresy (826-834).--Apostasy (835-839).--The Sin of Doubt (840-846).--Credulity and Rationalism (847).--Dangers to Faith (848).--Dangerous Reading (849-866).--Dangerous Schools (867-874).--Dangerous Marriages (875-881).--Dangerous Communication (882-888).--The Sin of Blasphemy (887-903).--Sins of Ignorance, Blindness, Dullness (904-912).

Art. 3. THE COMMANDMENTS OF FAITH

Introduction (913).--The Commandment of Knowledge of Faith (914-924).-- The Commandment of Internal Acts of Faith (925-937).--The Negative Commandment of External Profession of Faith (938-943).--Dangers of Profession of Unbelief (944).--Forbidden Societies (945-955).-- Communication in Worship (956-975).-Cooperation in Religious Activities (976-986).--The Affirmative Commandment of External Profession of Faith (987-1008).

Art. 4. THE VIRTUE OF HOPE

Definition (1009-1017).--The Object of Hope (1018-1026).--The Excellence of Hope (1027-1035).--The Subject of Hope (1030-1040).--The Gift of Fear of the Lord (1041-1058).--The Sins against Hope (1059-1091).--The Commandments of Hope and of Fear (1092-1104).

Art. 5. THE VIRTUE OF CHARITY

Definition (1105-1114).--The Excellence of Charity (1115-1120).-- Production of Charity (1121-1132).--The Object of Charity (1133-1157).--The Order of Charity (1158-1182).--The Acts of Charity (1183-1192).

Art. 6. THE EFFECTS OF CHARITY

Internal Effects of Charity (1193).--Joy (1194).--Peace (1195-1197).-- Reconciliation (1198-1204).--Mercy (1205-1209).--External Effects of Charity (1210).--Beneficence (1211-1215).--Almsgiving (1216-1257).-- Fraternal Correction (1258-1294).

Art. 7. THE SINS AGAINST LOVE AND JOY

Introduction (1295).--Hate (1296).--Hatred of God (1297-1303).--Hatred of Creatures (1304-1311).--Gravity of the Sin of Hatred (1312-1316). --Species of the Sin of Hatred (1317-1319).--The Sin of Sloth (1320-1325).--Laziness (1326).--Lukewarmness (1327).--The Sin of Envy (1328-1331).--Emulation (1332).--Jealousy (1333).--Fear (1334).-- Indignation (1335-1336).--Gravity of the Sin of Envy (1337-1344).-- Means of Overcoming Envy (1345-1346).

Art. 8. THE SINS AGAINST PEACE

Introduction (1347).--Discord (1348-1354).--Contention (1355-1362).-- Acts of Sin against Peace (1363).--Schism (1364-1375).--War (1376-1427).--Fighting (1428-1434).--Duelling (1435-1439).--Sedition (1440-1443).

Art. 9. THE SINS AGAINST BENEFICENCE

Introduction (1444).--Scandal (1445-1446).--Definition of Scandal (1447).--Causes of Scandal (1448-1458).--Results of Scandal (1459-1464).--Sinfulness of Scandal (1465-1474).--Persons Scandalized (1475-1476).--Duty of Avoiding Scandal (1477-1487).--Duty of Repairing Scandal (1488-1492).--Denial of Sacraments in Case of Scandal (1493-1494).--Seduction (1495-1505).--Cooperation in Sin (1506-1508).-- Kinds of Cooperation (1508-1512).--Sinfulness of Cooperation (1513-1514).--Lawfulness of Material Cooperation (1515-1525).-- Lawfulness of Immediate Cooperation (1526-1527).--Special Cases of Cooperation (1528).-Cooperation in Reading Matter (1529-1530).--In Dances and Plays (1531-1532).--In Selling (1533-1536).--In Providing Food and Drink (1537-1539).--In Renting (1540-1541).--In Service (1542-1544).--Duties of the Confessor as Regards Cooperation (1545-1546).

Art 10. THE COMMANDMENTS OF CHARITY

Introduction (1547-1552).--The Commandment of Love of God (1553-1560).--The Commandment of Love of Self (1561-1578).--The Commandment of Love of Neighbor (1579-1584).--Fulfillment of the Commandments of Charity (1585-1608).

