PART III.--DIFFERENT MACHINES CONSIDERED IN THE STATE OF MOTION.

LESSON 28. _General Considerations. Résumé of the Notions acquired on this Subject._

Equation of _vis viva_, and transmission of work in machines, account being taken of the different causes of power and resistance. Physical constitution of machines; _receiver_, _communicators_, and _operator_. Influence of the weights, of frictions, of shocks, and any changes in the _vis viva_. Parts with continuous or uniform motion, with alternating or oscillating motion. Laws of the motion on starting from rest, and when the stationary condition is established. The positions to which the maximum and minimum of the _vis viva_ correspond are those in which there is equilibrium between all the forces, exclusive of the forces of inertia. Advantage of uniform or periodic motion. General methods for regulating the motion; symmetrical distribution of the masses and strains; flys and various regulators. Brakes and moderators; their inconveniences. Object and real advantages of machines.

LESSONS 27-35. _Hydraulic Wheels._

Vertical wheels with float-boards, with curved ladles, and with spouts. Figure of the surface of the fluid in these latter. Horizontal wheels working by float-boards, buckets, and reaction. Turbines. Description, play, and useful effects compared according to the results of experiment. Vertical wheels of windmills and steamboats. Screw propeller.

_Windmills._

Description. Result of Coulomb’s observations.

_On the principal kinds of Pumps._

Special organs of pumps. Valves and pistons, force pump, sucking pump; limit to the rise of the water. Sucking and force pump. Dynamical effects. Indication as to the losses of _vis viva_ and the waste in different pumps. Explanation of the hydraulic ram. Air vessel. Fire pumps. Double action pumps.

_Various Hydraulic Machines._

Hydraulic press. Water engine. Exhausting machines; _norias_; under and overshot wheels; Archimedes’ screw, construction and experimental data.

LESSONS 36-39. _Steam Engines._

Succinct description of the principal kinds of steam-engine with or without detent. Effects and advantages of the detent. Condenser. Air Pump. Furnace and feeding-pump.

Variable detent. Formulæ and experimental results.

LESSONS 40-42. _Revision._

Reflections on the totality of the subjects of the course.

IV. PHYSICS.--_FIRST YEAR._

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF BODIES.--HYDROSTATICS.--HYDRODYNAMICS.

LESSONS 1-5. _Preliminary Notions._

Definitions of physics. Phenomena. Physical laws. Experiments are designed to make them spring out of the phenomena. Method of induction. Physical theories; different character of the experimental and mathematical methods.

_General Properties of Bodies._

Extension. Measure of lengths. Vernier. Cathetometer. Micrometer screw. Spherometer. Dividing engine.

Divisibility. Porosity. Ideas generally received on the molecular constitution of bodies. These conceptions, which are purely hypothetical, must not be confounded with physical laws. Elasticity. Mobility. Inertia. Forces; their equilibrium, their effects, their numerical estimation.

_Weight or Gravity._

Direction of gravity. Plumb-line. Relation between the direction of gravity and the surface of still water.

Weight. Center of gravity.

Experimental study of the motion produced by weight. In vacuum, all bodies fall with the same velocity. Disturbing influence of the air. Inclined plane of Galileo. Atwood’s machine. To prove by experiment; 1º the law of the spaces described; 2º the law of velocities. Morin’s self-registering apparatus with revolving cylinder.

Law of the independence of the effect produced by a force upon a body, and the motion anteriorily acquired by this body. Law of the independence of the effects of forces which act simultaneously upon the same body. Experimental demonstration and generalization of these laws. Law of the equality of action and reaction.

Mass. Acceleration. For equal masses the forces are as the accelerations which they produce. Relation between the force, mass, and acceleration. Collision.

General laws of uniformly accelerated motion. Formulæ.

Pendulum. Law of the isochronism of small oscillations and law of the lengths deduced from observation.

Method of coincidences or beats. Use of the pendulum as the measure of time. Simple pendulum; formulæ. Compound pendulum: the laws of the oscillations of a compound pendulum are the same as the laws of the oscillations of a simple pendulum whose length may be calculated.

Determination by means of the pendulum of the acceleration produced by gravity. This acceleration is independent of the nature of the body.

Remark that the formulæ for the motion of oscillation apply to the comparison of forces of any kind, that may be regarded as constant and parallel to themselves in all positions of the oscillating body.

Identity of gravity and universal attraction.

Measure of weights. Balance. Conditions to be attended to in making it. Absolute sensibility; proportional sensibility. Method of double weighing. Details of the precautions necessary in order to obtain an exact weight.

_Different States of Bodies. Hydrostatics._

Solids. Cohesion. Transmission of external pressures.

Elasticity. The true laws of elasticity are unknown. Empirical laws in certain simple cases, and for a very small action. Elasticity of compression, extension, torsion. Experimental determination of the co-efficients of elasticity. Limits of elasticity. Limits of tenacity.

Ductility. Temper. Cold hammering. Annealing.

Liquids. Fluidity. Viscosity. Physical laws which form the basis of hydrostatics:--1º the transmission of external pressures is equal in all directions; 2º the pressure exercised in the interior of a liquid upon an element of a surface is normal to that element, and independent (as to amount) of its direction. These principles are demonstrated by the experimental verification of the consequences drawn from them.

Application to heavy liquids. Free surface, and surface _de niveau_. Pressure upon the parts of the containing vessel, and upon the bottom in particular; hydrostatic paradox; verificatory experiments. Haldat’s apparatus. Hydrostatic press.

Application to immersed or floating bodies (principle of Archimedes;) verificatory experiments. (In treating of the equilibrium of floating bodies, the conditions of stability are not gone into.)

Superposed liquids.

Communicating vessels. Water level. Spirit level; its use in instruments.

Densities of solids and liquids. Anemometers.

Compressibility of liquids. Piezometer. Correction due to the compressibility of the solid envelop.

Gas. Expansibility. Other properties common to liquids and gases. Principle of the equal transmission of pressures in all directions. Weight of gases. Pressure due to weight (principle of Archimedes.) Weight of body in air and in vacuum. Aerostation.

Superposed liquids and gases.

Communicating vessels. Barometer.

Detailed construction of barometer. Barometers of Fortin, Gay-Lussac, Bunten. Indication of the corrections necessary.

Mariotte’s law. Regnault’s experiments.

Manometer with atmospheric air--with compressed air. Bourdon’s manometer.

Law of the mixture of gases.

Air pump. Condensing pump.

_Primary Notions of Hydrodynamics._

Toricelli’s principle. Mariotte’s vessel and syphon. Uniform flow of liquids. The same of gases.

_Molecular Phenomena._

Cohesion of liquids. Adhesion of liquids to solids. Capillary phenomena. Apparent attractions and repulsions of floating bodies.

Adhesion of drops.

Molecular actions intervene as disturbing forces in the phenomena of the equilibrium and motion of liquids.

HEAT.

EFFECTS OF HEAT ON BODIES.

LESSONS 6-9. _Generalities._

General effects. Arbitrary choice of one of these effects to define the thermometric condition of a body. Conventional adoption of a thermometer. Definition of temperature.

_Dilating Effects._

Definition of the co-efficients of linear, superficial, and cubic dilatation. Approximate relation between the numerical values of these three co-efficients. The value of the co-efficient of dilatation depends upon the thermometric substance and the temperature selected as the zero point. It becomes nearly independent of the zero point when the co-efficient is very small.

Relation between volume, density, and temperature. Linear dilatation of solid bodies. Ramsden’s instrument. Cubical dilatation of liquids. Dulong and Petit’s experiments on mercury. Discussion. Regnault’s experiments.

Cubical dilatation of solids and of other liquids when that of mercury is given.

Relations between the volume, density, and elasticity of a gas, and its temperature.

Cubical dilatation of gases. Experiments of Gay-Lussac, Rudberg, and M. Regnault. Advantage of varying the methods of experimenting in these delicate researches.

Methods based upon the changes of volume under a constant pressure, and upon the changes of pressure for a constant volume.

The disagreement of these two methods is due to deviations from the law of Mariotte.

The constancy of the co-efficients of dilatation previously defined is only approximately true.

Necessity of employing two different co-efficients of dilatation according as consideration is being had to the variations of volume to a given pressure, or of pressure to a given volume.

Empirical formulæ for the dilatation of liquids.

Graphical constructions.

LESSON 10. _Thermometers._

Construction of thermometers. Mercurial thermometer. Details of construction. Fixed points. Different scales; their relation. Arbitrary scales. Change which takes place in the zero point. Different precautions to be observed in using the mercurial thermometer.

General want of comparability of mercurial thermometers with tubes of different material.

Air thermometers. They are comparable with one another within the limits of the errors of experiment, whatever the nature of the tube employed. This property entitles the air thermometer to a preference for all accurate measures. Comparison of the air and mercurial thermometers.

THERMOSCOPE, DIFFERENTIAL THERMOMETER, PYROMETERS, BREGUET’S THERMOMETER.

LESSONS 11-13. _Changes of State produced by Heat._

Exposition of the phenomena which accompany the liquefaction of solids and the solidification of liquids. Constancy of the temperature whilst the phenomenon is going on.

Sudden melting and freezing. Persistance of the liquid state beneath the melting point.

Influence of pressure.

Exposition of the phenomena which accompany the conversion of liquids or solids into vapor, and the inverse passage from the gaseous to the liquid or solid state. Constancy of the temperatures whilst the phenomenon is going on.

Influence of pressure.

Phenomena of ebullition in free space. Augmentation of the temperature and pressure in a confined space. Papin’s digester.

Properties of vapors in spaces and in gases. Saturated vapors. Their tension does not depend upon the space which they occupy, but only upon their temperature.

Effects of a diminution or increase of pressure without change of temperature; the same without change of pressure. Effects of lowering the temperature in a limited region of space occupied by vapor.

Tension of a saturated vapor at the boiling point of its liquid.

Measure of the tensions of the vapor of water. Experiments of Dalton, Gay-Lussac, Dulong, and Arago, and of M. Regnault.

Tables of the tensions of steam. Empirical formulæ. Graphical constructions.

It is assumed that non-saturated vapors are subject to the same laws as gases.

APPLICATIONS. CORRECTION OF THE BOILING-POINT IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THERMOMETERS. BAROMETRICAL THERMOMETERS.

LESSONS 14-16. _Various Applications of the Laws previously established._

A phenomenon can not always be separated from the accessory phenomena which concur with it in producing the final result. Necessity of corrections to render complex results comparable _inter se_.

Density of solids when regard is had to the temperature and weight of the gases displaced by them.

Precautions to be attended to in the experiments. Empirical formulæ for the density of liquids. Maximum density of water. The temperature corresponding to the maximum must be determined graphically, or by interpolation.

Corrections for measures of capacity, for barometric measures.

The uncertainty of the corrections can not, in any considerable degree, affect the densities of solids and liquids.

Density of gases. Biot and Arago’s experiments. Special difficulties of the question. The uncertainty of the corrections may sensibly affect the results. Regnault’s method.

The same method may be applied to the determination of the co-efficient of dilatation for gases.

Density of vapors. Definition founded on the hypothetical application of the same laws to gases and vapors. Formulæ. Experimental method of Gay-Lussac and of Dumas. Corrections. Comparison of the two methods. Necessity of conducting the experiments at a distance from the saturation point. Latour’s experiments. Relations between the weight and volume of a gas, and its temperatures; between the weight and volume of a gas mixed with vapors, and its temperature. Various problems.

Hygrometry. Chemical hygrometry. Hygrometry by the dew-point. Psychrometry.

PROPAGATION OF HEAT.

LESSONS 17-18. _Propagation at a Distance._

Rapid propagation of heat at a distance, in vacuum, in gases, in certain liquid or solid mediums. Experiments which establish this.

Rays of heat. Velocity of propagation. Intensity of heat received at a distance. Intensity of heat received or emitted obliquely. Emitting power, power of absorption, reflection, diffusion. The emitting and absorbing power are expressible by the same number in terms of their proper units respectively.

Analysis of calorific radiations by absorption. Different effects of deathermanous or thermochroic medium. Different influences of increasing thicknesses of the combination of different mediums. Radiations proceeding from different sources, various effects of different mediums on these radiations.

The calorific radiations emanating from different sources, have all the characters of differently colored heterogeneous rays of light.

THEORY OF RADIATION AND OF THE DYNAMICAL EQUILIBRIUM OF TEMPERATURES. APPARENT REFLECTION OF COLD.

LESSON 19. _Law of Cooling._

Definition of the rate of cooling. Many causes may conspire in the cooling of a body.

Cooling in space. Newton’s law only an approximation. Experimental investigation of the true law. Method to be followed in this investigation. The velocity of cooling is not a _datum_ directly observable. It must be deduced provisionally from an empirical relation between the temperature and the time. Preliminary experiments. Course of the definitive experiments. Elementary experimental laws.

Hypothetical form of the function which expresses the velocity of cooling. To determine by means of the preceding experimental laws the unknown form of the function which expresses the law of radiation. Relation between the temperatures and the times. This relation only contains data immediately observable, and may be verified _à posteriori_.

The contents which enter into the preceding relation depend upon thermometric constants and the nature of the radiating surface.

The contact of a gas modifies the law of cooling.

LESSONS 20-21. _Propagation by Contact._

Slow propagation of heat in the interior of bodies, in solids, liquids, and gases. Confirmatory experiments. Hypothesis of partial radiation. Theoretical law resulting from this hypothesis upon the decrease of temperatures in a solid limited by two indefinite parallel planes maintained at constant temperatures. Determination of the co-efficient of conductibility by the experimental realization of these conditions. This experiment determines a numerical value of the co-efficients; it is not of a nature to serve as a check upon the theoretical principles. Enunciation of the law resulting from the same theoretical principles upon the decrease of temperatures in a thin bar heated at one end.

CALORIMETRY.

LESSONS 22-23. _Specific Heats._

Comparison of the quantities of heat. The quantities of heat are not proportioned to the temperatures. Definitions of the unity of heat. General method of mixtures to estimate the quantities of heat. Experimental precautions and corrections.

Application of the general method of mixtures. Specific heats of solids and liquids. Law of the specific heat of atoms. Heat absorbed by expansion, restored by the compression of bodies. Experiments on gases. Specific heats of gases under constant pressure. Measure of specific heats of gases under constant pressure. Special difficulties of the question. Succinct indication of one of the methods. Specific heats to a constant volume.

LESSON 24. _Latent Heat._

Component heat of liquids absorbed into the _latent_ state during fusion, restored to the _free_ state during solidification.

Influence of the viscous state. Latent heat of ice. Ice calorimeter; its defects.

Component heat of vapors, absorbed into the latent state during vaporization, restored to the free state during condensation. Measure of the latent heat of vapors. Regnault’s experiments.

Empirical laws on the latent heat of vaporization.

_Applications of Calorimetry._

Means of producing heat or cold; 1, by changes in density; 2, by changes of state. Freezing mixtures. Vaporization of liquids. Condensation of vapors.

