PART I ETHNOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS

BY

A. L. KROEBER

POTTERY SHAPES RECOGNIZED BY THE MOHAVE

The generic Mohave name for pottery vessels seems to be kwáθki,[1] the word for bowl.

[1] Orthography: θ, ð, like th in thick, this; s, somewhat retroflex; tš, much like English ch; ly, ny, palatalized l, n, like Castilian ll, ñ (y is never a vowel in the transcription used); v, bilabial; t, retroflex; ', glottal stop; q, a back k; h is rather faint initially, but rough, nearly like Spanish j when medial, final (or initial through slurring of an unaccented initial vowel). Unaccented phonemic a is sounded a or e indifferently. Length is not indicated in this paper. The acute accent on vowels indicates a stressed syllable, which is also raised in pitch.

The shapes for which Mohave names were obtained are mainly those which segregate out objectively on examination of a collection:

kwáθki, an open bowl with slightly everted lip, often with a band of mesquite bark--both bean mesquite and screw mesquite are specified in my notes--tied around the neck. The shape is shown in pls. 1, 2, 6,_a_-_c_, 8,_d_-_h_; the name kwáθki was specifically applied to 1,_d_, 2,_b_, 2,_h_, 6,_a_.

kayéθa, a platter, that is, a low round bowl or flat dish without neck or everted lip, was applied to pl. 3,_d_. The shape is shown in pls. 3,_a_-_d_, _g_, 8,_c_.

kayúka, pl. 3,_c_, or kakápa, also a platter, but oval, and smaller. Pls. 3,_e_, _f_, _h_-_j_, 6,_d_, _e_.

kam'óta, a spoon, ladle, dipper, or scoop, more or less triangular. Pls. 4, 7,_a_-_i_, 8,_i_-_k_. Subclasses were not named to me, except for kam'óta ahmá, those with a quail head at the handle.

katéla, bi-pointed tray for parching. Pl. 6,_f_, _g_.

It will be observed that the last five names all begin with ka-.

The name suyíre was given to pl. 6,_c_, which is intermediate between bowl and platter.

táskyena is a cook pot. Pl. 5,_c_.

tšuváva, a large cook pot, a foot and a half to two feet high. I have seen one of these in use, full to the brim with maize, beans, and fish, being stirred by an old man with three arrow weed sticks tied in the middle; but I did not secure one. It is set on three conical supports of pottery as shown in pl. 7,_n_, _o_.

A still larger pot, up to a yard in diameter, too big to cook in, was sometimes made to ferry small children across the river, a swimmer pushing the vessel (Handbook, 1925, p. 739). I would imagine it would be least likely to tip over if made in the shape of a giant kwáθki bowl.

hápurui, water jar, as kept around the house, "olla" shaped, pls. 5,_a_, _b_, 8,_a_. The name contains the stem for water: (a)há.

I happened not to secure the name of the small-mouthed canteen water jar used in traveling, as shown in pl. 6,_h_.

A small-mouthed jar with short side-spout at one end, too large for travel and probably used chiefly for storage of seeds, is called hápurui hanemó, "duck jar," from its resemblance to the floating bird. Pl. 6,_i_.

There are also handled jugs, pl. 5,_d_-_g_, and handled cups, pls. 5,_h_-_i_, 8,_b_, which I suspect of having been devised after contact with Americans, although some specimens show use and the painted designs are in good Mohave style. My doubts are strengthened by my having obtained no specific name for either handled shape: the high jug, 5,_g_, was called a jar, hápurui; the low jug, 5,_e_, kwáθki, bowl; and in 1900 I bought a cup for which the name kwáθki aha-suraitši was given.

In the dreamed Mastamhó myth of the origin of culture (AR 11:1, 1948, see 7:76, p. 63), the culture hero calls some of the principal vessel forms by two sets of names, the first being recondite, twisted, or punning. The list is:

to bring water in (u)más-toyám[2] hápurui to cook in umás-te-to'óro táskyena to cook in umás-te-hamóka[3] tšuváva spoon, ladle umás-uyúla kam'óta food platter han'amé kakápa bowl umás-iáða táskyena parching dish umás-eyavkwa-havík[4] katéla arrow weed stirrer umás-kasára so'óna

[2] Umás- is frequent in ritual names. It may be a form of humar, "child."

[3] Hamók(a) is "three"--because of the three pot rests.

[4] Havík is "two"--because of the two hornlike ends.

It will be noted that handled jugs and handled cups are lacking from this list, though so are canteens and round platters.

Small-and-flaring-necked spheroid jars, holding a gallon or more, are found in the region, and in 1900 I secured two Mohave examples which were destroyed in 1906 with the Academy of Sciences building. They served to store seeds, and seem often to have been hidden in caves and out-of-the-way spots by Shoshonean desert tribes. I secured one near Needles in 1908, now no. 13875 in the Museum of Anthropology, but it belonged to a Chemehuevi woman who was born in Chemehuevi Valley and was in 1908 living in Mohave Valley, married to a Mohave who was himself half-Chemehuevi. She had made the jar many years before: in fact, it was the first and last pottery vessel she attempted, she said. The ware is definitely paler than Mohave pottery: a sort of half-yellow. It bears on its upper half a red pattern, but this is fainter than most Mohave patterns, and most resembles occasional fishnet patterns on the under sides or backs of Mohave bowls, platters, or spoons. It has 42 vertical (radiating) lines and 7 horizontal (encircling) lines, resulting in 252 hollow quadrilaterals. The vessel also has two mends or strengthenings with lumps of black gum. The overall height, 225 mm., is 75 per cent of the maximum body diameter, 300 mm., which comes at about 100 mm., or less than halfway up. The mouth and neck diameters are 69 and 58 mm., or 23 per cent and 19 per cent of the body diameter.