Art 11. THE GIFT OF WISDOM

Introduction (1609).--The Nature of the Gift of Wisdom (1610-1614).-- The Persons who Possess Wisdom (1615-1618).--The Beatitude and the Fruits that Correspond to Wisdom (1619-1620).--The Sins Opposed to Wisdom (1621-1625).

[Volume II of print edition, section 1626 to end]

Question II. THE DUTIES OF ALL CLASSES OF MEN (The Moral Virtues)

Art. 1. THE VIRTUE OF PRUDENCE

Definition (1627).--Objects (1628, 1629).--Certainty of Prudence (1630).--Excellence (1631, 1632).--Acts (1633).--Qualities (1634).-- Parts (1635, 1636).--Integral Parts (1637, 1638).--Subjective Parts (1639-1645).--Potential Parts (1646, 1647).--Persons Who Possess Prudence (1648-1656).--Growth and Decay of Prudence (1657).--The Beatitude and the Fruits that Correspond to Counsel (1662).--The Sins Against Prudence (1663).--Imprudence (1664-1666).--Haste (1667).-- Thoughtlessness.--Inconstancy (1669).--Causes of These Sins (1670).-- Negligence (1671-1673).--False Prudence (1674).--The Prudence of the Flesh (1675, 1676).--Astuteness, Trickery, Fraud (1677-1680).-- Solicitude (1681-1685).--Avarice, a Cause of Sins Against Prudence (1686).--The Commandments of Prudence (1687).

Art. 2. THE VIRTUE OF JUSTICE

Introduction (1688).--The Nature of Justice (1689-1700).--Division (1701-1708).--The Object of Justice (1709-1713).--Comparison of Justice and Other Virtues (1714-1718).--Injustice (1719-1726).--Judgment (1727-1744).

Art. 3. THE SUBJECTIVE PARTS OF JUSTICE: DISTRIBUTIVE AND COMMUTATIVE JUSTICE

Subjective Parts of a Virtue (1745).--Distributive and Commutative Justice Compared (1746, 1747).--The Objects of Commutative Justice (1748-1750).--Restitution (1751-1761).-The Roots of Restitution (1762-1777).--Restitution for Cooperation in Injustice (1778-1785).-- The Circumstances of Restitution (1786-1796).--Causes Excusing from Restitution (1797-1801).--Some Special Cases of Restitution (1802, 1803).

Art. 4. THE VICES OPPOSED TO COMMUTATIVE AND DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE

The Vice against Distributive Justice (1804-1814).-The Vices against Commutative Justice (1815).--Homicide (1816-1851).-Suicide (1852-1861).--Accidental Homicide (1862-1865).--Bodily Injury (1866-1871).--Titles to Property (1872-1876).--Contracts (1877-1889).--Theft and Robbery (1890-1919).--Lawful Occupation (1920-1926).--Occult Compensation (1927-1938).-Judicial Injustice (1939).--In Judges (1940-1963).--In Accusers (1964-1974).--In Defendants (1975-1983).--In Witnesses (1984-1994).--In Lawyers (1995-2008).--Unjust Words (2009).--Contumely (2010-2027).--Defamation (2028-2075).-Cooperation in Defamation (2076-2084).--Restitution for Defamation (2085-2102).--Whispering (2103-2105).--Derision (2106-2110).--Cursing (2111-2119).--Murmuring (2120).--Fraud in Contracts (2121, 2122).--In Sales (2123-2133).--Trading (2134, 2135).--Usury (2136).--Other Frauds (2137, 2138).