Steam-boilers. Warming by hot air and hot water. Various problems. Sensations produced by a jet of vapor.

Different physical and chemical sources of heat; percussion, friction, chemical combinations, animal heat, natural heat of the globe, solar heat, &c. It will be remarked that mechanical work may become a source of heat, and heat a source of mechanical work.

STATICAL ELECTRICITY.--MAGNETISM.--STATICAL ELECTRICITY.

LESSONS 25-27.

General phenomena. Distinction of bodies into conductors and non-conductors. Distinction of electricity into two kinds. Separation of the two electricities by friction. Hypothesis of electric fluids. Effects of vacuum of gases and vapors of points. Electrical attractions and repulsions. Electrization by influence. Case where the influenced body is already electrized. Sparks; power of points. Electrization by influence preceding the motion of light bodies.

Electroscopes.

Electrical machines of Van-Marum, Nairne, Armstrong.

Condenser. Accumulation of electricity upon its surface. Leyden jar. Batteries. Electrical discharges. Effects of electricity.

Condensing electroscope. Electrophorus.

Velocity of statical electricity.

Atmospherical electricity. Phenomena observed with a serene sky. Electricity of clouds. Storms. Lightning. Thunder. Effects of thunder. Return-shock. Lightning conductor.

Different sources of statical electricity.

MAGNETISM.

LESSONS 28-30.

Natural magnets. Action upon iron and steel. Artificial magnets. The attractive action appears as if it were concentrated about the extremities of magnetic bars. First idea of poles.

Direction of a magnetized bar under the earth’s action. Reciprocal action of the poles of two magnets. Names given to the poles.

Phenomena of influence. Action of a magnet upon a bar of soft iron; upon a bar of steel. Coercive force. Effects of the rupture of a magnetized bar. Theoretical ideas on the constitution of magnets. More precise definition of the poles.

Action of the earth upon a magnet. The earth may be considered as a magnet. Its action may be destroyed by means of a magnet suitably placed. Astatic needles. The magnetic action of the earth is equivalent to a _couple_. Three constants define the couple of terrestrial action. Declination. Inclination. Intensity. Measure of the declination; of the inclination.

Magnetic metals. Influence of hammering, tempering, &c. Methods of magnetizing. Saturation. Loss of magnetism. Influence of heat. Magnetic lines. Armatures.

Magnetization by the earth’s influence. Means of determining the magnetic state of a body.

_Measure of Magnetism and Electricity._

LESSONS 31-32.

Coulomb’s balance. Distribution of magnetism on a magnetized bar; distribution of electricity at the surface of isolated conductors. Comparative discussion of the conditions of the two problems and the methods of experiment.

Laws of the magnetic attractions and repulsions. Law of electric attractions and repulsions. Comparative discussion of the conditions of the two problems, and the methods of experiment.

Determination of the law of magnetic attractions and repulsions by the method of oscillations.

Comparison of the magnetic intensity at different points of the earth’s surface.

LESSONS 33-34. _Revision._

Considerations on the totality of the subjects of the course.

_SECOND YEAR._

DYNAMICAL ELECTRICITY.--GALVANISM.

LESSONS 1-2.

Chemical sources of electricity. Experimental proofs. Arrangement devised by Volta to accumulate, at least in part, at the extremities of a heterogeneous conductor the electricity developed by chemical actions.

Pile. Tension at the two isolated extremities; at one single isolated extremity; at the two extremities reunited by a conductor. Continuous current of electricity. Poles. Direction of the current, &c.

Various modifications of the pile of Volta. Woollaston’s pile, Münch’s pile, &c. Dry piles; their application to the electroscope.

Principal effects of electricity in motion, and means of making the currents perceptible. Experiment of Oersted. Galvanoscopes.

Currents produced by heat in heterogeneous circuits. Thermo-electric piles. Thermometric graduation of thermo-electric piles.

Currents produced by the sources of statical electricity.

PROPERTIES OF CURRENTS.

LESSON 3. 1. _Chemical Actions._

Definitions. Phenomena of decomposition and transference. Reaction of the elements transferred upon electrodes of different kinds.

Principles of electrotyping.

Causes of the variation of the current in ordinary piles; means of remedying this; Daniell’s pile. Bunsen’s pile.

LESSONS 4-8. 2. _Mechanical Properties._

Reciprocal actions of rectilinear or sinuous currents parallel or inclined. Reaction of a current on itself.

Reciprocal actions of helices or solenoids. Continuous rotation of currents by their mutual action; by reaction. Analogy of magnets and solenoids. Electro-dynamical theory of magnetism. Action of magnets upon currents and solenoids. Action of currents upon magnets. Experiments of Biot and Savart. Continual rotation of a current by a magnet; of a magnet by a magnet.

Action of the earth upon currents; it acts as a rectilinear current directed from east to west, perpendicularly to the magnetic meridian.

Continual rotation of a current by the action of the earth.

Astatic conductors.

LESSONS 9-10. 3. _Magnetic Properties._

Action of an interposed conductor upon iron filings.

Electro-magnets. Magnetization temporary or permanent. Principles of the electric telegraph. Electrometers. Reference to diamagnetic phenomena.

4. _Electro-motive Properties._

Phenomena of induction by currents, by magnets. Phenomena of magnetism in motion. Induction of a current upon itself.

Induction of different orders.

Interrupted currents. Clarke’s machine.

LESSON 11. 5. _Calorific Properties._

Influence of the nature of the interposed conductor; of its section; of the intensity of the current. Unequal temperatures at the different junctions of a heterogeneous circuit.

6. _Luminous Properties._

Incandescence of solid conductors. Spectrum of the electric light. Voltaic arc. Transfer of ponderable matter. Action of the magnet upon the Voltaic arc.

7. _Physiological Action of Currents._

Some words on this subject. Muscles and nerves. Actions of discontinuous currents. Reotomic contrivances.

_Reometry._

Compass of sines, of tangents. Experimental graduation of galvanometers.

The dynamical intensity of a current diminishes when the length of a current increases. Reostat.

Laws of the dynamical intensity of a current in a homogeneous circuit. Reduced length and resistance of a circuit. Specific co-efficients of resistance. Laws of the dynamic intensity of a current in a heterogeneous circuit.

The intensity of currents is in the inverse ratio of the total reduced length, and proportional to the sum of the electromotive forces. Formula of the pile. Discussion of the case of hydro-electric piles-- thermo-electric piles. Conditions for the construction of a pile, with reference to the effects to be produced. Conditions for the construction of a galvanometer with reference to its intended application.

Laws of secondary currents in the simplest cases. The chemical intensity of a current is proportional to its dynamical intensity.

ACOUSTICS.

LESSONS 12-15.

Noise, sound, quality of the sound, pitch, intensity, _timbre_. A state of vibration in a solid, liquid, or gaseous body is accompanied with the production of sound.

The pitch depends on the number of vibrations. Unison. Instruments for counting the vibrations:--1st. Graphic method. 2nd. Toothed wheels. 3rd. Lever. Feeling of concord. Musical scale. Gamut. Limit of appreciable sounds.

Study of vibrating motions in solids. Vibrating cords. Vibrations transversal, longitudinal. Experimental laws. Sonometer.

Spontaneous division of a cord into segments. Fundamental sounds. Harmonic sounds.

Straight and curved rods. Transversal and longitudinal vibrations. Experimental laws. Division into segments. Nodes. Ventral segments. Membranes.

Plane and curved plates. The vibrations divide them into “_concamerations_.” Nodal lines. Harmonic sounds.

Study of the vibrations in liquids and in gases.

Theoretical ideas upon the propagation of a vibratory motion in indefinite elastic media, on an indefinite cylindrical tube. Waves of condensation of dilatation. Progressive nodes and ventral divisions. Laws of the intensities of sound. Direct measure of the velocity of the propagation of sound in water. Measure of the velocity of the propagation of sound in air. Formulæ without demonstration. Comparison of the formulæ with experiment.

Sonorous waves reflected in an indefinite medium.

Fixed nodes and ventral divisions. Sonorous waves reflected in closed and open tubes. Fixed nodes and ventral divisions; the vibratory state and density thereat.

Series of sounds afforded by the same tube. Effect of holes.

Sonorous reflected waves in rods. Series of sounds afforded by the same rod vibrating longitudinally. Indirect measure of the velocity of sound in gases, liquids, and solids.

Experiments on the communication of vibrating motion in heterogeneous mediums, on the general direction of the vibrating motion communicated.

Intensification of sounds. Interferences. Beats. Different stringed and wind instruments. Means of setting them in vibration.

A few words on the organs of voice and hearing. Incompleteness of our knowledge on this subject.

OPTICS.

LESSONS 16-17. _Propagation of Light._

Propagation of light in a straight line. Rays of light. Geometrical theory of shadows. Velocity of light. Rœmer’s observations. Laws of intensity of light. Photometers of Bouguer, Rumford. Intensity of oblique rays. Comparison of illuminating powers. Total brightness. Intrinsic brightness.

_Reflection._

Reflection of light: its laws. Experimental demonstration. Images formed by one or more plane mirrors. To ascertain if a looking-glass has its two faces parallel.

Spherical mirrors. Foci, formulæ. Discussion. Images by reflection. Measure of the radius of a spherical mirror.

Definition of caustics by reflection. Definition of the two spherical aberrations in mirrors.

Woollaston’s goniometer.

LESSON 18. _Refraction._

Refraction of light in homogeneous mediums. Descartes’ law. Experimental demonstration for solids and liquids.

Inverse return of the rays. Successive refractions. Indices of transmission in terms of the principal indices. Consequences of Descartes’ law. Total reflection. Manner of observing it.

Irregular refractions. Mirage.

Refraction is always accompanied with the accessory phenomenon of dispersion.

Geometrical consequences of the law of refraction. Focus of a plane surface. Focus of a medium bounded by two parallel plane surfaces; by two plane surfaces inclined in the form of a prism.

Foci of a spherical surface; of a medium limited by two spherical surfaces. Lenses.

Formula for lenses. Discussion. Varieties of lenses. Optic center. Images. Measure of the focal distance of lenses.

Definition of caustics by refraction. Definition of the two spherical aberrations of a lens.

LESSONS 19-20. _Dispersion._

Unequal refrangibility of the differently colored rays which compose white light. Analysis of heterogeneous light by the prisms. Newton’s method. Solar spectrum. Homogeneity of the different colors. Second refraction of a homogeneous pencil. Experiment with crossed prisms. Precautions to be attended to in the experiments. The spectrum, obtained by Newton’s method, differs from the spectrum produced at the focus of a lens placed between the prism and the picture, according to the method of Fraunhofer. Reasons of the comparative purity of this latter spectrum. Fraunhofer’s lines. Different spectra of different sources of heterogeneous light. Marginal iridescence of a large pencil of natural light traversing a prism. Dispersion of light by lenses. Iridescence of focal images. Recomposition of light, by means of a prism at the focus of a spherical mirror or a lens, by the rapid rotation of a plane mirror, by the rotation of a disk with party-colored sectors. Compound colors.

Chemical and calorific radiations accompany luminous radiations.

Analysis of light by absorption. Characteristic action of transparent colored mediums upon different sorts of compound light. Different influences of increasing thickness. Effects of differently colored mediums upon heterogeneous light. Effects of differently colored mediums upon homogeneous rays separated by the prism.

LESSON 21. _Measure of the Indices of Refraction._

Determination of the indices of refraction.

1. In solids. Measure of the refracting angles. Minimum of deviation. Measure of the corresponding deviation. Use of Fraunhofer’s lines.

2. In liquids.

3. In gases. Special difficulties of the question. Experimental method. Biot’s and Arago’s experiments.

Any power whatever of the index of refraction diminished by unit is sensibly proportional to the density of the gas. Method of Dulong founded on this remark.

LESSONS 22-23. _Application of the preceding Laws._

Rainbow. Different orders of bow.

_Achromatism._

Achromatic prisms. Diasperometer achromatism of lenses; how to verify it. Definition of secondary spectra: their nature gives the means of recognizing, whether flint or crown glass predominates, in an imperfectly achromatic lens.

Instruments essentially consisting of an achromatic lens. Magic lantern; megascope; solar microscope; camera obscura; collimators.

_Vision._

Summary description of the principal optical parts of the eye. They act like the lens of a camera obscura to form an image upon the retina. Distinct vision; optometers; short sight; long sight; spectacles.

Binocular vision; perspective peculiar to each eye; estimation of distances; sensation of solidity; stereoscope; estimation of magnitudes.

PERSISTENCE OF IMPRESSIONS; DIVERS EXPERIMENTS.

LESSONS 24-26. _Optical Instruments._

_Camera lucida._ A lens is necessary to reduce to the same apparent distance the two objects seen simultaneously. Instruments to assist the sight; simple microscope; the magnifying power; distinctness; field; advantage of a diaphragm; it modifies the field and the brightness variously according to its position.

Woollaston’s double glass; its advantages.

General principle of compound dioptrical instruments.

Compound microscope; experimental measure of its magnifying power, by means of the diaphragm, by means of the camera lucida.

Astronomical telescope; object glass; simple eye-glass. Necessity for a diaphragm; its place; the wires, their place; optic axis of a telescope. Parallax of the threads of the wires; magnifying power of the object-glass; of the eye-glass; field of view of a telescope.

Optic ring; different methods of measuring the magnifying power.

Distinctness of a telescope; night-glass.

Different distances of drawing out the eye-glass for short-sighted and long-sighted observers.

Different sorts of eye-pieces; positive eye-pieces; ordinary double eye-piece of the astronomical telescope. Ramsden’s eye-piece; treble eye-piece of the terrestrial telescope. Negative eye-pieces; simple eye-piece of Galileo. Compound _ditto_ of Huyghens; advantages and disadvantages of these different combinations; general principle of catadioptrical instruments.

LESSONS 27-29. _Double Refraction._

Crystallized mediums do not all act upon light like homogeneous mediums.

Double refraction of Iceland spar: the extraordinary image turns round the ordinary image. The ordinary and extraordinary rays cross at the interior of the crystal.

Huyghens’ construction; measure of the ordinary and extraordinary indices of refraction; attractive and repulsive crystals; a ray falling perpendicularly does not always bifurcate in a camera with parallel faces, nor in a prism. Definition of uniaxial and biaxial crystals.

The dispersion of the ordinary ray differs from that of the extraordinary ray.

The two rays are unequally absorbed in many colored mediums. Tourmaline.

Doubly-refracting prisms; their construction. Use of doubly-refracting prisms to measure apparent diameters, &c.

LESSONS 30-31. _Polarization._

Successive refractions in doubly-refracting prisms. Special properties of the two rays emerging from the first doubly refracting crystal. Polarization by double refraction.

Reflection from transparent media polarizes the light partially or wholly according to the incidence. Brewster’s law. Reflection of polarized light from a transparent medium.

Simple refraction partially polarizes the light. Many successive refractions polarize it almost totally. Piles of glasses.