POTTERY OBJECTS OTHER THAN VESSELS

Two figures idly modeled, or serving as toys--made for sale, it was said--were found in a household: a lizard and a hummingbird, plate 7,_j_,_k_, nos. 1726, 1727. They seem at least partly baked, but have since been washed with yellow ocher, which would turn to red on baking. The bird also has a white-painted beak and spots.

I saw pottery human figures and dolls, both with and without hair of shredded cottonwood bark, cradles, etc., offered for sale by Mohave women to tourists on the station platform--Needles was a scheduled 25-minute meal stop for most trains. I did not purchase any of these, nor any small platters or handled jugs or cups, which were sometimes also offered. This was perhaps a mistake; but I was eager to impress on the Indians generally that my interest was in native, nontourist objects. While material was occasionally brought to me in town, this was uncommon, and I secured most of it from Mohave houses, especially native-style ones across the river in Arizona. Typically, the bows and arrows hawked by a few old men at the trains for twenty-five cents were not the plain long Mohave willow bows, but red- and blue-painted miniature willow imitations of the Chemehuevi retroflex horn or composite bow.

Pipes, short and tubular, are made of pottery. Plate 7,_l_ (no. 4264), was made for a boy, and was unfinished, remaining unbaked. Plate 7,_m_ (no. 13870), is a fragment, 62 mm. long, about 11 through the mouth end, 19 at the break, buff-colored, with gray (overfired) paste at the fracture. I secured at least one other pipe, no. 1719, which cannot at present be found in the Museum.

Pot rests, put under the large tšuváva cookpots, were made of clay, as shown in plate 7,_n_,_o_.

In 1904 I secured an arrow-straightener of pottery, no. 4367, shown in Handbook, plate 49,_f_. It carries a longitudinal ridge, a sort of notched comb; presumably to receive, after being heated, the joints of arrows of cane or reed. However, cane arrows, though known to the Mohave, were only occasionally used. The usual ones of arrow weed, without foreshaft or attached head, were simply warmed and bent by hand.

TECHNOLOGICAL NOTES

I saw pottery made about 1902-1904, and have little to add to the record.

Clay is tempered with sandstone crushed on the metate, and built up by coiling. The start of a vessel may be spiral, but its body consists of concentric rings. The paste is rolled out into a slim sausage, the length of which is roughly estimated on the vessel. It is then laid on the last [preceding] coil, and any excess pinched off. It is beaten, with a light and rapid patting with a wooden paddle, against a smooth cobble held inside, and its edge finished flat by scraping between the thumbnail and index finger. Then the next coil is added. The maker sits with the growing vessel on the thighs of her stretched legs, or with one leg flat in front of her and the other doubled under. The paint is yellow ocher, which is put on with a little stick and burns dull red. The patterns are carelessly done, and often shaky. (Handbook, pp. 737-738.)

In 1904, I added the following in notebook 60-33:

A "dish" [bowl] is modeled with the rim incurved [or vertical]. Finally, the rim is turned outward with the fingers, a few inches at a time; [to make the slight neck which] after firing is bound with screw-mesquite [a'íse] fiber. A small oval platter seen made was built up circularly with rolls of clay, then additional pieces were added on two sides and paddled even.

I noted that no slip was being used by Mohave potters, nor does examination reveal any.

In 1904, notebook 60-34, I noted: "If dishes crack, they are mended by hair binding, or now a wire, being passed between two perforations." I did not note how the holes were bored, nor whether the hair was human or horse.

No. 4326 is a small piece of rock such as was crushed and metate-ground for temper. It is not sandstone, as I stated in 1923, but granite, according to my colleague Professor Charles Meyer, whose courtesy is acknowledged and whose information is summarized in Appendix III.

No. 4295 consists of several small slabs of yellow oxide of iron, for grinding up as design paint, which on firing makes the red ocher color which is both darker and more saturatedly red than the light reddish-buff ground color of Mohave pottery. Its composition is also given in Appendix III on the basis of Professor Meyer's examination. Both it and no. 4354 were obtained at matekwaθ-kutšyep, "yellow paint wide open," a spot in a wash cutting across the peneplain from Avimota, Mt. Manchester, in Nevada opposite Fort Mohave.

Several samples of material that might help further elucidate the technology of Mohave pottery have unfortunately been misplaced in the Museum since at least several years. Quite possibly they have been put together into one tray, which was then mislaid. They include:

1759, sample of pottery clay.

4326, sample of pottery temper, presumably after grinding.

4295, 4354, sample of yellow ocher for painting designs.

4277, piece of broken pot.

13871, two sherds.

1719, pottery pipe.

Another lot of similar accessories was once included in a collection belonging to the California Academy of Sciences and is listed in Appendix I.