Art. 5. THE QUASI-INTEGRAL AND POTENTIAL PARTS OF JUSTICE; THE VIRTUE OF RELIGION AND THE OPPOSITE VICES

The Quasi-Integral Parts of Justice (2139, 2140).--The Potential Parts of Justice (2141-2144).--The Virtue of Religion (2145-2148).--The Internal Acts of Religion (2149).--Devotion (2150-2152).--Prayer (2153-2169).--Distractions (2170-2174).--The External Acts of Religion (2175).--Adoration (2176, 2177).--Sacrifice (2178-2182).--Offerings (2183, 2184).--Contributions (2185-2190).--Vows (2191-2225).--Cessation of Vows (2226-2243).--Other External Acts of Religion (2244).--Oaths (2245-2262).--Adjuration (2263-2268).--Divine Praises (2269-2272).--The Sins against Religion (2273).--Superstition (2274-2276).--Idolatry (2277-2281).--Divination (2282-2289).--Vain Observance (2290-2298).-- Irreligiousness (2299).--Temptation of God (2300-2307).--Sacrilege (2308-2316).--Simony (2317-2334).--Sinfulness of Simony (2335-2343).

Art. 6. THE REMAINING POTENTIAL PARTS OF JUSTICE; THE GIFT OF PIETY; THE COMMANDMENTS

Piety (2344-2350).--Reverence (2351-2354).--Obedience (2355-2372).-- Gratitude (2373-2380).--Vengeance (2381-2384).--Truthfulness (2385-2388).--Lying (2389-2397).--Mental Reservation (2398-2402).-- Simulation (2403, 2404).--Hypocrisy (2405).--Braggadocio and Irony (2406).--Breach of Promise (2407).--Violation of Secret (2408-2420).-- Affability (2421-2423).--Liberality (2424-2429).--Equity (2430-2432).-- The Gift of Piety (2433).--The Commandments of Justice (2434-2436).

Art. 7. THE VIRTUE OF FORTITUDE

Nature (2437-2441).--Martyrdom (2442-2445).--The Opposite Vices (2446).--The Parts of Fortitude (2447).--Greatness of Soul (2448, 2449).--Presumption, Ambition and Vanity (2450).--Pusillanimity (2451).--Greatness of Deed, Meanness and Vulgarity (2452).--Patience (2453, 2454).--Stolidity and Impatience (2455).--Steadfastness, Effeminacy and Pertinacity (2456).--The Complements of Fortitude (2457).--The Commandments of Fortitude (2458-2460).

Art. 8. THE VIRTUE OF TEMPERANCE

Nature (2461-2463).--The Opposite Vices (2464).--The Parts of Temperance (2465).--Abstemiousness (2466, 2467).--Fasting and Abstinence (2468, 2469).--The Sins Opposed to Abstemiousness (2470).--Gluttony (2471-2473).--Sobriety (2474, 2475).--The Sins against Sobriety (2476).--Drunkenness (2477-2485).--Purity (2486, 2487).--Virginity (2488-2491).--Impurity (2492-2496).--Temptations to Impurity (2497-2503).--Non-Consummated Sins of Impurity (2504).--Impure Thoughts (2505, 2506).--Impure Rejoicing (2507).--Impure Desire (2508, 2509).--Lewdness (2510-2514).--Sinfulness of Lewdness (2515-2518).-- Moral Species of Lewdness (2519).--The Consummated Sins of Impurity (2520-2522).--Fornication (2523-2528).--Defloration and Rape (2529).--Adultery (2530).--Incest (2531, 2532).--Carnal Sacrilege (2533).--Sins against Nature (2534).--Pollution (2535-2538).--The Sinfulness of Pollution (2539-2541).--Penalties (2542).--The Potential Parts of Temperance (2543).--Continence (2544).--Meekness (2545).-- Anger (2546-2549).--Sinful Indulgence (2550).--Clemency (2551, 2552).--Humility (2553-2556).--Pride (2557-2560).--Abjectness (2561).--Studiousness (2562).--Curiosity and Negligence (2563, 2564).--Modesty (2565).--Decorum (2566).--Modest Relaxation (2567, 2568).--Modesty in Style and Dress (2569, 2570).--Complements of Temperance (2571).--Commandments of Temperance (2572).