Different methods to obtain a ray of polarized light, 1st, by reflection; 2nd, by simple refraction; 3rd, by double refraction, by eliminating one of the refracted pencils;--by a screen,--by total reflection, Nicol’s prism, by absoption, tourmaline.

Distinctive characters of light completely or partially polarized.

LESSONS 32-34. _Theory of Undulations._

Hypothesis of luminous undulations.

Vibratory state of a simple ray of homogeneous light. Vibratory state at the intersection of two simple rays of homogeneous light intersecting at a very small angle.

Experimental proofs in support of this hypothesis:

1st. Experiment with interferences, fringes. Their breadth is different for different colors; they give the various colors of the prism in white light. The alternately bright and dark sheets are hyperboloids of revolution. The measure of the fringes give the means of estimating the lengths of the undulations corresponding to different colors.

2nd. Colored rings of Newton, observed by reflection, by refraction. Law of the diameters; these vary in absolute length for different colors. Variously colored rings with white light. Reflected rings with a white spot at the center.

The theory of the undulations does not apply merely to theses phenomena. Explication of the laws of reflection and refraction. Definition of polarization in the system of waves. Elementary application of double refraction and the polarization which accompanies it in uniaxial crystals when the face of the crystal is parallel to the axis, and the plane of incidence normal or parallel to this axis.

_Chemical and Calorific Radiations._

Chemical and calorific radiations are subject, like luminous radiations, to the laws of reflection, refraction, dispersion, double refraction, polarization, interferences.

LESSONS 35-36. _Revision._

Considerations on the totality of the subjects of the course.

MANIPULATIONS IN PHYSICS.

The practical exercises which constitute the subject of this programme will be performed in part by the pupils under the direction of the professors and _répétiteurs_, in part by the professors and _répétiteurs_, with the coöperation of the pupils.

_FIRST YEAR._

Use of various instruments, designed for measuring lengths. Experiments on weight with Atwood’s machine, the inclined plane, Morin’s apparatus, and the pendulum.

Some experiments on elasticity.

Various verifications of the principles of hydrostatics and hydrodynamics.

Construction of aerometers.

Construction of a barometer, of a manometer. Various verifications of the law of Mariotte.

Various experiments with the air-pump.

Determination the density of solids or liquids by different methods.

Construction of a thermometer.

Experiments on the dilatation of liquids and solids by means of the ordinary thermometer and by means of the statical thermometer.

Experiments upon the dilatation of air by various methods.

Experiments upon the tension of vapors by different methods.

Determination of the density of vapors and gases by various methods.

Leading experiments on calorific radiation.

Experiments on cooling.

Determination of specific heats, heats of fusion, heats at which bodies pass into vapor.

Cooling mixtures.

Use of the chemical hygrometer, the wet bulb hygrometer.

Rehearsal of the leading experiments on magnetism.

To magnetize a needle, to reverse its poles.

Rehearsal of the principal experiments of statical electricity.

Experiments verificatory of the laws of electricity and magnetism.

Use of compasses.

_SECOND YEAR._

Experiments upon the chemical actions of poles.

Leading experiments in electro-dynamics.

Leading experiments upon the magnetic properties of currents.

Experiments on induction.

Experiments on the calorific and luminous actions of currents.

Quantitative experiments on the laws of currents.

Experiments on the propagation of sound; on the vibrations of rods of plane or curved plates, membranes, sonorous tubes.

Experiments on mirrors, plane or curved.

Experiments on lenses. Experiments on the decomposition of light by the prism--by absorption. Measures of the indices of the refraction of solids. Use of the magnifying glass and microscope; measure of the magnifying power. Use of different telescopes, with and without corrections. Measure of the magnifying power. Experiments on double refraction and polarization. Experiments on interferences and colored rings.

ORGANIZATION AND CONDITION IN 1869.

The organization of the school, which is fixed by a Decree dated Nov. 30th, 1863, is of a military character. There is a staff of military officers in addition to, and quite separate from, the staff employed in the duties of instruction. The pupils wear uniform, which, however, is more civil than military in appearance. They are formed into four companies which together constitute a battalion; and, although they are not actually subject to the penal code of the army, the discipline maintained and the punishments inflicted are entirety military in character.

The military establishment remains exactly as it was in 1856, and consists of:

The Commandant, a General Officer, usually of the Artillery or the Engineers, at present a General of Artillery.

A Second Commandant, a colonel or lieutenant-colonel, chosen from among the former pupils of the school; at present a colonel of Engineers.

Three captains of Artillery and three captains of Engineers, as inspectors of studies, chosen also from former pupils of the school.

Six adjutants (_adjudants_), non-commissioned officers, usually such as have been recommended for promotion.

Slight changes have been made in the civil establishment; it now consists of:--

1. A Director of Studies, at present a colonel of Engineers.

2. Seventeen professors,[12] (two additional professors for history) seventeen _Répétiteurs_ and assistant _Répétiteurs_, and five drawing masters. Of the 17 professors, two are at present officers of Engineers, and one an officer of Artillery; the remainder are civilians, of whom three are members of the Academy of Sciences.

[Footnote 12: In 1856 there were only 15 professors; there are now two additional professors for history, the study of which has been recently introduced at the school.]

3. Five examiners for admission, and five for conducting the examinations at the school. All of these at present are civilians.

4. An administrative staff consisting of a treasurer, librarian, &c.; and a medical staff.

The general control or supervision of the school is vested, under the War Department, in four great boards or councils, viz.:--

1. A Board of Administration, composed of the Commandant, the Second Commandant, the Director of Studies, two professors, two captains of the military staff, and two members of the administrative staff. This board has the superintendence of all the financial business, and all the minutiæ of the internal administration of the school.

2. A Board of Discipline, consisting of the Second Commandant, the Director of Studies, three captains of the Military Staff, and one major of the army, selected from former pupils of the school.[13] The duty of this board is to decide upon cases of misconduct.

[Footnote 13: Formerly two professors of the school were also members of the Council of Discipline, but the professors have now no voice in matters of discipline.]

3. A Board of Instruction, whose members are, the Commandant, the Second Commandant, the Director of Studies, the Examiners of Students, the Professors, and two captains of the Military Staff; and whose chief duty is to make recommendations relating to ameliorations in the studies and the programmes of admission and of instruction in the school to--

4. A Board of Improvement (_Conseil de Perfectionnement_), charged with the general control of the studies, and formed of:--

The Commandant, president, The Second Commandant, The Director of Studies, Two delegates from the Naval Department, Two delegates from the Department of Public Works, One delegate from the Home or Finance Department, Three delegates from the War Department, Two members of the Academy of Sciences, Two examiners of students, Three professors of the school.

The delegates from the public departments are appointed by the respective ministers; the members of the Academy, the examiners, and the professors are selected by the Minister of War. The real management of the school, so far as the course of instruction is concerned, is in the hands of the _Conseil de Perfectionnement_; it will be seen that of the 18 members composing it more than half are entirely independent of the school, and are men of eminence in the various public services for which the instruction at the Polytechnic is preparatory. One of the chief duties of the Council is to see that the studies form a good preparation for those of the more special schools (_Ecoles d’ Application_) for the civil and military services; and the eminent character of its members gives great weight to the recommendations they make to the Minister of War.

The annual expenses of the school, as extracted from the Budget for 1869, are as follows:--

Francs. Pay of staff, professors, &c., 331,850 Instruction, maintenance, examination of candidates, clothing, books, &c., 321,073 Francs. Outfits for 30 new pupils at 600 francs each 18,000 Allowances (_premières mises_) to 25 exhibitioners on admission to the military services at 750 fr. each 18,750 ------ 36,750 Maintenance and repair of buildings, 30,000 ------- Total sum charged in the schools estimate, 719,673 Add regimental pay of 28 officers and non-commissioned officers employed at the school, 85,515 ------- Total expenditure 805,188 Deduct repayments from pupils, 237,000 ------- Cost to the State, 568,188

Or about 22,720_l._

The chief changes that have been made in regard to the course of instruction since 1856, may be summarized as follows:

1. The more elementary portions of chemistry and physics which are required in the entrance examination, but which were formerly repeated at the school, have been omitted. The course of instruction in these subjects is now confined to the more advanced portions which do not enter into the entrance examination.

2. The mathematical courses have in some points been slightly curtailed, and the number of lectures in French literature and German have been diminished. By the modifications thus made in the programmes, it has been found possible to shorten the whole course of study and to increase the length of the vacations.

3. The subject of “Military Art,” which formerly entered into the final examination is no longer taken into consideration in determining the order of merit of the pupils. In this respect the course of instruction may be said to have even less of a military character than formerly. Topographical drawing is the single military subject which has any influence on the final classification of the pupils, and this only to a very slight extent.

4. History has been introduced as a subject of instruction. This change was made in 1862. The course comprises general history, both ancient and modern, but more especially the history of France in modern times. The introduction of this subject appears to have arisen partly from a feeling that an acquaintance with history was a necessary element of a liberal education, and partly from a wish to meet, to some extent, an objection often made to the Polytechnic course of instruction, that it was too deficient in studies of a literary character. History, however, like military art, is evidently still regarded as a subject of only secondary importance and has no influence on the final classification.

5. A diminution has been made in the number of examinations during the course, by the suppression of one of the half-yearly examinations by the professors (_interrogations générales_, as distinct from the _interrogations particulières_) in each year. Further reference will be made to this point when speaking of the examinations at the school.

6. The importance of written exercises in determining the respective merits of the pupils has been decreased, apparently from the difficulty of establishing a security that such compositions were the unaided work of the individual.

The following table shows the present course of instruction during the two years, and the alterations which have been made in the number of lectures in each subject since 1856:--

_Subject._--_First Year’s Course._ _Lectures in_--1868. 1856.

Analysis {Differential calculus, 25 28 {Integral calculus, 18 20 Descriptive geometry and geometrical drawing, 32 38 Mechanics and machinery, 40 40 Physics, comprising heat and electricity, 30 34 Chemistry:--The metals, 30 38 Astronomy and geodesy, 30 35 French composition and literature, 25 30 History, 25 0* German, 25 30 Figure and landscape drawing, 48 50

_Second Year’s Course._

Analysis:--Integral calculus, 32 32 Stereotomy:--Geometrical drawing of constructions in timber and masonry, 28 32 Mechanics:--Dynamics, hydrostatics, and machinery, 40 42 Physics:--Acoustics, optics, and heat, 30 36 Chemistry:--Continuation of the metals and organic chemistry, 30 38 Architecture and buildings, construction of roads, canals, and railways, 40 40 French composition and literature, 25 30 History, 25 0* German, 25 30 Military art, 20 20 Topography, 2 10 Figure and landscape drawing, 48 48

[* Introduced in 1862.]

In connection with several of the courses, such as descriptive geometry, stereotomy, machinery, and architecture, much drawing is done by the pupils; hand sketches are taken of the diagrams shown in the lecture-room, and finished drawings are afterwards executed in the _salles d’étude_. In addition to this, 30 attendances of two or three hours each, distributed over the two years, are especially devoted to drawing more elaborate plans and elevations of architectural constructions and machinery. The practical applications of the theoretical instruction are limited to manipulations in the laboratory in connection with the course of lectures on chemistry and physics. Towards the close of the second year the pupils are also taken to visit some of the large manufacturing establishments in Paris, in order to gain a practical acquaintance with machinery.

All the subjects taught at the school are obligatory, but history and military art, as already stated, have no influence in determining the order of merit of the pupils in the final result.

The only instruction in practical military exercises, which is compulsory upon all, is that in drill. The pupils are exercised under arms in company drill, and are also occasionally drilled as a battalion; but very little importance is attached to this point--the only really military portion of their training. Drill goes on only for about three months in each year during the spring and summer, and even during this brief period only takes place about twice a week. By the regulations of the school the pupils should be exercised in musketry practice, but although they are armed with the Chassepot rifle this regulation is never carried out. Instruction is given in fencing and gymnastics, but attendance at both is voluntary, and scarcely more than half the pupils take advantage of it. Neither riding nor swimming are taught at the school.

The school year commences about the 1st of November, and terminates about the first of August. Some seven months of the year are given up to lectures and the ordinary routine of study; about two months are occupied with the annual examinations and private preparation for them; the remaining three months--August, September, and October--are the vacation. In addition to this long vacation, from eight to twelve days are allowed after the periodical examination, which takes place near the end of February, at the close of the first portion of each year’s study.

One peculiarity in the arrangements of the school is that the subjects of each year’s course are not all studied simultaneously. The lectures in the main subjects of instruction--those which, as a rule, present the most difficulty--are divided into courses which continue only during a certain portion of each year. Thus in the junior division, analysis and descriptive geometry are the mathematical subjects studied during the first three months, or three months and a half. The course in them is then concluded; an examination by the professors (_interrogation générale_) is held in these subjects, and they are laid aside for the remainder of the year, though they enter into the examination at the close of the year. Their place is then taken by a course of lectures in mechanics and geodesy. Similarly in the second year, analysis and mechanics are the subjects of the first course of lectures, at the termination of which there is an examination; and for the remainder of the year no further lectures in them are given, stereotomy and military art taking their place.

The subjects involving as a rule less difficulty--such as history, French literature, German, and drawing--are spread over the whole year, forming generally the evenings’ occupation.

THE SPECIAL MILITARY SCHOOLS OF FRANCE.

SCHOOL FOR ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS AT METZ.

HISTORY AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION,

The first French Artillery School was founded in the time of Louis XIV. (in 1679) at Douai. It had but a short existence: and it was only in 1720 (under the Regency,) when the Royal Regiment of Artillery received a new organization, that schools of theory were permanently founded in each of the seven towns where there were garrisons of artillery. But no academy properly so called was established before that founded by D’Argenson at La Fère, in 1756, with a staff of two professors of mathematics, and two of drawing. This was transferred to Bapaume, near the Flemish frontier, in 1766, re-transferred to La Fère, and suppressed, among other schools, at the beginning of the Revolution.

Of early Engineer Schools there was only one, the very distinguished School of Mézières, near the northern frontier. This was founded in 1749, also under the ministry of D’Argenson; Monge was a professor there; and it had a very high reputation down to its suppression in the Revolution.

When the wars of the Revolution broke out, Provisional Schools for giving a brief course of rapid instruction was established at Metz for the engineers, and at Chalons-sur-Marne for the artillery. These had to supply, at a great disadvantage, the officers needed for the protection of the invaded frontier.

It was intended originally that the Polytechnic, established in 1794, should send engineers direct to the army; but it was quickly found to be a better plan to allow the pupils destined for this service first to spend some little time at Metz; which thus, in October, 1795, became a School of Application for Engineers. The artillery pupils in like manner went to Châlons. This separate system of two Schools of Application continued till 1802, when the establishment at Châlons was united with that of Metz, and Metz became what it has since continued to be, the seat of the United School of Application for the two services. The Polytechnic students who select the _Artillerie de terre_, _Artillerie de mer_, or the _Génie militaire_, enter here to receive the special and professional instruction deemed requisite to fit them for actual employment.

