Chapter 1

Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Graeme Mackreth and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net

Modern Religious Cults and Movements

Works by

Gaius Glenn Atkins

_Modern Religious Cults and Movements_

Dr. Atkins has written a noteworthy and valuable book dealing with the new cults some of which have been much to the fore for a couple of decades past, such as: Faith Healing; Christian Science; New Thought; Theosophy and Spiritualism, etc. $2.50

_The Undiscovered Country_

Dr. Atkins' work, throughout, is marked by clarity of presentation, polished diction and forceful phrasing. A firm grasp of the elemental truths of Christian belief together with an unusual ability to interpret mundane experiences in terms of spiritual reality. $1.50

_Jerusalem: Past and Present_

"One of the books that will help to relieve us of the restless craving for excitement, and to make clear that we can read history truly only as we read it as 'His Story'--and that we attain our best only as the hope of the soul is realized by citizenship in 'the City of God.'"--_Baptist World._ $1.25

_Pilgrims of the Lonely Road_

"A very unusual group of studies of the great mystics, and shows real insight into the deeper experience of the religious life."--_Christian Work._ $2.00

_A Rendezvous with Life_

"Life is represented as a journey, with various 'inns' along the way such as Day's End, Week's End, Month's End, Year's End--all suggestive of certain experiences and duties." Paper, 25 cts.

Modern Religious Cults and Movements

By

GAIUS GLENN ATKINS, D.D., L.H.D.

_Minister of the First Congregational Church, Detroit, Mich.

Author of "Pilgrims of the Lonely Road," "The Undiscovered Country," etc._

New York Chicago

Fleming H. Revell Company

London and Edinburgh

Copyright, 1923, by FLEMING H. REVELL COMPANY

New York: 158 Fifth Avenue Chicago: 17 North Wabash Ave. London: 21 Paternoster Square Edinburgh: 75 Princes Street

_To E.M.C._

_Whose constant friendship through changing years has been like the fire upon his hearthstone, a glowing gift and a grateful memory_

Introduction

The last thirty years, though as dates go this is only an approximation, have witnessed a marked development of religious cults and movements largely outside the lines of historic Catholicism and Protestantism. One of these cults is strongly organized and has for twenty years grown more rapidly in proportion than most of the Christian communions. The influence of others, more loosely organized, is far reaching. Some of them attempt to give a religious content to the present trend of science and philosophy, and, generally, they represent the free movement of what one may call the creative religious consciousness of our time.

There is, of course, a great and constantly growing literature dealing with particular cults, but there has been as yet apparently no attempt to inquire whether there may not be a few unexpectedly simple centers around which, in spite of their superficial differences, they really organize themselves.

What follows is an endeavour in these directions. It is really a very great task and can at the best be only tentatively done. Whoever undertakes it may well begin by confessing his own limitations. Contemporaneous appraisals of movements upon whose tides we ourselves are borne are subject to constant revision. One's own prejudices, no matter how strongly one may deal with them, colour one's conclusions, particularly in the region of religion. The really vast subject matter also imposes its own limitations upon even the most sincere student unless he has specialized for a lifetime in his theme; even then he would need to ask the charity of his readers.

Ground has been broken for such an endeavour in many different directions. Broadly considered, William James' "Varieties of Religious Experience" was perhaps the pioneer work. Professor James' suggestive analyses recognize the greatly divergent forms religious experience may take and establish their right to be taken seriously as valid facts for the investigator. The whole tendency of organized Christianity--and Protestantism more largely than Catholicism--has been to narrow religious experience to accepted forms, but religion itself is impatient of forms. It has its border-lands, shadowy regions which lie between the acceptance of what Sabatier calls "the religions of authority" on the one hand and the conventional types of piety or practical goodness on the other. Those who find their religion in such regions--one might perhaps call them the border-land people--discover the authority for their faith in philosophies which, for the most part, have not the sanction of the schools and the demonstration of the reality of their faith in personal experience for which there is very little proof except their own testimony--and their testimony itself is often confused enough.

But James made no attempt to relate his governing conceptions to particular organizations and movements save in the most general way. His fundamentals, the distinction he draws between the "once-born" and the "twice-born," between the religion of healthy-mindedness and the need of the sick soul, the psychological bases which he supplies for conversation and the rarer religious experiences are immensely illuminating, but all this is only the nebulae out of which religions are organized into systems; the systems still remain to be considered.