Question III

THE DUTIES OF PARTICULAR CLASSES OF MEN

INTRODUCTION (2573)

Art. 1. THE DUTIES OF MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH

General Duties of the Faithful (2574).--First Precept of the Church: Sanctification of the Lord’s Day (2575).--Hearing Mass (2576-2578).-- Servile Works (2579-2582).--Gravity of the First Precept (2583).-- Excuses (2584, 2585).--Second Precept: Abstinence (2586, 2587).-- Fasting (2588, 2589).--Third Precept: Yearly Confession (2590, 2591).--Fourth Precept: Easter Duty (2592, 2593).--Fifth and Sixth Precepts (2594).--Laws on the Index and Cremation (2595).--The Special Duties of Clerics (2596).--Vocation (2597, 2598).--Positive Duties of Clerics (2599).--The Divine Office (2600, 2601).--Celibacy (2602).-- Negative Duties of Clerics (2603).--Trading (2604).--Stocks and Bonds (2605).--Duties of Clerical Superiors (2606).--Duties of Pastors (2607).--Charity to the Poor (2608-2610).--Special Duties of Religious (2611).--The Vows (2612).

Art. 2. DUTIES OF MEMBERS OF DOMESTIC AND CIVIL SOCIETY

Husband and Wife (2613).--The conjugal Debt (2614-2617).--Morality in Marriage (2618, 2619).--Contraception and Onanism (2620).-- Birth-Control (2621, 2622).--Cooperation with Contraception (2623).-- Recapitulation (2624).--Regulae pro Confessariis (2625).--The Duty of Conjugal Companionship and Assistance (2626).--The Obligation of Marrying (2627).--The Duties of Engaged Persons (2628, 2629).--The Duties of Parents (2630, 2631).--Sex Education (2632).--The Duties of Children (2633).--The Duties of Other Relatives (2634).--The Duties of Superiors (2635).--The Duties of Subjects (2636).--Taxes (2637-2642).-- Voting (2643-2645).--The Duties of Employers (2646, 2647).--The Duties of Employees (2648).--Labor Disputes (2649).--Employment (2650).--The Duties of Certain Professions (2651).

Question IV

THE DUTIES OF MEN IN THE USE OF THE SACRAMENTS

INTRODUCTION (2652, 2653)

Art. 1. THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL: THE SACRAMENTALS

Nature of a Sacrament (2654).--Matter and Form (2655-2660).--Necessity of the Sacraments (2661-2663).--The Minister of the Sacraments (2664).--Requisites for Valid Ministration (2665-2668).--For Lawful Ministration (2669, 2670).--The Recipient of the Sacraments; Requisites for Valid Reception (2671-2674).--Requirements for Lawful Reception (2675).--Obligations of the Minister in Reference to the Recipient (2676-2682).--Obligations of the Recipient in Reference to the Minister (2683).--The Sacramentals (2684).

Art. 2. BAPTISM; CONFIRMATION; THE EUCHARIST; THE SACRIFICE OF THE MASS

Introduction (2685).--The Sacrament of Baptism (2686).--Solemn and Private Baptism (2687).--Duties of Pastors (2685).--Duties of Parents and Guardians (2689).--Duties of Sponsors (2690, 2691).--Duties of Adult Recipients (2692).--Duties of the Minister (2693).--The Sacrament of Confirmation (2694).--The Minister (2695).--The Recipient (2696).-- The Sponsors (2697).--The Pastor (2698).--The Sacrament of the Eucharist (2699).--Matter and Form of the Eucharist (2700).--The Minister of Consecration (2701, 2702).--The Minister of Communion (2703).--The Communicant (2704).--Worthy Communion (2705).--Frequent Communion (2706).--Duties of Parents, Pastors, Confessors (2707).--The Custody and Worship of the Eucharist (2708).--The Sacrifice of the Mass; the Celebrant (2709).--The Obligation of Saying Mass (2710).-- Dispositions for Celebration of Mass (2711).--The Circumstances of Mass (2712).--Interruption of Mass (2713).--Application of Mass (2714, 2715).--Stipends (2716).