The students quitting the Polytechnic in the manner described in the account of that school, at the average age of twenty-one, enter the School of Application, with the provisional rank, the uniform, and the pay of sub-lieutenants (_sous-lieutenants_.) The ordinary term of residence is two years. Under special circumstances this may be shortened; and in case of illness or want of application individual students are occasionally retained for a third year. Each new body of students, each _admission_ or _promotion_, is classified at the end of the first year, and the students composing it are arranged in order of merit in accordance with the reports of the professors, but without an examination; at the close of the second year they pass a final examination before the Board of Officers, and are definitively placed in the corps they have chosen, the artillery or engineers, according to the order of merit. They are allowed to count, as regards retirement from the service and towards military decorations, four year’s service on account of the two years passed at the Polytechnic School, and of the time passed in preparing for admission to it, reckoning from the day of their admission to the School of Application.

Metz is a fortified place on the Prussian frontier, the seat of war at the time of the school’s first foundation; it is on the line of railway to Mannheim, about thirty miles from the point where this branch diverges from the main line to Strasburg. The Moselle flows through the town, and is employed, with its little affluent the Seille, in the military defenses. The garrison numbers 10,000 men; there is an Arsenal, a school of Pyrotechny for the manufacture of rockets, two Regimental Schools, one of Artillery and the other of Engineers. The School of Application occupies buildings erected on the site, and partly the original buildings themselves, of a suppressed Benedictine monastery. Three sides of the cloistered monastic quadrangle are devoted to the offices, lecture-rooms, galleries and halls of study. A fourth, formerly the ancient church, is converted into a _salle des manœuvres_. There is an adjoining residence for the commandant; and a separate modern building, four stories in height, affords lodging to the young men.

The _salle des manœuvres_ is a large area under a lofty roof, rising to the whole height of the buildings of the quadrangle; it contains artillery of various descriptions, mortars, field and siege guns placed as in a battery, and is amply large enough to allow cannon to be moved and exercises performed when the state of the weather may make it desirable.

The amphitheaters or lecture rooms, much on the same system as those at the Polytechnic, are two in number, one for each of the two divisions. Officers of the artillery and engineers who are in garrison, are entitled, if they please, to attend the lectures, and other officers also may be admitted by permission.

The galleries, partly on the ground floor, partly on the first floor, contain very good collections of models of artillery, ancient and modern, of sets of small arms, of tools, of locks, barrels and other portions of muskets in various stages of the process of their manufacture, of specimens of carpentry and roofing, of minerals, of models of fortifications, bridges, coffer-dams, locks, &c.

The library on the first floor has an adjoining reading room; and near it is the examination room, of which further mention will be made. The three halls of study (_salles d’étude_) on the first floor are on a different plan from those of the Polytechnic, each one being large enough to accommodate a whole division (seventy students.) Three rooms are also provided for the professors to prepare their lectures in.

The barracks, on the opposite side of the open space used for drill and exercises, form a lofty and handsome building, entered by separate staircases, the ground-floor rooms of each being assigned to a servant, who undertakes to provide attendance for all the young men lodging in the rooms above. The rooms are comfortable, mostly double-bedded, the bedroom serving also as a sitting room, and a small adjoining closet being used for washing, &c. Twenty or twenty-two appear to be thus accommodated on each staircase; there are lodgings altogether for one hundred and forty-five. A certain number of the senior sub-lieutenants would, probably, on the arrival of the new cadets from the Polytechnic, be removed to lodge in the town.

There is a riding-school adjoining the court; stables, for thirty-three horses, which are kept for the use of the pupils, and lodgings for the attendants are provided in the neighborhood.

The mere description of the buildings shows at once that the system is different in many respects from that of the Polytechnic. Young men of twenty-one and twenty-two years of age, already holding provisional commissions in the service, receiving the pay and wearing the uniform of sub-lieutenants, are naturally allowed much greater freedom of action. They live, and partly also study, not in the halls of study, but in their own rooms; they take their meals in the town, where they frequent the _cafés_ and _restaurants_ of their choice. The _rappel_ summons them every morning to rise and attend a roll-call at half-past five or six; military exercises, riding, or interrogations, similar to the _interrogations particulières_, require the presence of a portion of the number, but the rest are free to return to their rooms. At ten they have to attend either the day’s lecture, followed by employment in the halls of study, till four o’clock P.M., or they proceed at once to the halls of study, and set to work on the drawings, designs, projects, &c., which are described hereafter in the account of the studies. From four to half-past five P.M.; drill, exercises, and riding occupy a portion of the number, probably those who were not called for in the morning. After half-past five they are left to themselves.

This ordinary routine of studies is interrupted in the summer months by the occurrence of expeditions for making surveys, and for measuring and sketching machines in manufactories. The young men are sent, two together, to survey (_lever à boussole_;) singly for the reconnaissance sketch _(lever à vue _;) and generally, a certain number are distributed about a district not too large for an officer to make his round in it, and see each day that all are at work. The railways afford considerable facilities; the expeditions never occupy more than ten days at a time, but they may be extended as far as Strasburg.

There are no _répétiteurs_ in the school; but the system of _interrogations particulières_ is carried on; and an examination by the professor and an assistant professor takes place after, about, every eight or ten lectures.

THE STAFF AND GOVERNMENT.

The Staff of the Institution consists of--

1 General Officer, at present a General of Brigade of Artillery, as Commandant. 1 Colonel or Lieutenant-Colonel, Second in Command and Director of Studies, at present a Lieutenant-Colonel of Engineers. 1 Major of Artillery. 1 Major of Engineers. 5 Captains of Artillery. 8 Captains of Engineers. 1 Surgeon (_Médecin-Major_.)

The Commandant is taken alternately from the Artillery and Engineers, and the command lasts for five years only.

The Second in Command is always chosen from that arm of the service which does not supply the Commandant.

The inferior officers of each rank are taken in equal numbers from the two arms.

The Staff of Instructors is as follows:--

1 Professor of Artillery, at present a Captain of Artillery. 1 Assistant ditto also a Captain of Artillery. 1 Professor of Military Art, charged also with the Course of Military Legislation and Administration (a Captain of Engineers.) 1 Professor of Permanent Fortification and of the Attack and Defense of places (a Captain of Engineers.) 1 Assistant ditto ditto (a Captain of Engineers.) 1 Professor of the Course of Topography and Geodesy (a Captain of Engineers.) 1 Professor of Sciences applied to the Military Arts. 1 Professor of Mechanics applied to Machines (a Captain of Artillery.) 1 Professor of the Course of Construction (a Captain of Engineers.) 1 Assistant ditto. 1 Professor of the German language (a civilian.) 1 Professor of Veterinary Art and Riding (a Captain of Artillery.) 1 Assistant ditto (a civilian.) 1 Drawing Master, Chief of the Drawing Department (a civilian.)

In all, nine Professors, four Assistant Professors, and one Drawing Master.

The School employs in addition an administrative staff, consisting of--

A Treasurer, } both of whom must have been Officers in the A Librarian, } Artillery or Engineers. A Principal Clerk. An Assistant Librarian. Two Storekeepers, intrusted with the _materiel_ belonging to the two arms. One skilled Mechanic. One skilled Lithographer. One Fencing Master.

Clerks and draughtsmen are provided as required.

The school is under the general superintendence of two hoards or councils, the Superior Council and the Administrative Council.

The Superior Council consists of the General Commandant, as President, the Second in Command, the Director of Studies, as Vice-President; the Major of Artillery, and the Major of Engineers, as permanent members; two Captains of the Establishment, one of each arm; two Military Professors, one of each arm; and one Captain of the Establishment; these five last being all removable at the General Inspections.

The Superior Council has the duty of drawing up the programme of the studies of the year, of suggesting changes in the regulations relating both to studies and discipline, all subject to the approval of the Minister of War; of preparing at the end of the year the classified list of the students, drawn up according to their conduct and progress in their studies, and of pointing out to the Jury of Examiners any students who should go again through the courses of the year, and stay in consequence an additional year at the school.

When questions relating to the instruction are brought before the Superior Council, the whole body of military professors attend and take part in the proceedings, and the Council is thus said to be constituted as a Board or Council of Instruction. Improvements are here suggested, and are subsequently submitted to the Jury of Examiners, and to the Minister of War; the value to be attached, in the system of marks or credits, to each particular course of study is determined; a statement is drawn up showing what printed works, models, &c., are wanted. The budget itself, to be submitted to the Minister of War, is finally drawn up by the Superior Council in its ordinary sittings.

The Administrative Council, composed of the Second in Command as President, the two Majors of Artillery and of Engineers, one Captain and one Military Professor, and the Treasurer as Secretary without the right of voting, takes cognizance of all the financial and other business matters of the school.

SUBJECTS AND METHOD OF STUDY.

The studies at Metz consist of topography and geodesy, including military drawing and surveying under special circumstances; field fortification, military art and legislation, permanent fortification, and the attack and defense of fortified places, accompanied by a sham siege, without, however, executing the details practically on the ground; architecture, as applicable to military buildings and fortifications; the theory and practice of construction, and artillery. The programmes of these studies are inserted at length in the Appendix.

The instruction is given principally (as at the Polytechnic) by means of a series of lectures, and the knowledge which the students have acquired is first directly tested by requiring them to execute various kinds of surveys of ground, either with or without the use of instruments; to prepare drawings of buildings, workshops, and machines in full detail (plan, elevation, and sections) from the measurements they have recorded in their note-books or on their sketches, and to accompany such drawings with descriptive memoirs of all particulars and calculations that may be necessary to exhibit their purpose or efficiency; to draw up projects and lay out works of field and permanent fortification, or of those of attack or defense of a particular place on certain given data, or according to the nature of the ground; to design a military building, bridge, machine, or piece of ordnance, accompanied by estimates and descriptive memoirs, showing in what manner the instructions and conditions under which it was drawn up have been complied with; and to prepare a project for the amelioration of the works of defense of a specified portion of a fortified place known to be defective in some respects.

The instruction during the first year’s residence is common to the two arms; and the time is appropriated in the following manner, namely:--

Days. Military art and legislation, 33 Topography and geodesy, 47 Field fortification, 39 Permanent fortification, 88 Theory and practice of construction, 77 --- Total, 284

The _sous-lieutenants_ who complete their first year’s work are allowed nearly a month’s vacation during November.

The instruction given to the Artillery and Engineers during the second year’s residence is not entirely the same, as will be seen by comparing the accompanying table of the year’s study:--

Artillery. Engineers. Days. Days. Military art and legislation, 2 2 Topography and geodesy, 28 28 Attack and defense of places, 44 44 Permanent fortification, 44 129 Artillery, machines, &c., 81 -- Theory and practice of construction, 46 42 --- --- 245 245 Brought forward from first year, 284 284 --- --- Total, 529 529

We should not omit to state that there is a short course on the Veterinary Art.

The lectures, as before said, begin at 10 A.M., and they last usually an hour and a half, and are followed by work in the halls of study. It would appear, however, that very frequently the day’s occupation consists simply of work in the halls of study (or occasionally out of the school buildings, when the students are sent on some excursion;) and, accordingly, in giving the account of the studies, a _day_ or day’s work will sometimes mean a lecture followed by drawing or other employment, sometimes this drawing or other employment without any lecture preceding. Taking a general average, the proportion appears to be about two lectures to five _séances_, _i.e._, sittings without lectures.

The system will be better understood by referring to the accompanying tables, which are translated from the Project for the Employment of Time for the year 1851-2, submitted for the approval of the Minister of War. The dates in the first column indicate the days of the commencement of each particular study. The school year, it should be said, begins on the 1st of December.

EMPLOYMENT OF TIME FOR THE YEARS 1851-1852.

[KEY] Att Attendances. LbW Lectures before Work. TL Total of Lectures.

-----------+------------------------------------------+-------------- Month and | Second Division. | Number of Date. | +----+----+---- | First Year’s Instruction. | Att| LbW| TL -----------+------------------------------------------+----+----+---- December 1 | Lectures on Military Art in | | | “ 2 | Topography--Conventional Tints, | 2 |....|.... “ 4 | Study of Hill Drawing | | | | (in sepia with contour lines,) | 2 |....|.... | { Plate 1 .. 5} | | | | { Plate 2 .. 5} | | | “ 6 | Military Art,{ Plate 3 .. 5} | | | | { Plate 4 .. 5} | | | | { Plate 5 .. 9} | 29 | 4 | 39 January 12 | Front of Cormontaige | 24 | 3 | 13 | | | | February 9 | Project of Field Fortification, | | | | { Plate 1. Plan of the whole, 3} | | | | { Plate 2. Organization of a work, 8} | | | | { Plate 3. Details of Construction, 4} | | | | { Memoir 4} | 19 | 5 | 7 March 3 | Plan of Stability of Revetments, &c., | 9 | 9 | 9 “ 13 | Study of the Drawing showing the effect, | 8 | 1 | 1 “ 23 | Plan of a Building, | | | | { Out-of-door work, 9} | | | | { Laying down and drawing, Memoir, 23} | 32 |....|.... April 29 | Topographical Triangulation, | 4 | 4 | 6 May 5 | Defilement and Profiling on the Ground, | 3 |....|.... | Project of a Building, | | | | { Sketches, 14} | | | | { Drawing, 24} | | | | { Memoir, 4} | | | | { Estimate, 3} | 45 | 12 | 22 June 28 | Survey with a plane-table, | | | | { Out-of-door work 0} | | | | { Laying down and drawing, 3} | 13 | 1 |.... | One day free in case of bad weather, | 1 |....|.... July 14 | To find the Variation of the Needle, | 1 | 1 |.... “ 17 | Survey of Ground with the Compass, | | | | { Out-of-door work, 8} | | | | { Laying down and drawing, 2} | 10 | 1 |.... | One day free in case of bad weather, | 1 |....|.... August 2 | Reconnaissance Plan--Out-of-door work, | 6 | 1 |.... | One day free in case of bad weather, | 1 |....|.... “ 10 | Study of Shaded Drawing | | | (_Hachures_ and colored.) | 8 | 1 |.... “ 18 | Laying down and drawing the Survey | | | made with the Compass, | 2 |....|.... | Project of Fortification on Level Ground,| | | | { Plate 1 6} | | | “ 20 | { Plate 2 30} | | | | { Memoir, 6} | 42 | 3 | 19 September | | | | October 8 | Project of Fortification on Hilly Ground,| | | | { Plate 1 19} | | | | { Memoir, 3} | 22 | 8 | 10 Nov. 3 | Last day of week, | | | “ 6 | Leave for their Vacation, | | | There remains therefore in this division:--1st. Three free days in case of bad weather; one after each survey. 2nd. Two days at the end of the year, the 4th and 5th November. Total five free day. -----------+------------------------------------------+----+----+---- Total of the days employed 279 + 5 days free, |284 | | -----------+------------------------------------------+----+----+----

EMPLOYMENT OF TIME FOR THE YEAR 1851-1852.

