CHAPTER XII THE ILLITERACY CRUSADE SPREADS FROM STATE TO STATE

The crusade against illiteracy had extended rapidly to other states. Moonlight schools were organized in the fall of 1913 in Bradley County, Tennessee, to teach the mountaineers; in Spartanburg County, South Carolina, to teach the people in mill villages, and in Grant County, Washington, to teach some German farmers to read and write the English language.

Alabama was the second state to wage a state-wide crusade against illiteracy. In 1914, Honorable William F. Feagin, State Superintendent of Education of Alabama, sent out this call:

It is my opinion that there are a number of people in this state who are patriotic enough to give themselves over to the task of making a crusade against illiteracy in their communities, if we only knew how to find them. For such as these, this pamphlet is being sent out and in the belief that any soul who gives himself to a task like this, namely that of bringing light and help and cheer to those who have never learned to know the independence, the self-respect, the information and the delight of the printed page, is worthy of honorable mention whenever we call to mind those true patriots who serve humanity and glorify the state.

In 1915 the Alabama Illiteracy Commission, the second illiteracy commission in the world, was created and the Governor of Alabama issued a proclamation against illiteracy, which was, also, the second of its kind. The Alabama Illiteracy Commission was organized with former Governor William D. Jelks as Chairman and Honorable William F. Feagin as Secretary. With the slogan, “Illiteracy in Alabama--Let’s remove it,” this Commission began the task of extending to every illiterate in Alabama the opportunity of the moonlight schools.

Late in the year of 1914, Doctor J. Y. Joyner, State Superintendent of Public Instruction of North Carolina, began to organize the forces for an illiteracy campaign in that state. What was accomplished in this initial campaign was reported by him to the editors of North Carolina assembled at Montreat, July 1, 1915, when he appeared before them to enlist them in a state-wide crusade against illiteracy. In summarizing the results he said:

The moonlight schools have proved successful in dealing with this problem of adult illiteracy in other places, notably in Rowan County, Kentucky, where they were first inaugurated about three years ago. The story of the movement in that state is inspiring and the results have been marvelous. Largely as a result of the discussion of this subject at the annual meeting of the State Association of County Superintendents at the Teacher’s Assembly last November eighty-two moonlight schools were conducted in twenty-nine counties in this state last year enrolling sixteen hundred illiterates of an average age of forty-five, most of whom learned to read and write.

Seven thousand North Carolina teachers volunteered the following year to teach moonlight schools. At the close of the session Dr. Joyner wrote:

A partial report from fifty of the one hundred counties show 638 moonlight schools with 5,530 illiterates enrolled, most of whom have been taught. It is safe to estimate that the reports from other counties will show at least 10,000 have been reached through the moonlight schools and taught to read and write.

When such reports were in as could be collected--and many schools known to be successful were never reported--9,698 illiterates had been taught. Doctor Joyner then rallied his forces for a more heroic effort with this war-cry:

Outstrip Kentucky! What Kentucky has done and is doing North Carolina can and must do for the need is greater. Adult illiteracy in the United States is doomed. A few more years and there will not be a vestige of it left. Kentucky, led on by the spirit of inspiration of a woman, has preempted the first place in this glorious work. North Carolina may be second; indeed there is a chance that she may even outstrip Kentucky and be the first to reach the coveted goal.

The North Carolina Legislature of 1917 appropriated $25,000 annually for moonlight schools and in 1919 the work was made a part of the public school system of the state.

Minnesota’s first moonlight schools were organized in 1915 in response to a call from her State Superintendent of Education, Honorable C. G. Shulz, who, in October, 1914, issued this call through the press of the state:

I hesitate to accept the figures on Minnesota’s illiteracy. They would seem rather larger than we would expect even though at that they show Minnesota as being among the states having the least illiteracy. But, we have to recognize that there is some illiteracy here and the recognition carries with it the admission that there shouldn’t be any. Minnesota should stamp out illiteracy absolutely.

Mrs. Stewart’s message to us makes this a fitting time to inaugurate a study of the subject here at home. I think that Minnesota’s illiteracy is centred mainly in urban rather than in rural communities. School heads would do well to make an immediate survey of their neighborhoods and to ascertain who the illiterates are and how to reach them.