I secured half a dozen paddles, kanóθki, for smoothing the fresh coils of pottery vessels. All of these prove to have been cut from white oak staves of whiskey barrels, whose two-way curvature perhaps suggested to the Mohave their adaptability for the purpose. Four of the six pieces still show staining by iron barrel hoops. Three, however, had had their concavity partly whittled flat. I presume that in the old days paddles were made of cottonwood or mesquite. The length and width dimensions of the "blades," that is, exclusive of handles, are:

4276...... 117 90 4311...... 113 100 4346...... 118 100 flattened 4347...... 100 80 flattened 4348...... 70 50 with 2 last makes a 3-size nest 13839......140 75 flat, almost biconvex

The second and last of these paddles are accompanied by their "anvils"--waterworn stones. No. 4312 is somewhat three-cornered, 90-95 mm. in length, 43 mm. thick, has one flattish side, one convex, and weighs 18 oz. No. 13840, though got four years later, is quite similar: 85-90 mm., 48 mm. thick, one side flattish, weight also 18 oz.

DESCRIPTION OF THE POTTERY

All pieces are actually inscribed with and cataloged under a number beginning with the prefix 1-, which denotes provenience from native California. This prefix, being unvarying, is omitted in the present treatise.

The objects described were collected by myself in three lots, in Mohave Valley, on both sides of the Colorado River, as follows:

In 1902 Accession 40 Specimens 1-1710-1760 In 1904 Acc. 135-138 Specs. 1-4259-4381 In 1908 Acc. 325 Specs. 1-13771-13775

Of these nearly 300 objects, some 70 are of pottery.

An earlier collection, made in 1900 for the California Academy of Sciences, was destroyed by fire on the day of the San Francisco earthquake, April 18, 1906. Some notations on it were preserved and are summarized in Appendix I.

PLATE 1: BOWLS

_a_, 13773, diameter 258 mm., height 127 mm.

_b_, 1733, d. 233, h. 177. Design: ta-lame-θlame, "patches" (?). The painting is very uneven.

_c_, 13772, d. 281, h. 140.

_d_, 1715, d. 269, h. 151. Design, linear: ta-tsir-qa-(t)sirqa face paint; dots: belly of yellow-hammer (red-shafted flicker, kukhó). The outside is striped. The execution is experienced, sure, light, and effective.

_e_, 13774, d. 240, h. 142. The designs inside are similar to those of _d_, and are repeated on the outside of the vessel.

_f_, 13778, d. 195, h. 97.

_g_, 13780, d. 181, h. 89.

_h_, 13779, d. 185, h. 87.

Of these 8 bowls, 3 (_f_, _g_, _h_, evidently from one household) run from 181 to 195 mm. in diameter; the other 5, from 233 to 281 mm. Proportions of height to diameter are, seriated: 47, 49, 49, 50, 50, 50, 56, 59.

The pattern is fundamentally the same on the inside of all 8 bowls, except that spotting is omitted in _f_. It consists of triple-line bars that branch at an acute angle; one fork soon ends, the second goes on and merges with a branch from another bar, and so on in a complex pattern extending over the entire inside. The forks--which are also junctions--each contain a small solid-filled triangle, into which the thin middle line of each bar runs. Or, the middle lines might be said to emerge from the points of the solid triangles. The two remaining lines of the bars are therefore mere borders or shadows: they never touch a solid triangle. The dead ends of the forking branches point at each other, or inward toward the center, in most cases: _a_, _b_, _d_, _f_, _g_, _h_. In _c_ they point parallel; _e_ is unskillfully painted and lacks the dead or free ends.

This pattern is complex and calls for skill in execution. _e_ is a botch, _a_ irregularly crowded, _g_, _h_ simplified and open; the rest show successful control, especially _b_, _c_, _d_. Only _b_ differs in that the dead or free branches each end in a solid circle. The solid triangles tend to vary somewhat in shape, from equilateral to narrow isosceles, even in well painted bowls: cf. _b_, _c_; this variation is perhaps unavoidable.

This pattern is the most ambitious of Mohave design treatments.

The outer side of these bowls is painted with vertical stripes down from the rim 6 times. Usually they are thinnish lines, in _c_ wider stripes. Bowls _e_ and _f_ partly repeat the inside pattern on their outside.

PLATE 2: BOWLS

_a_, 13771, diameter 246-260 mm. slightly oval, height 115-118 mm., thickness 7.5 mm. toward bottom. Weight 38 oz. There is a neck band of mesquite bark.

_b_, 4321, d. 282, h. 150. Design: kan'ú, (Maricopa) basketry pattern.

_c_, 13775, d. 260, h. 100. Almost as flat as the platters of pl. 3, but there is a neck, and it is bound.

_d_, 1740, d. 210, h. 104. Design: coyote teeth.

_e_, 13776, d. 266 (260-272), h. 140, thickness toward bottom 9, at neck 4-4.5, at lip 5. Both paste and surface are unusually yellowish. A neck-binding has been lost, leaving a 20-mm. wide yellowish strip paler than the darkened general surface. Wt. 37 oz.

_f._, 1732, d. 227, h. 130. Wt. 35 oz. Design, inside: humanape, butterfly; outside, hotahpave face paint.

_g_, 1714, d. 177, h. 121. The H/D proportion, 68 per cent, is, with pl. 8,_h_, the highest of all bowls. I called it a "deep pot" when I acquired it. Wt. 23 oz. Design, outside: (i)yamtšupeṭ(a) face paint.

_h_, 4292, "model," i.e., made for sale, d. 149, h. 77. Design, inside, halytôṭa, spider; outside, atcí'ara, fish tail. This vessel, as well as the platter 4294, pl. 3,_j_, was secured from the wife of Tokwaθa, "Muskmelon"; he gave the account of Olive Oatman's return published in 1951 in No. 4 of the Publications of the Kroeber Anthropological Society, also dictated a myth about the origin of war, and was accorded a running or mourning ceremony on his death. He is a historic character, having been encountered by the Ives party in 1858 and mentioned in Möllhausen. He was one of the nine hostages imprisoned at Fort Yuma and escaped from there--a disturbance that ended in the defeat of the Mohave in battle by Armistead later in 1859.