-----------+------------------------------------------+-------------- Month and | First Division. | Number of Date. | +----+----+---- | Second Year’s Instruction. | Att| LbW| TL -----------+------------------------------------------+----+----+---- | Brought forward, |284 |....|.... December 6 | Laying down the First Survey | | | | by Reconnaissance, | 8 |....|.... “ 16 | Attack and Defense:--Plate, | | | | Batteries, with Plan and | | | | Sections of Detail, | 4 | 5 | 6 | Ditto, { Plate 1, 25 } | | | “ 20 | { Journal, 2 } | | | | { Plate 2 13 } | 40 | 6 | 20 January | | | | February 7 | Designs and Constructions of | | | | Revetments, Arches, &c., | 9 | 9 | 9 “ 18 | Project and Permanent Fortification | | | | in Hilly Ground, { Plate 1 19 } | | | | { Memoir, 3 } | | | | { Plate 2 8 } | 30 | 8 | 19 | | | | | SPECIAL WORKS: | | | | Artillery. | | | | Engineers. | | | | | | | March 25 | Measurement and Drawings | | | | of a Cannon, 12 | 12 |....|.... | Project of Fortification in | | | | hilly ground, Plate 2 _cont._, 12 | | | April 8 | Measurement of a Workshop, | | | | Out-of-door Work, | 9 | 30 | 30 “ 19 | Laying down the Measurement, 28 | | | | Laying down the Measurement, 24 | | | May 18 | Project of Fortification in hilly | | | | ground, Plate 3, 14 | | | “ 24 | Project for Machines, 14 | | | June 4 | Abstracting and calculating | | | | Measurements, 3 | | | “ 8 | Plate 4, 11 | | | “ 9 | Questions in Artillery, 5 | | | | 1st. Measurement of _Matériel_, | | | | Gun Carriages, &c., 8 | | | | Register of the removal of Earth, 3 | | | | Laying down ditto, 10 | | | | Estimate, 2 | | | | Memoir, 2 | | | | Project for Improvements, | | | | {Plate 1, 30 | | | | {Plate 2, 6 | | | | {Memoir, 2 | | | July 6 | 2nd. Measurement of _Matériel_, 8 | | | “ 15 | Project for a Cannon, 24 | 97 | 2 | 2 | | | | August 12 | Second Reconnaissance Survey, | | | | Out-of-door Work and Tracing of the | | | | Lines on the Reconnaissance Plan, | 7 |....|.... | One day free in case of bad weather, | 1 |....|.... “ 21 | Geodetical Calculations, | 4 |....|.... “ 26 | Laying down the Reconnaissance Survey, | 8 |....|.... September | | | | 4 | Memoir on Entrenched Lines, | 1 |....|.... “ 6 | Tracing or laying out Camps, | 1 |....|.... “ 7 | Operations of a Sham Siege, | 13 |....|.... | One day free, | 1 |....|.... “ 19 | Preparing for the Examination, |....|....|.... October | | | | November 1 | Examination for leaving, |....|....|.... | |----|....|.... Total of the days employed, 522 + 7 days free |529 | | -----------+------------------------------------------+----+----+----

EXAMINATION AND CLASSIFICATION.

FINAL EXAMINATION.

About six weeks of free or voluntary study is allowed, immediately prior to the Final Examination, for the sub-lieutenants to prepare for their last effort.

The examination which takes place prior to their leaving the School of Application, is entirely conducted by a board of six officers, under the presidency of a general officer alternately of the artillery or engineers, the remaining members of the board consisting of a general officer of each corps and three field officers of these corps; the last three being specially charged with the duty of examining. It takes place in a room set apart for the purpose, with a small interior room in connection with it, into which the members of the board retire to deliberate at the end of each student’s examination. The jury assembles each year at the period fixed by the minister of war.

The three examining members conduct the examination of the students in three different branches of study; the first more particularly relating to artillery science, the second to engineering science, and the third to mechanical science in its connection with the art of war. The whole of the students who are to leave the school are first examined in such one or other of these branches of study as may be determined on.

The student under examination is specially questioned by the examining officer in his subject, and occasionally by the president or any other member of the board that may wish to do so, for three-quarters of an hour. As soon as the examination of the student has been concluded, the board retire to the adjoining room and compare their notes of the credits they have severally awarded to the student under examination, and they also examine his drawings, sketches, and memoirs relating to the subjects on which he has been questioned, and prepared during his two years of residence in the school. They severally note the credits to which they consider him to be entitled for them, and adopt the general mean.

As soon as the examination of the whole of the students in this particular study has been finished, the examination in the next branch is commenced, so that five or six days elapse between the first and second examinations of the same student; and the same interval of time occurs between the second and third examinations.

The credit allotted to each student by the board of examiners represents, on the scale of 0 to 20, the manner in which he has replied to the questions, or executed the drawings, sketches, memoirs, &c., belonging to each course. The importance attached to each particular branch of study is estimated very nearly by the amount of time allowed for its execution divided by 20; and the definitive marks which each student obtains for that branch of study is obtained from the products of the numbers respectively representing the credit for answering, and that for the importance of the subjects on which he has been examined.

The final classification of the order of merit, in each arm of the service, is arranged after a comparison of the total of the marks obtained by each student. This total is the sum of the definitive marks gained by each student in the sciences bearing on artillery, engineering, and mechanics in connection with the art of war, for the talent displayed in drawing, sketching, and writing memoirs, and for skill in practical exercises, as determined by the results of the examination conducted by the jury of examiners, added to the marks due to the previous classification in the school, with the weight or influence equal to one-third of that allowed for the examination by the jury.

The co-efficients of influence for the present year are--

For those particularly relating to Artillery Science, 39.29 “ “ “ Engineering Science, 53.75 “ “ “ Mechanical Science, 43.00 For talent in drawing, sketching, writing memoirs, &c., 6.80 For practical exercises, 16.75 Previous classification in the school, 45.30

So that the examination conducted by the jury of examiners exercises an influence on the position of the students very nearly approaching to two-thirds of the whole amount.

It is this final classification which determines their seniority in the respective services. We were permitted to be present during the examination, which was entirely oral, of two of the _sous-lieutenants_, before the jury of examiners.

The questions were replied to with great fluency and readiness, but it seemed to us that the examination was somewhat limited for the object in view, viz., that of awarding a credit representing the progress which each student had made in the particular science on which he had been questioned, especially as that credit would have very great weight in determining the candidate’s future position.[14]

[Footnote 14: The examination chamber is a small room in the school buildings, near the library, ornamented with portraits of Vauban, and of D’Argenson, under whose ministry the original schools at La Fère and Mézières were founded. At a large table under these portraits, and extending across the room, General Morin, President, and four officers, members of the jury, were seated. The sixth member sat at a small table in front, near the blackboard, at which the student stood. The Commandant, the Director of Studies, and the other officers of the school were seated also in this part of the room.

The student who was first examined was questioned partly by the examiner, partly by the president, and gave his answers, working problems and drawing illustrations on the board as he went on. He was asked questions as to the details of the steam-engine, and as to the method of casting cannon. The German teacher of the School put him on to construe from a German book, and tried him in speaking; he succeeded just passably in both. The whole occupied about three-quarters of an hour.

The second student, after answering similar scientific questions, had opportunity given him to show his knowledge, which was considerable, of the geology of the neighborhood; and having lived in foreign countries, he was able to make a very good display of his knowledge of German, Spanish, Italian, and English.

After each examination the jury retired into the inner cabinet, by a door opening to it from behind their seats.]

On quitting the School of Application at Metz, the sub-lieutenants of artillery and engineers respectively join the regiments, to which they are then definitely assigned as second lieutenants, and continue to be employed in doing duty, and in receiving practical instruction with them, until they are promoted.

SUBSEQUENT INSTRUCTION AND EMPLOYMENT.

The lieutenants of the artillery are employed on all duties that will tend to make them efficient artillery officers, and fully acquainted with all details connected with the drill, practice, and manœuvres of the artillery, and also with the interior economy and discipline of a regiment of artillery.

After the officers of artillery are promoted to the rank of second captain, but not before, they are detached from their regiments and successively sent into the various arsenals, cannon foundries, powder mills, and small arm manufactories, pyrotechnic establishments, and workshops, in order that they may become practically acquainted with the whole of the processes connected with the manufacture and supply of artillery, rockets, small arms, powder, material of all kinds, tools, &c., and also with the construction and repair of the buildings and factories required for these purposes. Sometimes they are employed as assistants in these establishments. The inspectors of the arms of regiments are selected from among those who have become acquainted with the manufacture of small arms.

When promoted to first captains they again rejoin their regiments, so that they may not lose the qualifications and knowledge required from a good practical artillery officer.

Field-officers of artillery are employed as superintendents and directors, and captains as sub-directors, of the important works intrusted to their arm.

In time of war, the officers of artillery have the construction of their own batteries, and the direction of the ordnance in battles and sieges, together with the formation of movable bridges and passages by boats.

It must be noticed, in contradistinction to the practice which prevails in England, that the artillery and engineer services manufacture their own tools.

The young engineer officers are employed with the men of their regiments, and with them pass through courses of practical instruction in the field, in sapping, mining, field fortification, sham-sieges, bridges, and castrametation. During this practical instruction one of the lieutenants belonging to each company is always present, and the captain of the company visits the work once in the course of the day.

The duties of the officers of engineers in time of peace are the construction, preservation, and repairs of fortresses and military buildings, and the command and instruction of the engineer soldiers.

In time of war, the officers of engineers are intrusted with the construction of works of permanent fortification, of the general works in the attack and defense of fortresses, and the reconnaissance connected therewith.

They _may_ also be charged--

With the construction of such works of field fortifications as the commander-in-chief or the generals of division consider necessary; such as _épaulments_, trenches, redoubts, forts, blockhouses, bridgeheads, intrenched camps, as well as the opening of communications, the establishment of bridges resting on fixed supports, and the formation and destruction of roads.

After the officers of engineers have been promoted to the rank of second captain, and not before, they are mostly employed apart from their regiments, on the _état major_ of the engineers in fortified towns and places, either in charge of the existing military buildings and fortifications, or with the duty of carrying on, or assisting to carry on, such new works as are in course of construction from time to time.

We have already stated that by the law in France one-third of the officers of the army is obtained from the military schools; one-third from the non-commissioned officers who have been raised to that grade from the ranks; while the remaining third is placed at the disposal of the supreme executive power. As regards the artillery and engineers this last third is in actual practice obtained, like the first third part, from the Polytechnic School, so that only one-third of the officers of those arms are promoted from among the non-commissioned officers, and these seldom rise above the rank of captain. Much attention is, however, paid to the improvement of the education of these latter officers, and we found that _four_ officers of engineers and _one_ officer of artillery so promoted were, by order of the minister of war, on the recommendation of the inspectors-general, passing through the School of Application at Metz, the course of instruction for them being modified on their account. And it was confidently expected that a large number of those officers who had been promoted in this way during the war would be ordered to the School of Application at Metz.

We should not omit to mention that occasional exchanges of service take place, during the first year of residence at Metz, among the pupils destined for the artillery, and those destined for the engineers.

The pay of officers of the artillery and of the engineers is the same. A small additional allowance is granted to officers of artillery when mounted.

REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS.

ARTILLERY REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS.

There are ten regimental artillery schools established in places or towns that are usually garrisoned by the troops of this arm, and one of these schools exists at Metz.

ENGINEER REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS.

The soldiers of the engineers appear to be very well taught in their regimental schools, of which there are three, one for each regiment, established at Metz, Arras, and Montpellier, where the regiments are usually in garrison. The strength of each regiment is 4,500 men.

The instruction given in these schools has for its object to afford, to its full extent, to the officers, _sous-officiers_, and soldiers of the engineers, the requisite theoretical and practical knowledge to enable them satisfactorily to fulfill the duties of their various ranks, and to qualify them for promotion to higher rank.

It is so regulated that at the end of the first year the men have learnt the nature of the service and duties of a soldier; and that at the close of the second year, the practiced sapper is cognizant of mining, and the practical miner is acquainted with sapping.

In the lowest classes the men begin with learning to read and write; this if followed by arithmetic, grammar, writing from dictation, and composition. The next subjects are special mathematics, landscape, plan, topographical and architectural drawing. We attended a class in which a corporal of sappers was explaining to the mathematical teacher (a civilian) the theory of the inclined plane, and we saw a large number of their drawings, topographical and architectural, many of which were very well executed.

The theoretical instruction is given between the months of November and March, the practical instruction in the field, (already noticed) occupies the rest of the year. The combined courses are completed in two years.

REGULATIONS AND PROGRAMMES OF INSTRUCTION

OF THE

IMPERIAL SCHOOL OF APPLICATION FOR THE ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS AT METZ.

(_Abridged._)

I. POLICE REGULATIONS.

The chief Regulations for the Police of the Establishment are as follows:--

I. BARRACKS.--The Students are lodged in Barracks in the School, under the command of a Captain of the Staff, with the title of Commandant of the Quarter. They take their meals, however, out of the Barracks, in the town. They are allowed free egress and ingress from and to their Barracks, from the call at 6 in the morning to 10 at night, excepting during the hours devoted to lectures and the studies in the rooms. During these hours they must give special notice o£ their times of going out and coming in.

II. ORGANIZATION INTO BRIGADES AND SECTIONS.--Each Division is arranged in Brigades of thirty Students at the utmost, and each Brigade in two sections. The Students of Artillery and those of the Engineers constitute, as far as possible, separate Brigades. A Captain of the Staff is attached to each Brigade for its superintendence. The students in these Brigades and Sections are arranged in the order of merit which they held on entrance, and the first Student on the list of each Brigade and of each section of a Brigade is called its Chief. This arrangement is preserved at their messes, which are held at the Restaurateurs’, each section of fifteen having its own table, and its chief being the head of the mess. Private bills or private additions to the mess are forbidden, the maximum price for the daily fare being fixed by the Commandant of the School.

III. CONDUCT OF THE STUDENTS.--All games of chance are forbidden; and any debts discovered are punished. If a Student continues long without paying such, he is reported to the Minister of War.

IV. INSPECTION OF WORK DONE WITHIN THE HOUSE.--No work or drawing may be done out of the rooms of study, except in cases of illness.

All works to be executed by the Students are considered as service ordered to be done, which must be completed at the hours and within the period fixed in the order of the day. Students who are in arrears of work at the end of their first year are required to finish them during the time of vacation.

V. SUPERINTENDENCE OF OUT-OF-DOOR WORK.--After describing facilities afforded to the Students for working in the country, and stating minutely the method to be followed, the directions add that “on bringing back their plans, Students must present their sketches, and all the notes taken by them, in their rough state, to the Officer of the Staff intrusted to inspect them. They can not begin to put their work into shape till this Officer’s visa has been affixed to the sketches, notes,” &c.

VI. VACATION.--There is one vacation at the end of the first year. Any class, or any single student, under punishment, may be deprived of this. Any work to which the Professor gives a mark below 7, must be considered incomplete, and to be done again. Students are kept up in vacation to finish their work; but if it is done within fifteen days, and marked by the Professor’s visa, they are allowed to go away for the rest of the vacation.