There has been of late a new interest in Mysticism, itself a border-land word, strangely difficult of definition yet meaning generally the persuasion that through certain spiritual disciplines--commonly called the mystic way--we may come into a first-hand knowledge of God and the spiritual order, in no sense dependent upon reason or sense testimony. Some modern movements are akin to mysticism but they cannot all be fairly included in any history of mysticism. Neither can they be included in any history of Christianity; some of them completely ignore the Christian religion; some of them press less central aspects of it out of all proportion; one of them undertakes to recast Christianity in its own moulds but certainly gives it a quality in so dealing with it which cannot be supported by any critical examination of the Gospels or considered as the logical development of Christian dogma. Here are really new adventures in religion with new gospels, new prophets and new creeds. They need to be twice approached, once through an examination of those things which are fundamental in religion itself, for they have behind them the power of what one may call the religious urge, and they will ultimately stand as they meet, with a measure of finality, those needs of the soul of which religion has always been the expression, or fall as they fail to meet them. But since some limitation or other in the types of Christianity which are dominant amongst us has given them their opportunity they must also be approached through some consideration of the Christianity against which they have reacted. Unsatisfied needs of the inner life have unlocked the doors through which they have made their abundant entry. Since they also reflect, as religion always reflects, contemporaneous movements in Philosophy, Science, Ethics and Social Relationship, they cannot be understood without some consideration of the forces under whose strong impact inherited faiths have, during the last half century, been slowly breaking down, and in answer to whose suggestions faith has been taking a new form.

A rewarding approach, then, to Modern Religious Cults and Movements must necessarily move along a wide front, and a certain amount of patience and faith is asked of the reader in the opening chapters of this book: patience enough to follow through the discussion of general principles, and faith enough to believe that such a discussion will in the end contribute to the practical understanding of movements with which we are all more or less familiar, and by which we are all more or less affected.

G.G.A.

_Detroit, Michigan._

Contents

I. FORMS AND BACKGROUNDS OF INHERITED CHRISTIANITY 13

Certain Qualities Common to All Religions--Christianity Historically Organized Around a Transcendent God and a Fallen Humanity--The Incarnation; the Cross the Supreme Symbol of Western Theology--The Catholic Belief in the Authority of an Inerrant Church--The Protestant Church Made Faith the Key to Salvation--Protestantism and an Infallibly Inspired Bible--The Strength and Weakness of This Position--Evangelical Protestantism the Outcome--Individual Experience of the Believer the Keystone of Evangelical Protestantism--Readjustment of Both Catholic and Protestant Systems Inevitable.

II. NEW FORCES AND OLD FAITHS 46

The Far-reaching Readjustments of Christian Faith in the Last Fifty Years--The Reaction of Evolution Upon Religion--The Reaction of Biblical Criticism Upon Faith--The Average Man Loses His Bearings--The New Psychology--The Influence of Philosophy and the Social Situation--An Age of Confusion--The Lure of the Short Cut--Popular Education--The Churches Lose Authority--Efforts at Reconstruction--An Age of Doubt and a Twilight-Zone in History--The Hunger of the Soul and the Need for Faith--Modern Religious Cults and Movements: Their Three Centers About Which They Have Organized Themselves.

III. FAITH HEALING IN GENERAL 82

The Bases of Faith and Mental Healing--Cannon's Study of Emotional Reactions--The Two Doors--The Challenge of Hypnotism--Changed Attention Affects Physical States--The Power of Faith to Change Mental Attitudes--Demon Possession--The Beginnings of Scientific Medicine--The Attitude of the Early and Medieval Church--Saints and Shrines--Magic, Charms, and the King's Touch: The Rise of the Faith Healer.

IV. THE APPROACH TO CHRISTIAN SCIENCE AND MARY BAKER EDDY 108

Mesmerism--The Scientific Investigation of Mesmerism--Mesmerism in America; Phineas Quimby an Important Link in a Long Chain--Quimby is Led to Define Sickness as Wrong Belief--Quimby Develops His Theories--Mary Baker Eddy Comes Under His Influence--Outstanding Events of Her Life: Her Early Girlhood--Her Education: Shaping Influences--Her Unhappy Fortunes. She is Cured by Quimby--An Unacknowledged Debt--She Develops Quimby's Teachings--Begins to Teach and to Heal--Early Phases of Christian Science--She Writes "Science and Health" and Completes the Organization of Her Church.

V. CHRISTIAN SCIENCE AS A PHILOSOPHY 136

Christian Science a Philosophy, a Theology, a Religion and a System of Healing--The Philosophic Bases of Christian Science--It Undertakes to Solve the Problem of Evil--Contrasted Solutions--The Divine Mind and Mortal Mind--The Essential Limitations of Mrs. Eddy's System--Experience and Life--Sense-Testimony--The Inescapable Reality of Shadowed Experience.

VI. CHRISTIAN SCIENCE AS A THEOLOGY 163

Science and Health Offered as a Key to the Scriptures--It Ignores All Recognized Canons of Biblical Interpretation--Its Conception of God--Mrs. Eddy's Interpretation of Jesus Christ--Christian Science His Second Coming--Christian Science, the Incarnation and the Atonement--Sin an Error of Mortal Mind--The Sacraments Disappear--The Real Power of Christian Science.