Art. 3. REPENTANCE; PENANCE; EXTREME UNCTION

Introduction (2717).--The Virtue of Repentance (2718-2726).--The Sacrament of Penance (2727, 2728).--Contrition (2729-2735).--Resolution of Amendment (2736).--Confession (2737-2744).--Satisfaction (2745-2749).--The Minister (2750).--Jurisdiction (2751, 2752).-- Reserved Cases (2753, 2754).--Absolution without Jurisdiction (2755).-- Duties of the Confessor before Confession (2756).--Duties of the Confessor as Judge (2757-2761).--Duties of the Confessor as Physician (2762).--Duties of the Confessor as Teacher and Guide (2763).--Duties of the Confessor after Confession (2764).--Reparation of Defects (2765, 2766).--The Seal of Confession (2767, 2768).--Abuses of Confession (2769-2773).--The Sacrament of Extreme Unction (2774).--Duties of the Recipient and the Minister of Extreme Unction (2775).

Art. 4. HOLY ORDERS; MATRIMONY

Introduction (2776).--The Sacrament of Orders (2777).--Distinctions of Orders (2778).--The Hierarchy (2779).--The Matter and Form of Orders (2780).--The Minister of Ordination (2781, 2782).--The Recipient of Orders (2783-2785).--Registration of Ordinations (2786).--The Sacrament of Matrimony (2787, 2788).--The Elements of Matrimony as a Contract (2789-2793).--The Elements of the Sacrament (2794).--Duties in Reference to Marriage (2795).--Engagement (2796-2798).--Duties to Parents and to Children (2799, 2800).--Pre-Nuptial Investigations (2801).--Examination of the Parties by the Pastor (2802, 2803).-- Matrimonial Impediments (2804, 2805).--Impedient Impediments (2806-2809).--Diriment Impediments (2810-2819).--Dispensations and Banns (2820).--After the Examination (2821).--Instruction of the Couple (2822-2824).--Religious Preparation for Marriage (2825).--The Celebration of Marriage (2826-2829).--Validation (2830).--Divorce and Separation (2831).

APPENDICES [placed at end of Volume I in print edition]

I. SUMMARY OF COMMON LAW ON PROHIBITION OF BOOKS

II. THE “ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT”

INDEX TO VOLUMES I AND II

MORAL THEOLOGY

A Complete Course

INTRODUCTION

1. Definition.--Moral Theology is defined: (a) etymologically, as the study of God, considered as the beginning and the end of man’s moral life, i.e., of those acts that proceed from reason and will; (b) scientifically, as that part of Sacred Theology which treats of God as our Last End, and of the means by which we may tend to Him.

2. Hence, Moral Theology differs from various related sciences or habits. Thus: (a) it differs from Ethics, which is the science of human conduct as directed by reason to man’s natural end, for Moral Theology uses faith as well as reason, and is concerned with man’s supernatural end; (b) it differs from faith, since it includes not only principles revealed by God, but also conclusions derived from them; (c) it differs from synderesis, or the habit that perceives the natural principles of morality that are self-evident to the mind, for Moral Theology deals also with supernatural truths and with truths that are not self-evident; (d) it differs from conscience, which draws conclusions for individual cases, since Moral Theology is concerned with general conclusions.

3. Relation of Moral Theology to Dogmatic Theology.--(a) They do not differ as two distinct sciences, for the main object, in the light of which all else is studied, is the same in both--viz., God. (b) They do differ as two quasi-integral parts or branches of the same science, Dogma being concerned more with the speculative, and Moral with the practical aspects of theology. Dogmatic Theology is the more important of the two, as treating more directly on divine things and as being the basis of Moral Theology.

In Dogma, God Himself is considered in His own nature and creatures as they proceed from Him as from an exemplary and efficient cause, or Creator. Moral Theology continues the pursuit of knowledge of God, concentrating upon Him as He is the Final Cause of things. Creatures emanate from God by way of creation, and this is part of the subject-matter of Dogma; but creatures return to Him, each in its own proper way by virtue of its nature created by God and directed by His Providence and Government, and this return of creatures to God constitutes the general subject-matter of Moral Theology. As Divine Providence and Government are continuations of His Creation, Moral Theology continues to study and to unfold the implications of Dogma’s consideration of God as Creator. God is known to have created as an Intelligent Being ordering His handiwork to Himself as end. His special masterpiece, man, special because he is made to the Image of God, returns to God in a special way proper to him as an Image, i.e., by way of acts of his intellect and will guided and moved by Divine Providence and Predestination. It is of this special way of returning to God by man, His image, that Moral Theology treats. Thus it adds to and perfects Dogmatic Theology, enriching our knowledge of God by way of making explicit the implications of Divine Creation and Providence to His image, man.