Young Officers, after their final examination, are subject to all the Regulations of the School, down to the moment of their leaving the town.

II. REGULATIONS FOR ESTIMATING THE VALUE OF THE WORK EXECUTED.

The time devoted to each of the courses in the School, to the works of every kind which belong to it, to the exercises, drill, theoretical instructions, &c., is fixed in accordance with programmes approved by the Minister of War; and the Table similar to that given at pages 180-181, exhibiting the employment, is each year submitted for his approbation by the Superior Council of the School.

Every kind of work, such as the out-door operations, sketches, drawings, memoirs, calculations, interrogations, manipulations, manœuvres, drill, &c., is valued by the Professor or Officer of the Staff charged with its direction, by the product of two numbers, one representing the merit of its execution, and the other the importance of the work.

The numbers representing the merit of the execution or instruction are regulated by the scale of 0 to 20, as at the Polytechnic School.

The co-efficient of importance is found by dividing the number representing the maximum value allowed for the execution of any work by 20, the maximum credit for merit; and the number representing the maximum value, allowed for the execution of any work has reference to all the circumstances bearing upon its execution. It is regulated by the number of hours appropriated to its execution; and in estimating this number of hours, regard is had, not only to the time occupied in making the drawing, but also to that which is necessary for the calculations, essays, and sketches indispensable to its execution. The lectures are reckoned at one and a half hours, and the sittings in the Halls of Study at four and a half hours.

The number of hours inserted in the Table giving the distribution of the time employed, being insufficient for the composition of the memoirs, specifications, estimates, &c., the value given for this kind of work, of which a great part is performed out of the Halls of Study, is fixed at twice the number of hours inserted in the Table showing the distribution of the time employed.

The interrogations are the subject of a special credit, the maximum being equal to the number of hours devoted to the lectures, multiplied by one and a half hour, the length of each lecture.

The credit given for a work performed outside the school is divided into two parts: one, equal to one-third of the total credit, is in the hands of the Officer charged with the superintendence of the work, who estimates the zeal and aptitude of the student; the other, equal to two-thirds, is applied by the Professor, and given according to the merit of the work.

The sum of the credits, given for work of all kinds in a course of study, forms the maximum credit for the course.

The method of fixing the credit for the execution of works, according to the time devoted to them, is equally applicable to the exercises, practice, and drill.

When the time granted for the execution of any work has expired, the Director of Studies sends this work to the Professor for his examination, who establishes the number or credit, showing its importance, and returns it to the Director of Studies.

Every work which has been finished and examined, is marked by the Professor by a number representing its merit, which number may be fractional.

This is multiplied by the number representing its importance, and the nearest whole number resulting from this product expresses the value of the examined work.

Every unfinished work receives a provisional value, and is then returned to the person executing it, and as soon as it has been completed a second evaluation is made, but only two-thirds of the difference between the first and second evaluations is added to the first; the same principle is applied to the works which have been valued below seven, or to those which have been amended or recommenced.

Every work which has not been executed by the student is marked 0; but the grounds for its non-execution are placed before the Jury of Examination.

In the event of two papers being so similar that it is evident one must have been copied from the other, and that it is not possible to decide which has been copied from the other, both are marked 0.

And on the other hand, if it is proved that there was no complicity between the authors of the two papers, the copied paper is the only one canceled.

At the end of each year’s study, the Council of the School makes a classification of the students of the two divisions.

Each of these classifications is formed of the following elements:--

1st. Notes of conduct given by the General commanding and the Colonel Second in Command.

2nd. Notes of appreciation given by the General Commanding, and the Colonel Second in Command, and by the Officers of the Staff of the School.

3rd. Tables of credits given by two Field Officers of the Artillery and Engineers on the theoretical and practical instruction with which they are charged.

4th. Tables of credits given by each Professor for the works of all kinds, interrogations, &c., of his course.

The classification of the first year comprehends all the works, drill, and practice, executed during the first year, which have been valued, as well as the notes of appreciation and of conduct.

The number appropriated to these notes at the end of the first year is equal to the moiety of the total number allowed for the two years of study.

The classification of the students of the second year presents the reunion of the works executed by them since their entrance into the school.

The maximum number of credits appropriated to all the Officers of the Staff, as a note of appreciation, is equal to one-sixth of the total of all the courses taken together.

The same number, divided into two equal parts, is assigned to the notes of appreciation given by the General commanding and the Second in Command.

Lastly, the notes of conduct given by the General commanding and the Second in Command form one-fiftieth of the total value.

For the classification of each division the Director of Studies abstracts into a Table, for each arm, all the elements which should enter into this classification. Below the name of each student are inserted all the credits which belong to him, and the total, reduced in the ratio of the maximum 20, is the definitive number of the classification of each student.

The Director of Studies appends to these Tables a report containing everything which affords a means of estimating the work, the conduct of each student, the delays, and the causes, &c. In giving the names of the students whose credits are less than 7, he proposes, conformably with the Regulations, the measures that should be taken with regard to them.

The Superior Council of the School being assembled, the different Tables furnished by the Professors and by the Officers of the Staff, as well as those in which they are summed up, are collated, and the list of classifications for each division and for each arm is fixed separately, with the definitive numbers representing the credits.

These classified lists indicate for each arm the new rank of the Students, their rank at admission to the School of Application and of passage to the first division, the sum of the values for the works executed by them, and all the elements which would tend to enable a proper judgment to be formed of their merits and conduct.

The Superior Council adds to it, if there be any necessity for it, notes, exposing the grounds which have contributed to the principal alterations in the relative position of the Student, and points out those whose credit is less than 7, as well as those who by their bad conduct deserve to become the object of exceptional measures.

_Examination for Leaving._

Each year the General commanding the School determines by lot, at least one month in advance, the order in which the examinations for the promotions in the Artillery and Engineers are to take place. The Students belonging to the same arm can change among themselves, but eight days after the lots have been drawn the list of the order of examination is definitely closed. The General commanding the School makes known at the same period the order of the examinations and the division of the subjects between these examinations.

The General commanding the School places before the General of Division, President of the Jury of Examination, the following:--

1st. The division of the subjects between the three examinations.

2nd. The order of examination of the Arms, and of the students of each Arm.

3rd. The provisional classification of the students of the first division made by the Superior Council.

4th. The particular reports relating to each student made by the General commanding the School.

5th. The list of the propositions made by the Superior Council and the proceedings of the sitting at which it was agreed to.

6th. The classification of the Students of the second Division.

7th. Tables of questions established for each course.

8th. The abstracts of the sittings of the Superior Council held since the last examination.

The Student Sub-lieutenants are successively examined in all the branches composing the theoretical and practical instruction of the School. The theoretical knowledge is grouped in three series, each of which is the object of a particular trial.

The drill and practice are executed in the presence of the Jury, who cause the command to be given to the Sub-lieutenant, in order to satisfy themselves of the amount of their instruction, and to assign marks of merit to them individually.

The subjects of the three examinations are divided in the following manner:

First. Examination, made by the Field Officer of Artillery in the--

Course of Military Art. Course of Artillery. Course of Veterinary Art. Sham Siege (part relating to Artillery.) Course of Military Law and Administration.

Second. Examination, held by the Field Officer of Engineers.

Course of Permanent Fortification and the Attack and Defense of Places. Course of Construction. Sham Siege (part relating to the Engineering.)

Third. Examination, held by the third Examiner, taken either from the Artillery or Engineers, in the--

Course of Mechanics. Course of Applied Sciences. Course of Topography and Geodesy. German Language.

Every Student, on presenting himself before the Examiners, submits for their approbation the drawings and manuscripts relating to the subjects on which the examination is to bear. Independent of the questions which are placed before him by the Examiners, the Student Sub-lieutenant must reply to any objections or questions which the members of the Jury may think fit to address to him.

The German Master directly questions the Students, if the Jury wish it. The Professors or their Assistants must be present at the examinations relating to their course.

As soon as the examination is ended, the members of the Jury retire to an adjoining room with closed doors, to determine on the amount of marks to be given to the Student examined.

When the trials of all kinds are finished, the Jury proceed to the definitive classification of the Students belonging to each arm. In making this classification, regard is had to the following considerations:--

1st. Each examination has a co-efficient of importance equal to the sum of all the different courses which are included in it.

2nd. The co-efficient of importance for drawing is equal to the 1/20 of the sum of the co-efficients of the three examinations.

3rd. The co-efficient of importance of the practice, drill, &c., is, as for the courses, the sum of the co-efficients appropriated to the works taught in the School.

By multiplying the co-efficients of importance by the mean number of marks of merit obtained by the Students in the different examinations, the definitive credit which must be assigned to each Student in the Table of Classification is obtained.

The classification of the School enters into the definitive classification for a value equal to one-third of the total number of the three examinations, without comprising the valuation of the drawings; this value is added to the credits determined above.

The Jury give an account of the proceedings of the examinations in a “_procès-verbal_” addressed to the Minister by the General acting as President.

III. PROGRAMME OF THE ARTILLERY COURSE.

FIRST PART.--INTRODUCTION.

_Twenty-six Lectures common to Students of both Arms._

_First Lecture._--(1.) Definition of the word Artillery. Material, personnel, science. Object and division of the course.

FIRST SECTION.--EFFECTS OF POWDER.

Ideas on the origin of powder and its use in fire-arms; mealed or pulverized powder; powder in grain. General conditions which powder ought to satisfy; action of each of its component parts. Proportion of component parts used in France. _Fulmi-ligneux._

Considerations on the physical properties of powder. Size of the grains expressed by the number of grains to the gramme. Density of the grains and specific density of the powder; circumstances causing them to vary. Effects of damp upon powder.

_Second Lecture._--(2.) Combustion of powder. Different modes of ignition of powder. Research respecting the laws of its combustion, process of observation employed, laws discovered. Influence of the density, the composition, the mode of manufacture, the damp, the tension and temperature of the surrounding gases.

Combustion of the grains of powder. Calculation applied to the spherical grain. The formula is applicable to the irregular grains of ordinary powder.

Calculation of the density of the gases of powder in a fixed space, on the hypothesis of a simultaneous ignition of the grains. Discussion of the formula obtained; influence of the density of the grains, of the duration of their combustion and of the space in which the powder is inclosed.

Inquiry into the rapidity of ignition of charges of powder. Experiments made upon trains of powder, and upon gun-barrels filled with powder. Conclusions drawn from the results obtained.

_Third Lecture._--(3.) Calculation of the density of the gases of the powder on the hypothesis of successive ignition.

Results of the application of the formula to charges of a spherical and a truncated form.

Tension of the gases of powder. Impossibility of determining it by considerations of a purely theoretical nature. Experimental solution of this question. Experiments by Rumfort; description of his apparatus. Results obtained. Formula representing them. Observations on these results.

_Fourth Lecture._--(4.) Effects of powder in a fixed space.

Hollow projectiles. The readiest bursting of a hollow sphere takes place in the direction of the plane of a great circle. Determination of the minimum bursting charge; law by which this charge varies with the thickness of the envelope. Influence of the fuse-hole of hollow projectiles; weakening of the envelope of the shell, diminution of the charge; loss of gas, increase of the charge. Effects of the shock of the exploding gases; means of estimating it. Influence of the vivacity of the powder in burning. Number and rapidity of the explosions.

Hollow cylinders burst more easily longitudinally than transversely. Consequences of this principle relatively to the employment of a fibrous metal for the manufacture of arms. Thickness necessary to resist bursting.

_Fifth Lecture._--(5.) Effects of powder in cannon.

Analytical theory of the effects of powder in cannon.

Equation of the problem. General expressions of the quantity of force exercised by the expansion of the gases,--of the density of the different sections of gas and of their tension. Differential equations of the motion of the gases, of the projectile, and of the gun. Equation of condition leading to the establishment of the general formula which determines the position of a stratum of gas in the terms of the function of its original position, and of the other data of the question. General relations between the velocity of the projectile and that of the gun.

Density of the stratum of gas at a given moment. Position of the stratum which has a maximum density.

_Sixth Lecture._--(6.) Approximative solution applicable to the cases ordinarily met with in practice. Hypothesis relating to the velocity and the tension of different strata of gas.

Relations between the velocity of the projectile and that of the gun. Approximate expression of the amount of force due to the expansion of the gases; line to be followed in the execution of the arithmetical calculations. Formula serving to determine the velocity of the projectile. General considerations on the state of the gases of powder during the burning of the charge. Influence of the motions of the projectile and of the bottom of the bore on the distribution of the gases at each instant. Influence of the successive generation of the gases combined with the enlargement of the space which incloses them on their density throughout the whole duration of the phenomenon.

_Seventh Lecture._--(7.) Influence of the vent and of the windage of the projectile on the effects of powder in cannon.

Determination of the loss of velocity occasioned by the windage of the projectile. Influence of the weight of the piece upon the velocity of the projectile. Influence of the weight of the projectile on tension of the gases and upon the velocities of the two bodies set in motion. Influence of the weight of the charge of powder. Charge giving the maximum of velocity. Influence of the size and density of the grains of the powder as well as other circumstances which cause a variation in the law of generation of the gases. Advantage of very rapid combustion in short pieces and of slower combustion in long ones.

_Eighth Lecture._--(8.) Influence of the length of bore; circumstances which modify it; length corresponding to the maximum of velocity. Comparison of the quantities of motion of the projectile and of the gun. Trial of a formula fitted to represent their relation. Determination of this relation with the help of the balistic pendulum.

Mean pressure exercised on the projectile during its passage through the bore. Injuries produced in guns by firing; enlargement of metal and cracks; lodgment and percussion of the projectile.

Different effects of the percussion; means tried to prevent injuries (in general.) Considerations on the metals employed in the manufacture of ordnance. Charging with elongated cartridge; use of wooden bottoms and wads.

_Ninth Lecture._--(9.) Examination of the proper means for measuring the effects of powder. Eprouvettes of different sorts. Experimental processes founded on the measure of the velocity of the projectile. Grobert’s rotatory machine. Process of Colonel Debooz. Process based on the employment of an electric current. Method by ranges (mentioned here by way of note.)

Balistic pendulum. Pendulum of Robins, of d’Arcy, of Hutton. Improvements introduced in France into the construction of these apparatus. Description of the pendulums in use at the present day; cannon pendulum; musket pendulum.

_Tenth Lecture._--(10.) Analytical theory of the balistic pendulum.

1. Receiver pendulum; formula which gives the velocity of the projectile. Determination of the elements which enter into the formula, and the degree of approximation necessary. Simplification of the calculation of the velocities in the case of firing several times consecutively.

2. Cannon pendulum. Amount of recoil in the gun. Percussion of the knife-edges of the pendulum. Case where there is none. Means of correcting the position of the center of percussion.

_Eleventh Lecture._--(11.) Examination of the effects of the recoil upon guns and their carriages. The question may be considered as resolving itself into two others.