Superintendent E. A. Freeman, of Itasca County, was the first of Mr. Shulz’s lieutenants to respond. Mr. Freeman organized his teachers in November, 1914, and conducted moonlight schools for illiterates, mainly those of foreign birth. This pioneer work in Minnesota was the inspiration of the Naturalization Bureau which adopted the plan and promoted it in other localities. The Examiner of the Naturalization Bureau for Minnesota in one of his official bulletins said:

The National Government Bureau of Naturalization is anxious to help the foreign-born to learn to read and write the English language and to better understand our form of government. In the rural districts where the need is greatest, little has been done, but Professor E. A. Freeman, of Itasca County, introduced an entering wedge last year in his schools and met with much success.

Oklahoma had several moonlight schools in 1914 through the influence of the Literacy League organized at the State Normal School at Edmond by Moses E. Wood, head of the Departments of Pedagogy and Psychology. In 1915 Honorable R. H. Wilson, State Superintendent of Education, launched a state-wide campaign in which he enlisted several thousand teachers besides organizing the press and the people of his state to aid. A sweeping campaign was made by Mr. Wilson and the patriotic men and women who enlisted with him. In an official report in 1916 Superintendent Wilson gave the results of the first year’s work as follows:

Probably more than five thousand persons were reached by the moonlight schools in Oklahoma during the school year 1915-16. This is indeed a good beginning. During the next school year 1916-17, we should reach 25,000 illiterates and as many adult literates. The black cloud of illiteracy can be dispelled by the united efforts of county superintendents and teachers. This is a call to service and an appeal to the state pride of every teacher employed in our common schools. By concerted effort we can make Oklahoma the most literate state in the union.

Oklahoma was the first state whose normal schools offered credits for moonlight school work, an example followed by Kentucky and some of the other states.

“Illiteracy in New Mexico must go,” was the slogan sounded by the school forces in New Mexico during 1915. Honorable Alvin N. White, State Superintendent of Education, inaugurated the campaign, and the slogan was caught up with enthusiasm by leaders throughout the state. This appeal was made by Superintendent White:

The purpose of this is to call attention of the people of the state to the alarming and excessive percentage of illiteracy; to have the educated forces of the state realize more fully that illiteracy is a curse, a menace and a disgrace; that it must be destroyed and the state elevated; that by the united efforts of the teachers and citizens of the state everybody must read and write in New Mexico by 1920.

Santa Fé County, under the leadership of Superintendent John V. Conway, led the state. Superintendent Conway and his corps of teachers made the record of establishing a moonlight school in every district with 1,549 adults enrolled. This county had a large Mexican population, some of whom could read and write in Spanish, but came to the moonlight schools to learn to read and write English. The majority of Mexicans enrolled, however, were illiterate, and these were taught in English. The record of this pioneer county inspired the entire state and has been the foundation upon which New Mexico’s work among adult illiterates has been built. It led to the enactment by the New Mexico Legislature of several laws, for the benefit of illiterate adults, one of them providing compensation for those who would teach a moonlight school with as many as ten illiterates enrolled.

The illiteracy crusade spirit was abroad in California and found concrete expression in 1915 when the State Department of Education, the Immigration Commission and the California Federation of Women’s Clubs jointly launched a state-wide campaign. The Federation announced its plans as follows:

The Education Committee is asked to center its efforts upon the eradication of illiteracy and the Kentucky plan is recommended. The program is to vitalize the state into educational responsibility and activity in behalf of a considerable part of our population and to raise California to the first place in the literacy column.

California passed the “home teacher” law in the same year. The law provides an itinerant teacher to go from house to house and instruct illiterates and others. To this has been added other wise legislation in behalf of the illiterates, at the instance of Honorable Will C. Wood, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, and a comprehensive program for the elimination of illiteracy from California has been adopted and is being carried on under the State Department of Education. Los Angeles is one of the cities in the United States that has made great progress in redeeming illiterates. Kate Douglas Wiggin wrote a story--“The Girl and the Kingdom”--and gave it to the teachers of this, her home city, to be sold and the money used to defray the expenses of the local illiteracy campaign.

The moonlight schools were begun in Georgia in 1915 under the leadership of Honorable M. L. Brittain, State Superintendent of Schools, who tells of its progress in the following report:

The first notable instance of training illiterates under State auspices originated in Kentucky several years ago. The work attracted attention throughout the country and several states organized somewhat similar classes.