4. The Objects of Moral Theology.--(a) The central theme or object of Moral Theology, which is considered for its own sake and to which all else is secondary (_objectum formale quod_), is God as the supernatural End or Destiny of man.

(b) The secondary object (_objectum materiale_) is the means by which one is advanced towards one’s Last End (such as human acts, virtue, grace, the Sacraments), or the obstacles which hinder one from attaining that End (such as vice, temptation, etc.).

(c) The medium through which the above objects are known (_objectum formale quo_) is the light of natural reason illuminated by faith studying the sources of divine revelation and deducing conclusions from doctrines revealed by God.

5. Hence Moral Theology includes: (a) the revealed doctrines concerning man’s destiny and duty that are contained in the written and oral Word of God and as interpreted by their custodian, the Catholic Church; (b) the conclusions that are contained in revelation; (c) the duties of man to human laws that are based on the divine natural or positive law; (d) the opinions of theologians on matters that are disputed, as in the controversy about the systems of conscience.

6. The Sources of Moral Theology, therefore, are: (a) Holy scripture; (b) tradition; (c) the decisions of Popes, Councils, and Congregations, Laws, etc.; (d) the authority of Doctors and theologians; (e) natural reason.

7. Holy scripture.--“All scripture, inspired by God, is profitable to teach, to reprove, to correct, to instruct in justice” (II Tim., iii. 16). (a) Thus, the deeds narrated in scripture contain lessons for our instruction; but not all of them, even though they be concerned with holy men, are offered for our imitation. (b) The laws of the Old Testament known as ceremonial (such as the rite of circumcision), and those called judicial (such as the prohibition against the taking of interest), are no longer obligatory; but the moral precepts, such as those found in the Decalogue, always remain in force. (c) The ordinances of the New Testament are of three kinds: the Gospel counsels, which are not laws, but invitations to a higher practice of virtue than is necessary for salvation (e.g., the advice of our Lord that one sell all and give to the poor); the laws of the New Testament, which are the commands that it imposes for all times (such as the precepts that one believe the Gospel message, receive Baptism, hear the Church, etc.); temporary regulations, which are those dispositions that were made only for passing circumstances (such as the prohibition issued by the Apostles against the eating of animals that had been suffocated).

8. Tradition.--Tradition contains those doctrines concerning faith and morals, not found in scripture, that were given orally by Christ or inspired by the Holy Spirit, and that have been handed down from one generation to another in the Catholic Church.

Tradition becomes known to us: (a) through the teaching of the Church expressed by her solemn or ordinary magisterium; (b) through the writings of the Fathers of the Church; (c) through the practice of the Church expressed in her universal customs and laws; (d) through the worship of the Church expressed in her universal forms of prayer and liturgical observance.

9. Decisions.--In addition to divine tradition just spoken of, Moral Theology uses: (a) Apostolic tradition, which comes down from the Apostles, but whose subject-matter is not a teaching revealed to them, but an ordinance which they themselves made as rulers of the Church (e.g., the law that Sunday be sanctified as the Lord’s day); (b) ecclesiastical tradition, which contains regulations made by the authorities in the Church and handed down to succeeding times (e.g., the introduction of certain days of feast or fast).

10. Authority of Doctors and Theologians.--(a) St. Thomas Aquinas has been recognized by the Church as her highest theological authority, and the Code of Canon Law (Canons 589, Sec. 1, and 1366, Sec. 2) orders that in all seminaries and religious houses of study the courses of theology shall be made according to his method, teaching and principles.

(b) When the theologians agree with unanimity that a certain doctrine pertaining to faith or morals is divinely revealed, it would be next to heresy to hold the opposite; if they agree only that it is certain, it would be rash to contradict them, unless new and serious objections unknown to them can be offered; if they are divided between schools and systems (even though great claims for opinions are made by their partisans), it is lawful for competent theologians to use their own judgment and decide for the side that seems to have the better arguments in its favor.