These 8 bowls vary more in proportion than those of plate 1. H/D ratio runs, seriated: 38, 45, 50, 52, 53, 57, 68 per cent, average 52, as against 51 per cent average for plate 1. The lowest bowl in the present lot is _c_, with _a_ next; the highest is _g_. These three are outside the limits of plate 1.

The interior designs are less uniform than in plate 1.

_a_ and _b_ show an overall interior pattern of solid rhomboidal quadrilaterals or hexagons reduced to triangles in the interstices and toward the rim; each such figure being surrounded by 3 thin parallel lines. Where the outermost of these enclosing lines intersect, two of the four angles are solidified, producing secondary hourglass figures. The effect is a bit like a tortoise carapace; but the design was named only for _b_, and then as recalling an overall pattern of basketry, which the Mohave do not themselves weave or coil though they know and use it. In _a_, there are four large hexagons filling most of the field (actually one is more pentagonal, one heptagonal); along the edges are four lenticular areas, each enclosing two triangles; two of these lenses show in the photograph. In _b_, the figures are grouped in four parallel tiers extending across the bowl. In _b_, the _outside_ carries vertical stripes; in _a_, eight right-slanting and eight left-slanting lines enclosing as many diamonds and hourglass figures, with solid filling of the upper and lower corners of the diamonds and meeting corners of the hourglasses.

_c_ and _d_ are crossed by rows of solid triangles touching at the corners. These aim at being equilateral in _c_ (the flattest of the bowls), so that the intervening background spaces are also roughly equilateral, and there is an overall dark-light effect. But in _d_ the triangles are narrower-based, or isosceles, and their points meet the bases instead of the corners of triangles in the tier above, so that the effect is one of pattern in rows rather than overall. This is the design that was called "coyote teeth"; which fairly agrees with plate 4,_l_,_q_.

_f_ also has solid triangles, but they meet point to point, leaving light rhomboids between their two rows. The center is a lightly quartered circle; toward the rim, there is a row of smaller, double, point-to-point (hourglass) triangles, each set over the outer point of a rhomboid. These outer triangles are each crossed by a bar of light background--a feature not repeated in the collection, and seeming strange to me; but it does yield a pair of miniature solid triangles--that favorite Mohave design device--in the waist of each outer hourglass. The miniature solid angle also recurs in the central quartering. The solid middle triangles as well as the medium-sized ones toward the rim are followed outside their edge (or inside the light rhomboids) by a row of dots. These rows of dots, with faint lines, further extend to the actual rim of the vessel, completing skewed hexagonal shapes of their own (one is heptagonal). The design name given, "butterfly," probably applies to the point-to-point large solid triangles, possibly to the rhomboids. On the _outside_, to which the design name "halter face paint" applies, there are eight double-outlined hourglass triangle pairs, meeting tips solid, the rest of their interiors and the intervening hexagons being stippled with oval, streakish dots. Cf. the outside of _a_.

_e_ has been much rubbed in the middle, but the design toward the rim is allied to those of the bowls in plate 1--triple lines turning back or forking at acute angles. Only the solid small triangles at junctures and ends seem to be lacking. The _outside_ carries 58 vertical stripes averaging about 4 mm. wide.

_g_ is the tallest bowl, with a height-diameter ratio of more than 2/3, due in part to a semiconical bottom. It is considerably worn inside, and food has spilled over and crusted part of the outside. The discernible interior design is in a band below the rim. This is crossed by a series of diagonals sloping downward to the right, with a little solid filling triangle in the acute angle made by the diagonal with the border of the band. In addition, a left-sloping diagonal extends down from the rim to the middle of the right-sloping one, with a filling triangle at the juncture. The _outside_ is continuously covered by what in other vessels was usually called "fish bones"--but here was named (i)yam-tšuperta, a face paint--19 columns of downward and 19 of upward pointing zigzags, all points filled in red. Eight such horizontally progressing zigzag lines are still perceptible; there may have been one or two more, but not over ten altogether. This pattern is most effective in a fairly high field (it is common in spoons), such as this tall bowl affords on its exterior.

_h_ has free-standing eight-legged spider figures interspersed with dots. A spider design recurs in plate 3,_i_; and in 3,_j_ a similar figure is called tortoise. The stripes and lines of the _outside_ were called "fish tail"--it is not quite apparent why.

In summary for exterior designs, _a_ and _f_ have hourglasses, _g_ the zigzag fish bones, the others in this plate "radial" or vertical lines, wholly or partly widened in _e_, _h_ to stripes.

PLATE 3: PLATTERS

Plate 3 shows flat bowls, dishes, or plates, more or less platterlike, sometimes round and sometimes oval. They differ from the bowls of plates 1 and 2 in being lower, in having no neck, and no outcurved rim.