1. Percussions of the carriage upon the points supporting it; analytical solution. Determination of the percussions and of the force of the recoil in the case of carriages on wheels, and that of mortar beds. Graphic solution of the same question by an analysis of the force which acts upon the bottom of the bore. Modification of the sketch according to the different cases presented by the direction of fire relatively to the ground.

_Twelfth Lecture._--(12.) Discussion of points relating to the percussion of the carriage upon its supports, and to the force of the recoil. Influence of the elevation of the line of fire; of the inclination of the ground or of the platform; of the length of the carriage in proportion to its height and of the friction which results from the contact of the trail with the ground. Velocity of recoil of the collective apparatus. Determination of the extent of the recoil on a given ground. Recoil of the different pieces of ordnance in use. Case in which the forepart of the carriage has a tendency to be lifted up; velocity of this motion; determination of the effect resulting from it.

_Thirteenth Lecture._--(13.)

2. Percussions produced by the gun upon its carriage. Determination of the amount of percussion of the breech upon the elevating screw, and of that of the trunnions upon the trunnion holes. Discussion of points relative to the effects produced. Influence of the elevation; of the dimensions of the gun, and of the proportion of its weight to that of the entire apparatus.

Effect of the elasticity of the different parts of the apparatus. It diminishes the wear of the parts struck, and renders it necessary to take into account the velocity of the parts striking.

_Fourteenth Lecture._--(14.) Effects of powder in mines. Historical notices. Dimensions of the boxes containing the powder. Considerations on the effects of the expansion of the gases in an indefinite or limited compressible medium.

Definitions having reference to craters and chambers of mines. Ordinary charge of the chamber. The old rule for miners; its entire alteration. Table relating to different kinds of medium. Overcharged chamber. Overcharged chamber or “camouflet.” Limit of the effects of compression which result from the action of the chambers. Use of gun cotton. Considerations on the effects of the petard. Dimensions of the cavity reserved for the powder. Means employed or proposed to diminish the charge of powder proportioned to a given effect.

SECOND SECTION.--MOTION OF PROJECTILES IN SPACE.

_Fifteenth Lecture._--(15.) Science of projectiles. Historical notices. Utility of an acquaintance with the laws of the motion of projectiles in a vacuum. Definitions relating to the trajectory. Differential equations of the motion in vacuo. Equation of the trajectory. Inclination of its elements. Velocity of the projectile at any one point. Duration of its passage. Determination of the range and of the angle of greatest range. Relations between the ranges; the initial velocities; and the angles of projection. Examination of the cases where the theory of the parabola is applicable.

Preliminary ideas on the resistance of fluids; difficulties inherent in this question. Approximative formula of the resistance, established by the help of the principle of active forces; circumstances not taken into consideration by it.

_Sixteenth Lecture._--(16.) Experiments relating to the determination of the resistance of the air.

1. Case of small velocities. Rotatory apparatus; results furnished by them in the case of thin planes; their essential defect. Apparatus with rectilinear movement. Mean value of the co-efficient of the theoretical resistance in the case of thin planes; modification of this value for the case of spheres, &c.

2. Case of great velocities. Direct determination of the resistance of the air by the aid of the balistic pendulum. Experiments of Hutton, their results. Experiments made at Metz in 1839 and 1840. General expression of the resistance based upon the total of the results obtained, and containing a function of the velocity in three terms. Search after a function in two terms fit to replace in each particular case the general expression.

_Seventeenth Lecture._--(17.) Theory of the motion of projectiles in the air. Differential equations of the motion. Hypothesis on the relation of the element of the trajectory to its projection. Calculations based on this hypothesis, and leading to the final equation of the arc of the trajectory. Inclination of the element of the trajectory. Velocity of the projectile at a given point. Duration of the passage.

_Eighteenth Lecture._--(18.) Examination of the functions employed in the formulas of the science of projectiles. Formation of the balistic co-efficient, and the series contained in the functions. Relations of the series and the functions to each other. Arithmetical tables designed to give their values. Determination of the relation of an arc of the trajectory to its projection. Error resulting from the introduction of the constant relation in balistic calculations.

_Nineteenth Lecture._--(19.) Application of balistic theories to the movement of projectiles thrown at great angles. Analysis of the trajectory, and determination of all the circumstances of the movement. Trajectory of shells considered as a single arc. Solution of several problems involved in this hypothesis. Determination of the range. Velocity corresponding to a given range and angle of projection. Angle of projection corresponding to a known initial velocity and range. Angle of greatest range. Variation of the velocity of the projectile during the whole of its passage. Limit of velocity of projectiles falling vertically in the air.

_Twentieth Lecture._--(20.) Application of balistic theories to the motion of projectiles thrown at low angles. Case where the relation of the arc to its projection can be supposed sensibly equal to unity. Problems relative to direct fire; distinction established between the angle of projection and the angle of fire. In ordinary cases in practice the angle of fire is very nearly independent of the height of the object aimed at. Relations between the angle of projection, the angle of elevation of the object aimed at, and the angle of descent. Problems relating to plunging fire. (Ricochet fire.) Determination of the initial velocity and the angle of projection for a projectile which has to pass, firstly, through two given points; secondly, through one given point, the trajectory having at this point a known direction. Case of practical impossibility.

_Twenty-first Lecture._--(21.) Relations between the velocities, the spaces traversed, and the durations of passage in the rectilinear movement of projectiles. They are applicable to direct fire, and are independent of the function of the velocity which enters into the expression of the resistance of the air. Case where the resistance of the air can be supposed proportional to the square of the velocity. Establishment of balistic formulas in this hypothesis. Application of the formulas to the resolution of one of the problems connected with a plunging fire. Comparison of the results obtained with those arrived at by the use of general formulas. Indication of methods applicable to the resolution of several questions in projectiles.

_Twenty-second Lecture._--(22.) Examination of disturbing causes which influence the motion of projectiles.

1. Disturbing causes acting on the projectile during its passage through the bore. Imperfections of form, such as want of straightness in the bore, faulty position of the line of sight and the trunnions.

Influence of the windage of the projectile and of the percussions which result from it. Deviation from the original direction; its consequence in the different kinds of fire. Effect of the recoil and the vibrations of the barrel in the fire of small-arms.

Influence of the various causes which are capable of modifying the initial velocity.

2. Disturbing causes acting upon the projectile during its passage through the air. Influence of the rotatory motion which results from the last percussion within the bore. Effects of the eccentricity of projectiles. Case where the rotation occasions no deviation. Influence of the proximity of the ground. Deviation produced by the wind (air in motion.) Influence of atmospheric changes.

THIRD SECTION.--MOTION OF CARRIAGES.

_Twenty-third Lecture._--(23.) Importance of the question. Preliminary ideas. Resistance due to the motion of a carriage and determination of the effort necessary for drawing it in the case of uniform motion. Two-wheeled carriage on level ground; the effort of draught in a direction parallel to the ground; first, resistance referable to the friction of the wheels on the axle; secondly, resistance referable to their revolution upon the ground. Influence of the weight of the carriage. Advantage of large wheels over small ones, demonstrated in the two cases of a yielding soil and a hard soil scattered over with obstacles. Expression of the power of draught necessary to overcome the two resistances united.

_Twenty-fourth Lecture._--(24.) General expressions of the effort of draught necessary for two-wheeled and four-wheeled carriages; case of a locked wheel. Influence of the direction of the traces and of the inclination of the ground upon the draught. Advantage of rolling over dragging for the transport of burdens. Examination of resistances which are developed in the passage from repose to motion. Considerations on the position of the fillet in the box, and determination of the co-efficient of friction for the case of the revolution of the wheel about the axle.

Influence of the length of the nave on the frictions when the axle is thrown out of a horizontal position.

_Twenty-fifth Lecture._--(25.) Turning of carriages considered successively in the case of two-wheeled and four-wheeled carriages. Center and angle of the turn in four-wheeled carriages. Calculations of the angle of the turn and of the space required by the carriage to execute a half turn. Examination of the dimensions of the carriage which influence the angle of the turn. Diameter of the fore-wheels and height of the body of the carriage; distance between the wheels and breadth of the body of the carriage; position of the point of reunion of its fore and hind parts. Examination of the circumstances favorable or unfavorable to the action of the horse. Relation between the forces to which he is subjected, and the pressure of his feet on the ground. Sliding of the feet; influence of the weight of the animal; of the co-efficient of friction; and of the direction of the traces. Lifting of the fore-hand; influence of the weight of the horse, and of the increased distance between the points on which he rests; of the position of his center of gravity; and of the direction of the traces.

_Twenty-sixth Lecture._--(26.) Considerations on the mode of action of the draught-horse. Effect of his weight, and of the inclination of the traces. Effort of draught of which the horse is capable, both momentarily and continuously; results of experiments. Composition of artillery harness. Harness à limonière (with shafts and cross-bar,) or on the French system; on the German system, with pole and support. Use and discontinuance of swing bars. Arrangement of the traces. General arrangement of harness. Bât-saddle.

SECOND PART.

CLASSIFIED ACCOUNT OF SMALL ARMS AND OF ARTILLERY MATERIAL.

_Twenty Lectures, of which Fourteen are common to the Students of both Arms and Six confined to Artillery Students._

FIRST SECTION.--SMALL ARMS.

_Twenty-seventh Lecture._--(1.) Classification of small arms. Arms not fire-arms. Classification of hand-weapons. Considerations on the profile and outline of cutting weapons. Effect of the curve. Division of the mass. Form of the hilt.

Considerations on the profile and outline of thrusting weapons.

Position of the center of gravity; form of the point. Description of arms other than fire-arms now in use. Sabres and swords. General ideas respecting their component parts; blade, hilt, and scabbard. Regimental arms. Infantry sword. Sword-bayonet of the artillery and chasseurs, cavalry sword; peculiar requisites. Sword of cavalry of reserve, of cavalry of the line, and of light cavalry. Horse artillery sword.

Officers’ and non-commissioned officers’ arms. Cavalry lance. Camping axe. Side-arms in use in the navy. Sword, pike, boarding-axe, dirk.

Defensive armor. Cuirassiers and carabineers’ cuirasses. Cuirass and helmet of the sapper.

_Twenty-eighth Lecture._--(2.) Fire-arms. Historical notices. First attempts in fire-arms. Hand cannons. Arquebuses, culverines, &c. Poitrinal, matchlock, firelock, pistol, and blunderbuss.

Means employed successively for loading and ignition of the charge. Twisted match, wheel-lock, flint-lock, percussion-lock, (the two last mentioned here by way of note.) Classified account of fire-arms now in use. Muskets. Considerations on the weight and principal dimensions of muskets. Detailed description of the infantry musket. Action of the flint and the percussion lock.

_Twenty-ninth Lecture._--(3.) Comparison of the flint and the percussion musket. Voltigeur’s, dragoon’s, and double-barreled musket. Gendarmerie and cavalry carbine. Cavalry and gendarmerie pistol. Arms in which precision of aim is studied. Means employed to prevent the deviations caused by the windage of the projectiles and their rotatory-movement in the air. Diminution and suppression of the windage; straight grooves in the barrel, spiral grooves, rifled arms. Rotation of the ball about its axis of flight.

Principles of arrangement of rifled arms. Charge of powder and inclination of the grooves; two modes of solution, powerful charge and long spiral, weak charge and short spiral. Length of the barrel: conditions which determine it; number and form of the grooves.

_Thirtieth Lecture._--(4.) Loading of rifled arms; ramming the ball home; loading at the breech. Different methods tried. Loading with a flattened ball; effect of the flattening of the ball. Examination of the successive improvements to which this idea has served as a basis. Chambered arms; use of the short bottom and the patch. Arms _à tige_. Elongation of the ball; shortening of the spiral groove; diminution of the charge: advantages resulting from it. Pointed cylindrical ball; principles of its outline; effect of the notches of the ball; superiority of this projectile over the spherical balls. Summary examination of the different models of rifled arms which have been successively in use. Versailles rifles.

Wall-piece, pattern 1831. Common rifle, pattern 1842. Wall-piece, pattern 1840. Bored-up wall-piece, pattern 1842. Pistols for officers of cavalry and gendarmerie. Rifles _à tige_, pattern 1846, and artillery carbine _à tige_. Description of these two arms. Superiority of the rifle _à tige_ over the arms for precise aim previously adopted. Trial relating to a new improvement in the construction of rifled arms. Disuse of the “_tige_.” Ball with cup. Comparative notice of the fire-arms of the different European powers.

SECOND SECTION.--PROJECTILES AND CANNON.

_Thirty-first Lecture._--(5.) Principles of construction of projectiles.

Considerations on the substances which may be chosen for the manufacture of projectiles. Essential conditions, density, hardness, tenacity, cheapness. Projectiles of stone, lead, cast-iron, iron, copper, gun-metal. Forms of projectiles.

Exterior form; conditions which serve to determine it. The spherical form preferable to any other in the actual state of artillery. Advantage of elongated projectiles. Conditions relating to their use. First attempts. Interior form of hollow projectiles; howitzer shells, bombs, and grenades. Thickness of the metal; fuse-hole; charging-hole of naval hollow projectiles; lugs or handles of shells. Density of projectiles. Recapitulation of the balls; howitzer shells; shells and grenades in use, their nomenclature, dimensions, weight. Cannon-balls. Choice of metal and weights. Different arrangements for the use of shot, case-shot, canister or naval grape-shot. Spherical case; conditions relating to their use. Charge of spherical case. Bar-shot. Rescue shells.

_Thirty-second Lecture._--(6.) Cannon. Historical ideas on the subject. Principle of arrangement of ancient arms and machines of war. Motive force employed; its inferiority compared to that furnished by the combustion of powder. Earliest cannon.

Historical view of the different systems of ordnance which have been successively in use in France.

1. Cannon. Calibres in use in the 16th century. Edict of Blois, 1572. Cannon employed in the reign of Louis XIV. Regulation of 1732. System of Vallière. Modifications introduced by Gribeauval in 1765. Cannon of the year XI. Cannon in use at the present day.

2. Ordnance adapted to hollow projectiles. Difficulties inseparable from the throwing of hollow projectiles; first attempts. Mortars. Double fire. Ancient calibres. Mortars in use at the present day. Stone mortar. Howitzers, their first use in the French artillery; howitzers of 1765; of the year XI. Calibres in use at the present day. Considerations on the calibres of different kinds of cannon. Siege, garrison, field, coast, and naval ordnance. Siege, garrison, field, mountain, coast, and naval howitzers. Mortars and stone mortars. Considerations on the metals which may be employed in the manufacture of cannon for siege, garrison, field, coast, and naval purposes. Interior form of ordnance.

1. Part of the bore traversed by the projectile, transverse section; trial of rifled cannon, longitudinal section.

2. Part of the bore occupied by the charge; influence of its form; the spherical, cylindrical, truncated form. Chambers of mortars; reason for their adoption. Cylindrical and truncated chambers; comparison of their effects. Spherical chamber; pyriform chamber: interior form of the naval mortar _à semelle_ (cast in one piece with the bed.) Chamber of howitzers; experiments with reference to their adoption for field howitzers. Dimension. Howitzers without chamber. Chamber of carronades. Junction of the chambers with the rest of the bore: form of the bottom of the bore or of the chamber.