11. Reason.--The uses of natural reason in Moral Theology are: (a) it demonstrates certain preambles to the teachings of Moral Theology, such as the existence of God, His omniscience and veracity; (b) it corroborates from philosophy many of the revealed teachings, viz., that man’s end is not in things finite, that he has duties to God, to society, to himself, etc.; (e) it affords analogies in the natural order by which we may illustrate the end and duties of man in the supernatural order; (d) it supplies the means by which the teachings on morals may be developed into the conclusions that are contained in them, by which those teachings may be defended against the fallacious objections of adversaries, and by which the whole may be arranged scientifically into a body of doctrine.

12. Moral Theology is served not only by the various branches of philosophy (such as Ethics, Theodicy, Psychology, Logic), but also by many of the natural sciences. Thus: (a) Medicine and Physiology are useful for understanding the morality and imputability of acts; (b) Sociology and Economics may throw light on problems concerning justice; (c) Jurisprudence is, of course, closely related to questions concerning duties that arise from human laws; (d) History confirms the teachings of Christian morality by the lessons of experience.

13. The Method to Be Followed in Moral Theology.-(a) The positive method is a simple statement of moral principles and doctrines, with little attention to argument, except such as is found in the positive sources (e.g., scripture, tradition, the decisions of the Church).

(b) The Scholastic method is a scientific statement of moral teaching through accurate definition of terms, systematic coordination of parts, strict argumentation and defense, attention to controversies, and recourse to philosophy and other natural knowledge.

(c) The casuistic method, or case-system, is the application of moral principles to the solution of concrete problems of lawfulness or unlawfulness.

14. The Scholastic method is the one best suited for the study of Moral Theology, because it is more scientific, and fits one better to understand, retain, and apply what one learns. But it is not exclusive of the other methods, since it perfects the positive method, and is the groundwork for the case method. Each method has a special suitability for certain ends. Thus: (a) the positive method is well adapted to preaching, and hence was much in favor with the Fathers of the Church, as can be seen from their moral homilies and treatises; (b) the Scholastic method is the best for study, teaching, apologetic, and was followed by the great classical works of theology in the Middle Ages and later; (c) the case method is very helpful to the seminarian and the priest in the exercise of the ministry of the confessional.

15. The History of Moral Theology.--There are three periods in the history of Moral Theology: the Patristic, the Medieval, and the Modern.

(a) The Patristic Period (1st to 12th century).--The moral writings of the-Fathers are popular, exhortatory, and occasional; and it is not till the Middle Ages that we meet with works of systematic Moral Theology. The following are among the most notable moral works of the Fathers: the _Paedagoga_ of Clement of Alexandria (d. about 217), which explains what the everyday life of the Christian should be; the _Catecheses_ of St. Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 386); the _De Officiis Ministrorum_ of St. Ambrose (d. 397), a Christian counterpart of Cicero’s work _De Officiis_; the _De Civitate Dei_ of St. Augustine (d. 430), which contrasts love of God and love of self; the _Expositio in Job seu Moralium libri XXV_ of St. Gregory the Great (d. 604), which consists of moral instructions based on the Book of Job.

Celebrated among the ascetical and mystical writings are: the _Ladder of Paradise_ of St. John Climacus (6th century), the Conferences of Cassian (about 416), the _Libri V de Consideratione_ of St. Bernard (d. 1153). St. Gregory the Great’s _De Cura Pastorali_ is a systematic work of pastoral theology, and is regarded as a classic.

(b) The Medieval Period (12th to 16th century).--The method of the moralists of this period differs from that of the Fathers in that the former is systematic and philosophical, and more proximately adapted to the use of confessors. The masterpiece of scientific Moral Theology is of course found in the _Summa Theologica_ of St. Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274). Works of casuistry were composed by St. Raymond of Pennafort (about 1235), by John of Freiburg (d. 1314), by John of Asti (about 1317), by Angelus of Chiavasso (about 1476), by Sylvester Prierias (d. 1523). The _Summa Theologica_ of St. Antoninus of Florence (d. 1459) has been called an inexhaustible storehouse for manuals of casuistry.