=========================================================== Pl. | No. |D(L) | W | W/L | H| H/D |Th.|Curv. | | | |(per cent)| |(per cent) | | ------+-----+------+---+----------+--+-----------+---+----- 3,_a_|13784|272 |...| |79| 29 |5.0| 330 | | | | | | | | 3,_b_|13783|283 |...| |88| 31 |5.0| 348 | | | | | | | | 3,_c_|1713 |262 |...| |77| 29 |5.5| 320 | | | | | | | | 3,_d_|1722 |202 |...| |71| 35 |5.5| 270 | | | | | | | | 3,_e_,| | | | | | | | _f_|13785|266 |215| 81 |66| 28+ |6.5| 303 | | | | | | | | 3,_g_|1751 |145* |...| |48| 33 |6.0| 195 | | | | | | | | 3,_h_|13786|166 |147| 89 |59| 38+ |5.5| 217 | | | | | | | | 3,_i_|1738 |157 |135| 86 |43| 29.5+ |5.0| 191 | | | | | | | | 3,_j_|4294 |155 |121| 78 |44| 32+ |5.5| 178 ------+-----+------+---+----------+--+-----------+---+-----

_Note:_ D(L), diameter _or_ greatest length; Th., thickness; Curv., length of tape laid curving along diam. or max. length of under side; *147 long, 143 wide, but round in intent; +Mean of H/L and W/L. All dimensions in mm.

It will be seen that the H/D ratio is from 28 to 38 per cent; whereas that for bowls is from 38 to 68 per cent, with 21 out of 24 between 45 and 61.

Platters _i_ and _j_ were described when collected as "dish-like spoons" or scoops; _j_, like plate 2,_h_, is from Tokwaθa's household.

_Designs_

As regards painted design, _a_ and _b_ revert to the all-over regular forking of plate 1, but with dark background instead of light or spot-studded, so that the pattern really is negative in effect. It is probably significant that the only two platelike bowls carrying this design should be the only ones to present it negatively. The pattern is well executed in both. It is of course somewhat easier to carry out regularly on a flattish plate than in an up-curving bowl.

_d_ was called "himáka lameθlame, its back leaves" (or "patches"?--cf. pl. 4,_d_). This presumably refers to the large dot-studded hexagonal areas--hexagonal at least in intent. My notes also name a "tšitθôk face-paint" design, which would then be the name of the interconnected hourglass figures which constitute the primary or positive element of the patterning. The combination of these two design elements recurs on the exterior of the jar of plate 8,_a_. The back or _under_ side of _d_ in the present plate is boldly checkered, as shown in plate 8,_c_. It is possible that the leaf name refers to this checker.

_c_ and _g_ were both designated as fish backbone, which as a pattern we have already encountered on bowl 2,_g_, though there on the outer side and named after a face paint: parallel zigzags with solid-filled angles. The idea seems to be that of a fish backbone as it might be drawn out with ribs attached--"herringbone" in our own nomenclature. Then 3,_g_ would be the more representational form with the vertebral column left in--though it is also partway transitional to the triple-line angle-and-forking pattern of plate 1 and of 3,_a_,_b_ above. The simpler, merely parallel-chevron form of the design--with the vertebrae omitted--is perhaps more usual, and is shown recurring in _e_ and in plate 4,_f_,_k_. The under side of _c_ has 67 vertical (radiating) lines.--Plate 3,_g_, no. 1751, was obtained from Nyavarup along with no. 1749, plate 4,_o_, which see. Nyavarup, like Tokwaθa, was a historic character, having been encountered by the Ives party in 1858 and mentioned in Möllhausen. In 1902 he told me the creation, which will be published as myth no. 9.

_f_ is the _under_ or convex side of _e_, but its spots (12-14 mm. diameter) reappear as the sole inside pattern in _h_, and between the tortoises of _j_. The inside dots of _h_ and the outside ones of _f_ were however put on differently: in _h_ in rows across the oval, in _f_ irregularly or perhaps spirally. The under side of _h_ also has dots, fainter than on the front. In _j_ the dots seem inserted with reference to the larger figures of tortoises.

These tortoises of _j_ are definitely similar to the halytôṭa spiders of plate 2,_h_, but are also distinctive, with enclosed-line quadrilateral body, 3-toed legs at corners, and head and tail. Both 3,_j_ and 2,_h_ however were made to sell, are more representational than most Mohave pottery paintings, and should be viewed with a degree of reserve, though I believe that their designs have basis in native usage.

3,_i_ as halytôṭa, spider, is puzzling as to why its name, and is also abnormal formally.

PLATE 4: SPOONS

These are ladles, dippers, scoops, as one will, but I retain the "spoon" which the Mohave most often gave as their English term for native kam'óta. They are of course not taken into the mouth, but held to it while gruel flows out; or perhaps more often they serve as a convenient holder of an individual or temporary portion which is scooped into the mouth with two or three fingers which are then sucked off. They also serve to ladle boiled food from large cook pots into bowls or platters.

I give, first, identifications, sizes, and design names; then shapes; and finally a discussion of painted patterns.

_Identifications_

_a_, 13800, length 174 mm.

_b_, 1731, l. 201. Called kas'uyule. Design doubtfully recorded as hotahpave face paint.

_c_, 13802, l. 182.

_d_, 4320, l. 175. Design name: ta-hlame-hlame, "patches," and "butterfly inside," humanape iyaly ("in the mouth"?).

_e_, 1736, l. 123; handle hollow, rattling, "tšíwitšiwitš."

_f_, 7098, from older University collections (pre-1901), Mohave provenience assumed, not recorded; l. 194; handle hollow, rattling.

_g_, 1737, l. 175. Design name: kyauelkyau, "angled, zigzag."

_h_, 13803, l. 225.

_i_, 13805, l. 178.

_j_, 13804, l. 190.

_k_, 1747, l. 186.

_l_, 1730, l. 198. Design name: coyote teeth.

_m_, 13809, l. 207.

_n_, 13810, l. 156.