As State Superintendent of Education, I called the attention of our Legislature to this subject four years ago, but met with no encouragement, the belief being expressed that these illiterate grown-ups could not be taught with any degree of success. To prove that this feeling was erroneous, our five state rural school supervisors were directed to see what could be done with these classes and five counties were selected for the purpose. Very good results were obtained by these supervisors. The best work in the state, however, was accomplished by Mr. I. S. Smith, an educator, who was then Superintendent of Tattnall County schools, who had more than six hundred adults taught to read and write. Fortified with these facts and the proof that it could be done successfully, the Legislature was again requested to authorize the work and to give financial aid for its support.

In compliance with Mr. Brittain’s request, the Georgia Legislature created an Illiteracy Commission in 1919. Governor Hugh Dorsey became the President and Mr. Brittain was made Secretary and Director of this Commission. Seven state organizers were employed, six white and one colored, and the five regular state school supervisors were directed to give much of their time to the illiteracy campaign.

In his official report of 1920 Mr. Brittain says:

Another 1919 law that reflects credit upon the legislature is that of teaching the illiterates. Our records show that we have, since August, enrolled 31,545 illiterates and taught 17,982 to read and write.

The State of Washington, under the leadership of Mrs. Josephine Corliss Preston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, enacted a law in 1915 which enabled all school districts to have night schools. Finding that the illiteracy campaign was necessary to arouse the illiterates to their opportunity and the public to co-operate, an Illiteracy Commission has since been created with the State Superintendent of Public Instruction as Chairman and with members chosen from the various state organizations. This Commission has appointed county illiteracy commissions and is engaged in a campaign to remove illiteracy from the state.

The illiteracy movement, which was started in South Carolina in 1913 by Miss Julia Selden, a patriotic Southern woman, took the form of a crusade in Laurens and Newberry Counties in 1914 and blossomed into an Illiteracy Commission in 1916. The Legislature appropriated $10,000 for the work in 1918 and increased the appropriation to $25,000 in 1910, when it became a branch of the State Department of Education, the Illiteracy Commission assuming the position of aid and ally. South Carolina, the first state to secede from the Union before the Civil War, chose as her slogan in the illiteracy crusade, “Let South Carolina secede from Illiteracy.”

The Mississippi Legislature created an Illiteracy Commission in 1916 and began a state-wide campaign with the slogan, “Illiteracy in Mississippi--Blot it out.”

At the request of Governor Charles H. Brough, an Illiteracy Commission was created by the Arkansas Legislature in 1917. The expense of the illiteracy crusade in that state was met, at first, by the bankers, together with other patriotic organizations and individuals. The Legislature of 1920 made an annual appropriation of $13,000 which was supplemented by private subscriptions, and Arkansas entered upon an intensive campaign. The slogan, “Let’s sweep illiteracy out of Arkansas,” has met with a hearty response by the whole people of the state. Arkansas has apportioned a certain number of her illiterates to be reached within a definite time. One-fourth of them will be taught each year until the task is done. Governor Thomas C. McRae in the following proclamation declared “illiteracy is the greatest stain upon the state”:

Because I believe that the best way to reduce crime and poverty is through education of adults as well as children,

Because I believe that every man and woman in Arkansas has a right to an education,

Because I believe that the greatest stain upon our state is the condition of adult illiteracy. Nearly 100,000 men and women in Arkansas cannot write their names,

Because I believe that united effort on the part of the citizens of Arkansas will speedily eradicate this evil,

I hereby designate the week beginning February 5 and ending February 12, as “Illiteracy Week” to be known as such throughout the entire state.

I call upon the bankers, the lawyers, the merchants and the men of all stations in life to lend their efforts toward encouraging people to learn to read and write.

I call upon Rotary Clubs, Kiwanis Clubs, Lions Clubs, Civitan Clubs, Chambers of Commerce, Y. M. C. A.’s, Y. W. C. A.’s, K. of C.’s, S. I. A.’s, fraternal societies and lodges and all other organizations, be they small or great, to volunteer moral and financial aid in driving out our enemy, ignorance.

I call upon the ministers of Arkansas to set aside one Sunday within the period designated as a day to be devoted to preaching adult education.

I call upon the teachers and pupils of our public schools to take the message as planned by the Illiteracy Commission, into every community.

I call upon every citizen in the State to assist in this movement by teaching at least one person who wants some education or more education.