Among the ascetical writers are: St. Bonaventure, the Seraphic Doctor (d. 1274), John Gerson (d. 1429), John Tauler (d. 1361), Bl. Henry Suso (d. 1366), and Denis the Carthusian (d. 1471).

(c) The Modern Period (16th century to the present).--Characteristic of this period are the commentaries written on St. Thomas, the controversies over the systems of conscience, the appearance of numerous manuals and special treatises, and the attention given to changed conditions of society and ecclesiastical discipline. Noteworthy among modern works are: the Commentary on St. Thomas by Cajetan (d. 1534); the writings of Bartholomew de Medina (d. 1581), called the father of moderate Probabilism; the _De Paenitentia_ of Lugo (d. 1660), a handbook that combines speculative and casuistical theology; the _Roman Catechism_, which was issued by the authority of the Council of Trent in 1566; the _Theologia Moralis_ of St. Alphonsus Liguori (d. 1787), a work whose authority is universally recognized; the celebrated treatise on the virtues by Lessius (d. 1623); the classic work of Suarez (d. 1617), _De Religione_; the _Summa Casuum Conscientiae_ of Toletus (d. 1596); the commentaries of Francis de Victoria (d. 1546), which are writings of extraordinary merit. More recent works are so numerous that it is impossible to mention them here.

18. Among the many modern works on Moral Theology which have been published abroad, not a few are in the vernacular--in German, French, Italian, Spanish, etc. While they are not intended to replace the Latin text-books used in seminaries, these are nevertheless a very great help to a fuller knowledge of the matter treated and to a more ready use of it in the work of the ministry.

So far there has been a dearth of works on Moral Theology in English; and it is this want that has occasioned the present work, which aims at presenting Moral Theology, not only in its essentials, but even more in detail and with greater fullness than is done by most of the text-books commonly in use. And yet, while pursuing this larger and more comprehensive plan, the authors of this new work have tried to be as brief and compact as possible. It has been their endeavor especially to avoid digressions into other fields and to sum up pertinent matter in as clear and simple a manner as the subjects treated will permit.

17. The Division and Order of Parts in Moral Theology.--The arrangement of his matter made by St. Thomas Aquinas in the _Summa Theologica_ is admittedly unsurpassed and unsurpassable in the qualities that good distribution should have, viz., clearness, connection between parts, completeness. Hence, we cannot do better than follow the order he has used in his treatment of moral subjects. His general division is as follows:

(1) The Last End of Man.--From the Last End acts derive their morality, those being good that advance man towards its attainment, and those evil that turn him away from its possession. The Last End is considered; (a) as to its existence; (b) as to its nature (i.e., the constituents of supreme beatitude).

(2) The General Means Tending to the Last End.--God is approached, not by the steps of the body, but by the operations of the soul, and thus it is human acts that lead one to one’s Last End. These acts are considered: (a) as they are in themselves or absolutely, and according to the twofold division of acts proper to man (human acts) and acts common to man and beast (passions); (b) as to the internal principles from which they proceed, i.e., habits, whether good (virtues) or bad (vices); (c) as to the external principles by which they are influenced. The external principle of evil is the demon, who tempts man to sin. The external principle of good is God, who instructs us by His law and the voice of conscience, and assists us by His grace.

(3) The Special Means Tending to the Last End.--These are our own good works; hence, here are considered the virtues incumbent on all classes of men, i.e., the theological and moral virtues.

18. Some of the topics just mentioned (e.g., divine grace) are discussed fully in works on Dogmatic Theology, and hence may be omitted here. Again, since the Last End of man is considered at great length in dogmatic works on Eschatology, little need be said about it here. Hence, it will be convenient to divide this work into two parts as follows: General Moral Theology, in which are treated the more remote principles on duty, such as the Last End, human acts, good and bad habits, laws and conscience, grace; (b) Special Moral Theology, in which are treated the more immediate rules concerning duty, i.e., man’s obligations as regards the virtues and the Commandments.