_o_, 1749, l. 113. Design name: fish backbone. This piece was obtained from Nyavarup: see pl. 3,_g_.

_p_, 1712, l. 155. Design name: raccoon hand.

_q_, 4319, l. 225. Design name: coyote teeth.

_r_, 4356, l. 177.

_s_, 13807, l. 210.

_Shapes_

Hollow, rattling handles, consisting of a three-cornered box, are found on _e_,_f_,_r_. In each case, the end is modeled into a rude quail's head, showing eyes and beak (or topknot?).

Some rudiments of a quail head, but without hollow compartment, appear also in _a_-_d_,_q_; possibly in _i_,_k_.

The foregoing have the outer edges, toward the top, somewhat raised and a bit incurved. This sort of an edge shows also in _g_,_h_,_j_, which however possess no rudiments of the quail's head. The edge faces forward (if the hollow of the spoon is regarded as its front).

Another group of spoons have their edge rather turned outward--that is, away from the hollow. This group includes _l_-_p_ and _s_. These average somewhat flatter, and the apex is generally rounder, than in those with forward-turned edge: see especially _n_,_o_,_p_,_s_; also _m_; only _l_ comes to a point. Also, the total width ratio is greater in this group.

The classification thus is:

A. Edge raised, turned forward; apex pointed 1. Quail head apex, hollow rattling compartment 2. Quail head or rudiment 3. Plain apex B. Edge facing outward, top usually rounder, total shape shallow, broad.

Additional spoons are shown in plates 7,_i_ and 8,_i_-_k_; and in 7,_a_-_h_ appear the _back_ patterns of eight spoons whose fronts are reproduced in plate 4. This comes to a total of 23 pieces; which seriate in size, and group as to subclass, as follows:

======================================== Pl. | L. (mm.)| Subclass ------+---------+----------------------- 7,_i_ | 226 | | | | B | 4,_h_ | 225 | | | A3 | | 4,_q_ | 225 | | A2r | | | 4,_s_ | 210 | | | | B | 4,_m_ | 207 | | | | B | 4,_b_ | 201 | | A2r | | | 4,_l_ | 198 | | | | B | 4,_f_ | 194 | A1q | | | | 4,_j_ | 190 | | | A3 | | 4,_k_ | 186 | | A2r | | | 4,_c_ | 182 | | A2r | | | 4,_i_ | 178 | | A2r | | | 4,_r_ | 177 | A1q | | | | 4,_g_ | 175 | | | A3 | | 4,_d_ | 175 | | A2r | | | 4,_a_ | 174 | | A2r | | | 8,_k_ | 167 | [A] | | | | 4,_n_ | 156 | | | | B | 4,_p_ | 155 | | | | B | 8,_j_ | 140 | | | | B | 8,_i_ | 135 | | | | B | 4,_e_ | 123 | A1q | | | | 4,_o_ | 113 | | | | B | ------+---------+-----+-------+----+---+

Note A: Handle retroflex

It will be seen that all four subclasses of spoons are represented by examples both above and below the median 178 mm. length. Also, the three longest spoons in the collection belong to three different subclasses. The salient feature is that the blunt-ended "B" spoons have a bimodal distribution: from 198 mm. up, from 156 down. I should not be surprised if B forms turned up in the intervening range; but I should expect the bimodality to remain even if many additional specimens became available.

For the rest, it may be significant that the pointed-end classes A2, A3 are unrepresented below 170; and the clear quail-head (and rattle-box) class A1 not above 195. It may be that beyond a certain size the firing of the juxtaposed solid head and hollow rattle was difficult for the Mohave.

_Designs_

The great majority of spoons are painted inside, usually outside (on the back) also, though there mostly with longitudinal lines or stripes only.

The angled-and-forking overall pattern so characteristic of bowls occurs in spoons, but is rare: _b_ is an example. The area of a scoop is generally hardly wide and large enough for this design. In _b_ it reduces in effect to a sort of cramped swastika.

One of the two most frequent patterns of spoons is that of _g_,_h_,_i_,_j_,_m_--the last in negative effect and unsprinkled with dots. The central feature is a column of three (or two and a half) rhomboids. These are flanked and meshed by four (or three) triangles. The rhomboids and the triangles are separated by three lines, making, with their own boundaries, five parallel lines in all (though this number is sometimes reduced); and where points of triangles meet (and sometimes of rhomboids also) the corners are solid. It is obvious that this pattern is related in several features to the commonest pattern of bowls, but with adaptation to a more cramped field--chiefly by omission of forking and back-angled elements. The only name obtained--once--was kyauelkyau, which is said to mean zigzag or angled.

Another spoon pattern has two or three tiers of light rhomboids separated by pairs of dark triangles, apex to apex (hourglass): see _a_,_d_. There is no thin-line bordering or separating in this pattern. For _d_, the design names cited were ta-hlame-hlame, "patches," and "butterfly inside"; but I do not know which of these names refers to the hollow rhomboids and which to the paired solid triangles.

Another tiered design arrangement is shown in _l_ and _q_. Both were called coyote teeth, which speaks for itself. It will be seen that the teeth are in opposite rows, geared into diastemas--which does not hold for plate 2,_d_. In one of these spoons the solid-color teeth have a line border, in the other a row of dots. In both there are two longer double-toothed bands across the middle, two shorter one-way-facing bands of teeth at the ends. "Coyote teeth" appears as a face paint--a cross-barred line--in Handbook, figure 61,_b_.