Given under my hand and the great seal of the State at the Capitol at Little Rock this 21st day of January, A.D. 1922.

Dr. John H. Finley, Commissioner of Education of New York State, launched a state-wide campaign against illiteracy in that state in 1917. Only $3,200 was appropriated at first, but interest in the work so increased that $140,000 was appropriated in 1919. Governor Alfred G. Smith in signing the bill said in a memorandum:

The purpose of this bill is to obliterate adult illiteracy from the State. This subject is one in which I have long been interested. The plan proposed through this measure appears to be so practicable and reasonable that its operations may, in my judgment, be made effective in accomplishing the desired purpose.

New York appropriated $200,000 the following year, and within four years after starting the movement, had expended a half million dollars from her state and local treasuries on educating illiterate native and foreign-born adults. The State Department reports some two hundred thousand taught to read and write. It was the first state to secure the illiteracy census of 1920 from the Federal Census Bureau. This was placed in the hands of the school authorities by Dr. Finley, who wrote to his lieutenants:

I hope that we shall immediately and vigorously take advantage of this census of 1920 which has, through special effort and provision, been put so promptly at our disposal, to clear the state of adult illiteracy as you have practically done for child illiteracy.

Dr. Thomas E. Finegan, State Superintendent of Public Instruction of Pennsylvania, is a well-known champion of the illiterates of the nation and their cause and the State of Pennsylvania is making great strides in reducing illiteracy under his leadership. An extensive program of instruction for the illiterates and the Americanization of foreigners has been carried on in the state since 1918. The State Department of Education reported 20,378 taught during the year 1919 alone. The name of every illiterate taken by the census enumerators in 1920 is on record in Pennsylvania, having been obtained from the Federal Census Bureau. With the stimulus of achievement back of her and with splendid organization, plans and leadership, Pennsylvania bids fair to realize her slogan--“Pennsylvania a literate state in ten years.”

Ohio is engaged in the fight on illiteracy. Much skirmishing has been done by the State Department of Education and by Dr. S. K. Mardis, of Ohio University, a pioneer crusader in that state, and in 1922 a State Illiteracy Commission was created and the work among illiterates started as a state-wide campaign.

Maine, under the leadership of Dr. Augustus O. Thomas, State Superintendent of Schools, has a five-year program for wiping out illiteracy. Maine has 20,240 illiterates and this five-year program will include the teaching of some four thousand each year, a thing easily possible of accomplishment. Maine thus expects to free herself from illiteracy by 1926. The politicians watch Maine closely in election times and have a saying, “As goes Maine, so goes America.” If the Nation can afford to follow Maine in things political, it can well afford to emulate her in the emancipation of its illiterates.

North Dakota wages war on illiteracy in a determined fashion and with the avowed intention to surpass all of the other states. “No illiteracy in 1924” is her goal. She has 9,937 to teach and practically her whole population has entered into the crusade in a plucky spirit, resolved to get at least half of them taught before the end of the year, 1922. The spirit of these North Dakota crusaders was illustrated by two young teachers who were asked, “Have you any illiterates in your districts!” and replied with eagerness, “Oh, we hope we have.” They, like all of North Dakota, want to play their part in making their state the first literate state in the Union.

Massachusetts and the other New England states, New Hampshire, Connecticut and Rhode Island, have extended the opportunity to their adult illiterates under certain ages and conditions.

Virginia has had moonlight schools in her remote sections, West Virginia in her coves, Texas on her ranches, Louisiana in her parishes, Michigan in her lumber camps and the Dakotas on their plains. Moonlight schools have ministered to illiterate fishermen on the coast of Maryland, illiterate immigrants on the coast of California, illiterate Swedes in Minnesota, illiterate Indians in Oklahoma, illiterate Mexicans in New Mexico and illiterate white and colored people through the mountains and valleys of the South.

With the slogans, “Illiteracy in Alabama--Let’s remove it,” “No illiteracy in New York State,” “Pennsylvania a literate state in ten years,” “No illiteracy in North Dakota in 1924,” “Let South Carolina secede from illiteracy,” “Let’s sweep illiteracy out of Arkansas,” “Illiteracy in Mississippi--Blot it out,” “Illiteracy in New Mexico must go,” the states have sounded a battle-cry which means the death-knell of illiteracy in the Nation.