VII. CHRISTIAN SCIENCE AS A SYSTEM OF HEALING AND A RELIGION 185

Christian Science the Application of Philosophy and Theology to Bodily Healing--Looseness of Christian Science Diagnosis--The Power of Mental Environment--Christian Science Definition of Disease--Has a Rich Field to Work--A Strongly-Drawn System of Psycho-therapy--A System of Suggestion--Affected by Our Growing Understanding of the Range of Suggestion--Strongest in Teaching That God Has Meaning for the Whole of Life--Exalts the Power of Mind; the Processes--Is Not Big Enough for the Whole of Experience.

VIII. NEW THOUGHT 210

New Thought Difficult to Define--"The Rediscovery of the Inner Life"--Spinoza's Quest--Kant Reaffirms the Creative Power of Mind--Utilitarianism, Deism and Individualism--The Reactions Against Them--New England Transcendentalism--New Thought Takes Form--Its Creeds--The Range of the Movement--The Key-Words of New Thought--Its Field of Real Usefulness--Its Gospel of Getting On--The Limitations and Dangers of Its Positions--Tends to Become a Universal and Loosely-Defined Religion.

IX. THE RETURN OF THE EAST UPON WEST. THEOSOPHY AND KINDRED CULTS 245

Historic Forces Carried Early Christianity West and Not East--The West Rediscovers the East; the East Returns Upon the West--Chesterton's Two Saints--Why the West Questions the East--Pantheism and Its Problems--How the One Becomes the Many--Evolution and Involution--Theosophy Undertakes to Offer Deliverance--But Becomes Deeply Entangled Itself--The West Looks to Personal Immortality--The East Balances the Accounts of Life in a Series of Reincarnations--Theosophy Produces a Distinct Type of Character--A "Tour de Force" of the Imagination--A Bridge of Clouds--The Difficulties of Reincarnation--Immortality Nobler, Juster and Simpler--Pantheism at Its Best--and Its Worst.

X. SPIRITUALISM 284

The Genesis of Modern Spiritualism--It Crosses to Europe--The Beginnings of Trance-Mediumship--The Society for Psychical Research Begins Its Work--Confronts Difficulties--William James Enters the Field--The Limitations of Psychical Investigation--The Society for Psychical Research Gives Intellectual Standing to Spiritism--The Very Small Number of Dependable Mediums--Spiritism a Question of Testimony and Interpretation--Possible Explanations of Spiritistic Phenomena--Myers' Theory of Mediumship--Telepathy--Controls--The Dilemma of Spiritism--The Influence of Spiritism--The Real Alternative to Spiritism--The Investigations of Emile Boirac--Geley's Conclusions--The Meaning of Spiritism for Faith.

XI. MINOR CULTS: THE MEANING OF THE CULTS FOR THE CHURCH 326

Border-land Cults--Bahaism--The Bab and His Successors--The Temple of Unity--General Conclusions--The Cults Are Aspects of the Creative Religious Consciousness of the Age--Their Parallels in the Past--The Healing Cults Likely to be Adversely Influenced by the Scientific Organization of Psycho-therapy--New Thought Will Become Old Thought--Possible Absorption of the Cults by a Widening Historic Christianity--Christianity Influenced by the Cults--Medical Science and the Healing Cults--A Neglected Force--Time and the Corrections of Truth.

I

THE FORMS AND BACKGROUNDS OF INHERITED CHRISTIANITY

Chronologically the point of departure for such a study as this is the decade from 1880 to 1890. This is only an approximation but it will do. It was a particularly decorous decade. There was no fighting save on the outposts of colonial empires, the little wars of Soldiers Three and Barrack Room Ballads--too far away for their guns to be heard in the streets of capital cities, but lending a touch of colour to newspaper head-lines and supplying new material for rising young writers. It was the decade of triumphant Democracy and triumphant Science and triumphant Industrialism and, among the more open-minded, of triumphant Evolution. Western Civilization was sure of its forces, sure of its formulae, sure of its future; there were here and there clouds no bigger than a man's hand against particularly luminous horizons, but there was everywhere a general agreement that they would be dissolved by the force of benign development. The world seemed particularly well in hand.

The churches generally shared this confidence. Catholicism and Protestantism had reached a tacit working agreement as to their spheres of influence and were even beginning to fraternize a little. The divisive force of Protestantism seemed to have spent itself. Since Alexander Campbell--dead now for a decade and a half--no Protestant sect of any importance had been established. The older denominations had achieved a distinctive finality in organization and doctrine. Evolution and Biblical criticism were generally the storm centers of controversy and though these controversies were severe enough they produced no schisms in the churches themselves. A few religious leaders were urging a more thoroughgoing social interpretation and application of the teachings of Jesus; such as these were really looked upon with more suspicion than the propagandists of a liberal theology.