A second design of outstanding frequency in spoons is represented by _e_,_f_,_k_,_o_, (s). It was twice designated as fish backbone (with adhering ribs). The backbone itself appears only twice in the five examples in plate 4 (_e_,_o_), and is by no means dominant then. The sets of parallel ribs or chevrons number from 10 to nearly 20, and make either 3 or 5 bends (i.e., are formed by 4 or 6 lines). The bends are filled in with small solid triangles in _f_,_k_,_s_. Rows of dots show in _e_ and _s_.

Other designs each occur only once in the collection.

_c_, polka dots only.

_n_, a fishnetlike design, no name obtained, vertical corners filled in solidly.

_p_, raccoon hand (first mistranslated "otter," but the otter is "water-raccoon" in Mohave), with five hollow-line toes, background of fine dots. There is some reminiscence of the forking bowl design, but without angling back or hooks.

_s_, perhaps a simplified version of the pattern of _g_-_j_,_m_?

There is no marked correlation between any of these designs and the shape classes of spoons that have been defined.

PLATE 5: JARS, POTS, JUGS, CUPS

_a_, water jar, 1723, recorded as "hápurui, small olla for seeds, or for water in summer"; diameter mouth 128 mm., height 200 mm. Neck d. about 83 per cent of mouth, body d. about double that of neck and greater than height. There is an annular base which is not present in the two other water jars. Design: tšitθôk style of face paint.

_b_, water jar, 13792, mouth d. 177, h. 194. Neck d. 81 per cent of mouth, body d. equals height.

_c_, fire-blackened cook pot, 13789, mouth d. 250, h. 192. Neck d, 227, body d. 250.

_d_, handled jug (spoutless pitcher), 1725, mouth d. 85, h. 95. Design: ta-skilye-skilye, viz., outside points of chin tattooing.

_e_, handled jug, 1724, mouth d. 86, h. 90. Design: hotahpave, viz., halter pattern of face painting.

_f_, handled jug, 13795, mouth d. 105, h. 147. This piece had not been used when collected, and may have been a model for sale.

_g_, handled jug, 1739, called hápurui, jar, mouth d. 92, h. 140. Design: fish backbone.

_h_, small, handled cup, 13796, mouth d. 88, h. 47. Used and somewhat worn.

_i_, handled cup, 2-7359, mouth d. 128, h. 90. From older (pre-1901) University collections, provenience and collector not recorded. Assumed to be Mohave, but condition suggests the vessel was made for sale and not used.

The two water jars are of about the same height, toward 8 in., but _a_ is smaller-mouthed and bigger-bellied than _b_. The neck diameters are around 5/6 to 4/5 of the mouths. _a_ is somewhat greater through the body than it is high; _b_, nearly the same. Another and larger jar is shown in plate 8,_a_.

The cook pot, _c_, has the opening as large as the body diameter; the neck is only 9 to 10 per cent smaller than the mouth, the height only 77 per cent of the width. This pot is somewhat higher in silhouette proportion than any of the bowls, but not much higher than the highest of them, viz., 2,_g_ and 8,_h_.

The four handled jugs fall into two classes: _d_ and _e_, medium; _f_ and _g_, high. In the former, the height is about a tenth greater than the mouth diameter, in the latter, about a half greater. Also, in the medium jugs, the base of the handle springs from the lower half of the vessel; in the high ones, from the middle or above. In all cases the handle rises somewhat above the lip. The neck is less than the mouth by 12 to 15 per cent.

The cups are like the jugs except that they are lower and the main painted designs come inside. In fact, the cups seem to be small bowls with a handle attached.

I am quite uncertain whether the handled jugs and cups are native Mohave forms or derived in imitation of Caucasian shapes. It is unclear what specific function their handles would have served in Mohave life, in sand-floored houses empty of furniture or apparatus. Yet probably _g_ and certainly _h_ have been used. And the ware of the jugs and cups, as well as their painted designs, are typical Mohave. They look like an "acculturation acceptance"--a new trait adopted into the old native pattern. The problem will probably be solved when enough datable precontact and protocontact ware from the Mohave and kindred Yuman tribes becomes available.

With these round vessels the forking-and-angled design of the bowl interiors recurs: in the jar _a_, the jug _f_, on the interior of cup _i_. It will be seen that these come with and without dot stippling. The pattern of jug _d_ was called tattoo points; but it is the same as the coyote teeth of plate 4,_l_,_q_. Similarly, _e_, though called hotahpave halter, resembles plate 4,_g_-_i_; and _g_, called fish backbone, lines up with the fish backbone designs on spoons: plate 4,_e_,_f_,_k_,_o_,_s_.

PLATE 6: BOWLS, PLATTERS, PARCHERS, CANTEENS

_a_, bowl, 4293; diameter 151 mm., height 76 mm. Design: inside, raccoon hand; outside, fish bone, atcí isáka.[5] This is from Tokwaθa's wife.

_b_, broken bowl, 4282; d. 157, h. 85. Design; raccoon hand.

_c_. large bowl or platter, 1745, of type called suyíre, d. 330, h. 125. Weight, 44 oz. The flanges to hold mesquite bark binding in place are unusually prominent.

This is the largest and second heaviest round vessel in the collection; but it is low, 38 per cent of the diameter--at the minimum for bowls, maximum for platters. It is not strictly a bowl, because there is no neck constriction: the vessel curves in unbroken convexity up to the rim. On the other hand it is not a typical platter because it has flanges and is bound like a bowl. There are 11 of these flanges, 25 to 35 mm. long, projecting 5 to 8 mm., and spaced quite irregularly, with 120, 95, 90, 55, 85, 65, 115, 95, 75, 120, 75 mm. between their centers.

[5] Atcí is fish, isáka is bone, but the form mostly obtained was (i)taṭ, backbone.

The bowls _a_ and _b_ are grouped together because of their raccoon-hand designs; compare also plate 4,_p_. Bowl _a_ looks unused and may have been made for sale; _b_ has been used and is probably from the same house, though almost certainly not painted by the same person.

The large platter-bowl _c_ has its painted design built up around four big rhomboids or hexagons, nearly rounded into pointed ovoids with triple solid tips; between which similarly pointed triangles project toward the center from the rim.

The oval platters _d_ and _e_, nos. 1738, 4294, are the convex backs or under sides of plate 3,_i_,_j_. The former looks used, the latter new and perhaps for sale. The tortoises on the under (6,_e_) and tortoise carapace on the upper (3,_j_) side of the same piece seem an exaggeration from normal Mohave style. In my field catalogue I entered _d_ as "dish-like spoon"; and _e_, two years later, simply as "oval spoon," which is confirmed by the notation: kam'óta kapeta, viz., "tortoise spoon."

The two katéla or parchers, _f_ and _g_, having adjacent numbers, 13787 and 13788, are probably out of one household--a conservative one, inasmuch as they were secured in 1908. They differ slightly in proportions, yet are closely similar. Piece _f_, the longer and flatter, has its ends brought into a semblance of the abbreviated quail beaks and eyes found on some spoons--class A2. The rims of both _f_ and _g_ are transversely flat and wiped or pinched over inward to extra thickness, then scored regularly with a fingernail or stick; in _g_ the outer edge has also been lightly punch-marked.[6]

[6] In 1904, I saw in a native house upriver from Fort Mohave a bi-pointed parcher or katéla which had nose and eyes at the ends like those on quail spoons; and another which had along the edge a line of overlapping impressions that might have been made by the square corner of a board or tool. This description suggests 6,_f_ and 6,_g_, which I secured four years later at Needles.

The canteen in its net, _h_, no. 13793, has evidently seen use. This was the kind taken on journeys. There is a faded design of three vertical figures in double outline. Each of these consists of three near-rhomboids set on top of one another, with the joints between them open, so that the three of them appear as a single figure. Within each of the figures and between them there are dots 4-6 mm. in diameter. The bottom of the vessel is unpainted.

The plain duck seed-bin or canteen _i_, no. 4297, would be practical for use sitting in the sand in the house or under the ramada shade. It contained melon seeds when I purchased it.

PLATE 7: SPOON BACKS, TOYS, PIPES, POT RESTS

_a_, back of spoon 13803 shown in pl. 4,_h_; l. 225 mm.

_b_, back of 13809 shown in pl. 4,_m_; l. 207.

_c_, back of 1749 shown in pl. 4,_o_; l. 113.

_d_, back of 13810 shown in pl. 4,_n_; l. 156.

_e_, back of 1736 shown in pl. 4,_e_; l. 123.

_f_, back of 1747 shown in pl. 4,_k_; l. 186.

_g_, back of 1731 shown in pl. 4,_b_; l. 201.

_h_, back of 13802 shown in pl. 4,_c_; l. 182.

_i_, back of 13808; l. 226; front not shown.

_j_, lizard figure, 1726; max. l. 110. Probably a toy or amusement; not used ritually.

_k_, hummingbird figure, 1727; l., beak to tail, 54.

_l_, clay pipe, 4264, boy's, unbaked, unfinished; l. 55.

_m_, clay pipe, 13870; broken, 62 mm. remaining.

_n_,_o_, clay pot rests, 4283b, 4283c; h. 92, 85.

The convex backs of spoons _a_-_i_ are not the only painted ones, but show the more ambitious attempts, if this adjective is applicable to rudeness of their degree. The prevalent painting is lengthwise striping, though crosswise (_i_), and both ways (_d_), occur. The lengthwise stripes may be plain lengthwise lines (_b_,_g_); heavy stripes with light (_e_) or with rows of dots (_f_); flanked by multiple zigzags and forming the fish backbone design (_c_,_h_); negative effect (_e_). Piece _a_ is irregularly interesting: three diagonally curved lines sweep across the convex back, and are subdivided by transverse lines into about a dozen triangles and quadrilaterals of unlike shapes; nine of these contain a polygonal spot or daub.

PLATE 8: JAR, CUP, PLATTER, BOWLS, SPOONS

This plate comprises vessels of various shapes which I had at first intended not to illustrate or which had been overlooked.

_a_, large water jar, 13791, classing with pl. 5,_a_,_b_. Rim diameter 255 mm., neck 227, maximum body diameter 315, height 255. The design is of large solid hourglass figures separating rhomboidal-hexagonal areas each bordered by double lines and containing about 35 oval-round spots about 7-12 mm. across. The pattern recalls that of the interior of pl. 3,_d_.

_b_, handled cup, 38406, of the type of pl. 5,_h_,_i_. Mohave provenience assumed. Rim d. 100, h. 70. Interior design, 6 radiating lanceolate or petaloid areas, double-line bordered, containing from 33 to 50 spots. There are small solid triangles where the "petal" borders meet, and dots also in the peripheral spaces. The handle is striped crosswise; the outside of the vessel, vertically. Compare pl. 5,_h_,_i_.

_c_, _under_ side of platter 1722, front shown in pl. 3,_d_; d. 203