We see now with almost tragic clearness that, beneath the surface of the whole interrelated order of that tranquil afternoon of the Victorian epoch, there were forces in action working toward such a challenge of the accepted and inherited as cultures and civilizations are asked to meet only in the great crises of history and bound to issue, as they have issued in far-flung battle lines, in the overthrow of ancient orders and new alignments along every front of human interest. It will be the task of the historians of the future who will have the necessary material in hand to follow these immense reactions in their various fields and they will find their real point of departure not in dates but in the human attitudes and outlooks which then made a specious show of being final--and were not final at all.

Just there also is the real point of departure for a study like this. We may date the rise of modern religious cults and movements from the last decades of the nineteenth century, but they are really reactions not against a time but a temper, an understanding of religion and a group of religious validations which had been built up through an immense labour of travailing generations and which toward the end of the last century were in the way of being more seriously challenged than for a thousand years (and if this seems too strong a statement the reader is asked to wait for at least the attempted proof of it). We shall have to begin, then, with a state of mind which for want of a better name I venture to call the representative orthodox religious consciousness of the end of the nineteenth century. That this consciousness is Christian is of course assumed. It is Protestant rather than Catholic, for Protestantism has supplied the larger number of followers to the newer religious movements.

To begin with, this representative religious consciousness was by no means simple. Professor James Harvey Robinson tells us that the modern mind is really a complex, that it contains and continues the whole of our inheritances and can be understood only through the analysis of all the contributive elements which have combined to make it what it is and that the inherited elements in it far outweigh more recent contributions. The religious mind is an equally complex and deep-rooted inheritance and can best be approached by a consideration of the bases of religion.

_Certain Qualities Common to All Religions_

We are but pilgrims down roads which space and time supply; we cannot account for ourselves in terms of what we know to be less than ourselves, nor can we face the shadow which falls deeply across the end of our way without dreaming, at least, of that which lies beyond. Whence? Whither? and Why? are insurgent questions; they are voices out of the depths. A very great development of intelligence was demanded before such questions really took definite shape, but they are implicit in even the most rudimentary forms of religion, nor do we outgrow them through any achievement of Science or development of Philosophy. They become thereby, if anything, more insistent. Our widening horizons of knowledge are always swept by a vaster circumference of mystery into which faith must write a meaning and beyond which faith must discern a destiny.

Religion begins, therefore, in our need so to interpret the power manifest in the universe[1] as to come into some satisfying relationship therewith. It goes on to supply an answer to the dominant questions--Whence? Whither? Why? It fulfills itself in worship and communion with what is worshipped. Such worship has addressed itself to vast ranges of objects, fulfilled itself in an almost unbelievable variety of rites. And yet in every kind of worship there has been some aspiration toward an ideal excellence and some endeavour, moreover, of those who worship to come into a real relation with what is worshipped. It would need a detailed treatment, here impossible, to back up so general a statement with the facts which prove it, but the facts are beyond dispute. It would be equally difficult to analyze the elements in human nature which lead us to seek such communion. The essential loneliness of the soul, our sense of divided and warring powers and the general emotional instability of personality without fitting objects of faith and devotion, all contribute to the incurable religiosity of human nature.

[Footnote 1: I have taken as a working definition of Religion a phrase quoted by Ward Fowler in the introduction to his Gifford Lectures on "The Religious Experience of the Roman People." "Religion is the effective desire to be in right relationship to the power manifesting itself in the Universe." This is only a formula but it lends itself to vital interpretations and is a better approach to modern cults, many of which are just that endeavour, than those definitions of religion just now current which define it as a system of values or a process of evaluation.]

The value which religion has for those who hold it is perhaps as largely tested by its power to give them a real sense of communion with God as by any other single thing, but this by no means exhausts the value of religion for life. All religions must, in one way or another, meet the need of the will for guidance and the need of the ethical sense for right standards. Religion has always had an ethical content, simple enough to begin with as religion itself was simple. Certain things were permitted, certain things prohibited as part of a cult. These permissions and prohibitions are often strangely capricious, but we may trace behind taboo and caste and the ceremonially clean and unclean an always emerging standard of right and wrong and a fundamental relationship between religion and ethics. Religion from the very first felt itself to be the more august force and through its superior authority gave direction and quality to the conduct of its devotees. It was long enough before all this grew into Decalogues and the Sermon on the Mount and the latter chapters of Paul's great letters to his churches and our present system of Christian ethics, but we discover the beginning of the lordship of religion over conduct even in the most primitive cults.

We shall find as we go on that this particular aspect of religion is less marked in modern religious cults and movements than either the quest for a new understanding of God or new answers to the three great questions, or the longing for a more satisfying communion with God. They accept, for the most part, the generally held standards of Christian conduct, but even so, they are beginning to develop their own ethical standards and to react upon the conduct of those who hold them.