_Thirty-third Lecture._--(7.) Vent; its object, its dimensions. Bushes inserted before casting, (_masses de lumière_;) after casting, (_grains de lumière_.) Considerations on the position of the vent relatively to the charge. Experiments made with the infantry musket, and with 24 and 16 pounder guns.

Arrangement of the vent in guns of 1732; portfire chamber. Vent of mortars. Priming pans. Windage of projectiles; conditions which determine it for the different services. Rules received with respect to ancient guns. Dimensions in use at the present day. Different characteristics resulting from the windage of projectiles. Length of the bore. Question of the length of the bore considered with reference to the projectile effect of the powder. The length of ordnance is determined by considerations unconnected with this effect.

Length of bore of siege and defensive artillery, of field, coast, and naval guns. Length of bore of mortars, and of the stone mortar. Length of bore of howitzers. Thickness of metal and external outline. Cannon:--Theoretical determination of the external outline necessary for resistance to the effect of the gases of the powder. Co-efficient of resistance, its value in the guns in use. Thickness in the chase necessary for resistance to the percussions of the projectile.

Swell or moulding of the muzzle. Thickness at the position occupied by the trunnions. Thickness of metal of the different systems of cannon which have been successively in use in France. Thickness of metal in howitzers. Form resulting from the diminution of internal diameter, at the position occupied by the chamber. Exceptional form of the siege howitzer. Outline of the interior of mortars.

_Thirty-fourth Lecture._--(8.) Line of sight; its object and arrangement. Considerations on the inclination of the line of sight relatively to the axis of the gun. Trunnions; object and arrangement of trunnions and their shoulders. Position of trunnions relatively to the center of gravity of the gun. Preponderance of the breech over the chase; manner of estimating it; preponderance allowed in the different guns in use. General principle serving as the basis for its adoption. Position of trunnions relatively to the axis of guns. Reasons for their depression; circumstances which cause it to vary. Trunnions of mortars; their reinforces. Dolphins of ordnance. Weight of ordnance; necessary relation between the weight of a gun, and the quantity of movement of its projectile. Conditions serving to determine the weight of the different species of cannon, howitzers, and mortars in use. Examination of the weights adopted for the pieces of ordnance of all sorts, which have been successively employed. General recapitulation of the different species of ordnance in use. Nomenclature. Dimensions, weight. Land artillery. Siege, garrison, and field guns. Siege, garrison, field, and mountain howitzers, mortars, and stone mortars. Naval artillery. Cannon, carronades, howitzers, mortars, stone mortar, blunderbuss. Observations on ordnance. Exceptional ordnance. Villantroy’s howitzers. Belgian mortar of 60 c., &c. Description of the artillery petard.

THIRD SECTION.--WAR AND SIGNAL ROCKETS.

_Thirty-fifth Lecture._--(9.) Historical ideas on the subject. Cause of the motion of rockets. Their exterior and interior form. Relation which should exist between the law of generation of the gases and the orifice for their escape. Measure of the tension of the gases in rockets. Results of experiments. Motion of the rocket. Variation of the velocity during its passage. Means of regulating the motion; effect of the directing stick. Influence of the wind upon the trajectory of the rocket.

Description of rockets in use.--1st. War rockets; calibres employed; body of the rocket; arrangement of the stick. Projectiles fitted to the head of the rocket; rockets without stick. 2d. Signal rockets; their calibres and composition.

FOURTH SECTION.--CARRIAGES.

_Thirty-sixth Lecture._--(10.) Historical ideas on the subject. Arrangements originally in use for the service of ordnance. Successive improvements. Carriages on wheels. Introduction of limbers. General conditions which gun-carriages should satisfy.

General principles of their construction:--1st. With reference to the act of firing. 2dly. With a view to transport.

Mortar carriages. Particular requisites. Description of the carriages in use. Siege carriages; particular conditions. General arrangement of ancient siege carriages. Detailed description of the present siege carriage and its limber; its weight and different characteristics. Field carriage; particular requisites; general arrangement of the carriages employed before 1765. Field carriages of the system of Gribeauval; its defects. General arrangement and detailed description of the present field carriage and of its limber. Weight and different characteristics. Mountain carriages; particular requisites; description of the carriage and of the arrangement of its shafts (_limonière_.)

_Thirty-seventh Lecture._--(11.) Garrison and coast carriages; particular requisites; object of the platform for the two systems; its principal dimensions; position of the pintle or working bolt (_cheville ouvrière_.) General arrangement of ancient garrison and coast gun-carriages. Description of the present garrison carriage; change of the carriage into a movable one on four wheels; weight and different characteristics. Replacement of the platform by a directing transom bed under certain circumstances of the service. Casemate carriage. Iron carriages; inconveniences of this kind of construction for siege purposes and on the field of battle; its advantages for the armament of coasts. Description of the coast carriage actually in use; weight and different characteristics. Naval carriages; particular requisites. General arrangement of naval carriages in use. Carriage on four small wheels for cannon. Bracket carriage (_à échantignolle_,) and carriage with double pivot platform for howitzers. Carronade carriage. Mortar bed, cast in one piece with the mortar, (_à plaque_.) Exceptional methods of construction. Depressing gun carriages for a very plunging fire. Villantroy’s howitzer beds, those of the Belgian mortar of 60 c., &c.

FIFTH SECTION.--CARRIAGES AND OTHER PARTS OF AN ARTILLERY TRAIN. ARTILLERY OF FOREIGN POWERS.

_Thirty-eighth Lecture._--(12.) Battery carriages. Ammunition wagon. Historical ideas on the subject. Requisites for carriages used for the transport of munitions of war. General arrangement and description of the present ammunition wagon. Principles of arrangement of the ammunition chest. Loading of the chest with munitions of various kinds. Mountain ammunition chest. Loading of the chest with howitzer ammunition and infantry cartridges.

Battery wagon; object of this carriage; patterns successively adopted. Description of the wagon, pattern 1833. Field forge; object of this carriage. Description of the forge in use. Arrangement and play of the bellows. Mountain forge. Description and loading of it.

_Thirty-ninth Lecture._--(13.) Park carriages and machines.

Park wagon. General arrangement and description of the park wagon and its limber. Carriages destined to the transport of heavy burdens. Ancient gun wagon. Truck. Block carriage. General arrangement and description of the carriage. Siege cart; its object and description. Devil carriages. Arrangement of the ancient devil carriages with perch and with screw. Devil carriage with roller. Description of the carriage and of its mechanism. Gin. General arrangement of the different patterns successively employed. Description of the gin at present in use. Handscrew; its use, general arrangement, and description.

_Fortieth Lecture._--(14.) Pontoon equipages. Conditions which military pontoon equipages should satisfy. Considerations on the nature of the supports to be employed. Reserve pontoon equipage. Boat of the reserve equipage; its general form and dimensions. Description of the boat and skiff; use of the boat for navigation; its weight and different properties.

Tackle and machines employed for bridge-making. Balks, moorings, chesses, blocks, and balk collar. Framework, with movable head; different kinds of piles. Means of anchorage. Common anchor; its properties. Anchor basket and chest. Buoy. Cordage. Ideas on its arrangement and on the measure of its resistance. Capstan. Windlass. Tackling. Handscrew. Pile driver. Hand rammer. Grapnel and hooks.

General arrangement of the boat carriage. Description. Its weight and properties. Light equipage.

_Forty-first Lecture._--(15.) General ideas on the artillery of the different European powers, and comparison with the French material.

Ordnance; description, species, and calibres. Gun-carriages, carriages, and other parts of the train. General arrangement; facility of movement; modes of harnessing, &c.

SIXTH SECTION.--DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION OF GUN CARRIAGES AND ARTILLERY CARRIAGES, AND MEANS OF PRESERVATION OF MATERIAL.

_Forty-second Lecture._--(16.) Knowledge of woods. Preliminary ideas. Structures and general properties of woods. Diseases and defects of woods. Description and properties of the principal substances employed in the construction of the material; uses to which the different kinds of wood are specially destined. Selection of standing timber; felling; transport; reception of woods; cubature. Cutting up in large and small sizes. Observations on the shrinking of wood. Preservation of woods. Drying in the air. Round, squared, and blocked-out timber. Preservation in store; preservation in water. Steeping. Influence of the contact of woods with other woods, and with metals.

_Forty-third Lecture._--(17.) General considerations on the substances employed in the manufacture of gun and artillery carriages. Different properties of metals. Choice of kinds of wood; effects of their being dried. Classified account of axles and wheels. Axles; substance employed, their forms and dimensions. Wheels; essential requisites. Importance of the elasticity of wheels. Effects of the dishing of a wheel, form of the spokes, coupling of the spokes with the nave and the felloes. Tires. Form and number of the felloes determined by the effects of the drying. Form of the nave. Wheel-boxes.

_Forty-fourth Lecture._--(18.) Means employed for the connection of the pieces which enter into the composition of gun-carriages, carriages, and other furniture of the train. Nails, clinch nails, rivets, bolts, screws, &c. Examination of the joinings employed in the construction of gun-carriages, carriages, and other furniture of the train.

General principles. Joinings of gun-carriages. Joint plates (“_rondelles d’assemblage_.”) Mortar beds, siege, field, and garrison carriages.

_Forty-fifth Lecture._--(19.) Joining of other carriages and furniture. Hind parts, ammunition wagon, battery wagon, forge, park wagon, block carriage, cart, devil carriage, and drays. Boat and wherry. Fore parts, particular requisites. Fore parts of the field and siege carriage, of the park wagon, devil carriage, and drays. Barrels and cases.

_Forty-sixth Lecture._--(20.) Means employed for the preservation of the material. Cost price of the principal parts of the material. Ordnance, projectiles, powder, carriages, and other furniture of the train. Small-arms. Preservation of ordnance in gun-metal and cast-iron. Preservation of projectiles. Formation and counting of piles. Rust-cleaning machine. Preservation of gun-carriages, carriages, and other furniture of the train. Different methods of stacking in use. Preservation of powder and made-up ammunition; stacking in powder magazines. Means proposed for avoiding the danger of explosion. Preservation of small-arms. Armories. Preservation of iron and cut wood.

THIRD PART.

FIRE OF ORDNANCE AND PORTABLE FIRE-ARMS. EFFECTS OF PROJECTILES.

_Forty-seventh Lecture._--(1.) Fire of ordnance. Kinds of fire in use with ordnance. Choice of charges of powder. Charges of powder formerly in use; their progressive reduction. Charges of field, siege, garrison, coast, and ships’ cannon; of howitzers and mortars.

Arrangement of the charge. Shot cartridge for field guns. Loading of the other kinds of guns, of howitzers, mortars, and the stone mortar. Loading for fire with red-hot shot. Armaments for the service of ordnance. Methods of igniting the charges of powder; tubes formerly in use, friction tubes. Percussion system; Swedish tube. Ignition of the charge of hollow projectiles, fuses of hollow projectiles, fuse with several pipes for the fire of spherical case, hand grenade fuse. Rapidity of fire. Laying of ordnance. Principal methods of laying guns; laying them by the help of the line of sight. Determination of the elevation. Instruments in use to obtain elevations. Negative elevations, means of using them. Laying guns for fire parallel to the ground; for breaching fire at a short distance.

_Forty-eighth Lecture._--(2.) Determinations of elevations by experiment; construction of practice tables. Laying guns when the axis of the trunnions is not horizontal. Laying guns with the help of the plumb-line and quadrant; plunging fire, rectification of the aim.

Fire of mortars, means for directing it in use; use of pickets, of the line, of the quadrant. Laying pieces in the case of a defective platform. Means of laying them for night-firing. Laying naval ordnance; use of the front sight. Initial velocities of projectiles with the different charges in use. Angles of sight, and point-blank ranges of ordnance. Ranges at different sights. Maximum ranges.

_Forty-ninth Lecture._--(3.) Probabilities in the fire of ordnance; known laws, facts ascertained by experiment. Distribution of projectiles over an object aimed at of indefinite extent. Mean point of impact. Fire of canister; effects of the dispersion.

Fire of spherical case. Effects of the bursting of the projectile; dispersion of the balls and of the explosions. Fire of the stone mortar; use of mortars for the same purpose.

Fire of small arms: charges of powder adopted. Ball cartridge. Initial velocities of balls with the different arms. Angles of sight and point-blank ranges. Rules for fire according to distances, for muskets, carbines, and pistols. Fire of rifled arms; use of the tangent scale. Probability of the fire of small-arms; comparison of arms with smooth-bored and rifled barrels. Different means employed for the estimation of distances.

_Fiftieth Lecture._--(4.) Effects of projectiles on the different substances fired at. Effects of concussion and penetration. Effects on earth. Theory of the penetration of a projectile into a resisting medium. Formula to express the penetration, based on the results of calculation and experiment. Effects of penetration into wood. Effects on metals, cast-iron, iron, lead. Effects on masonry and on rock. Application to a breaching fire delivered in a regular direction relatively to the revetment. Effects of the shock of projectiles upon living bodies. Effects of hollow projectiles bursting in different media; earth, wood. Method of bursting employed against troops.

Effects of spherical case. Incendiary effects. Effects of war rockets. Explosive rockets. Incendiary rockets. Effects of concussion.

FOURTH PART.

TRACE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BATTERIES.

_Six Lectures, common to the Students of both Arms._

_Fifty-first Lecture._--(1.) Definitions. Meaning attached to the word “battery.” Different denominations given to batteries: first, according to the circumstances of the war in which they are employed; secondly, according to their mode of construction; thirdly, according to the kind of ordnance with which they are armed; fourthly, according to the kind of fire for which they are intended; fifthly, according to the direction of their fire.

Principles of construction. General considerations on the elements which constitute the different kinds of batteries which have reference to them. Epaulment; its length, height, and thickness in different cases. Section of the epaulment. Ground-plan of the epaulment of the different kinds of batteries; returns at its extremities. Case where the battery is in advance of a parallel. Epaulment with redans; its trace.

_Embrasures_ opened in the epaulment; their construction in different cases; slope of the bottom; interior opening; exterior opening; form of the cheeks.

_Genouillère_; fixing of its height for the different kinds of fire. Limit of the obliquity of the embrasures.

_Fifty-second Lecture._--(2.) _Terre-Plein_; its position relatively to the ground; its length for the different kinds of batteries. Disposition of the part unoccupied by the platforms. Terre-plein of garrison, field, coast, and barbette batteries.

_Ditch_; cases in which it is employed. Its position with reference to the epaulment. Depth, breadth, section, and plan of the ditch.

_Communications_ between the battery and the works, in its neighborhood; parallels or trenches; plan and construction. Communication between the battery and its ditch.

_Powder magazines:_ their object. Discussion respecting their site and capacity with a view to the different kinds of batteries, viz., siege, garrison, and field batteries.

_Traverses_ of _crownwork_ and garrison batteries. Width between them and dimensions.

_Fifty-third Lecture._--(3.) Details of construction. Different materials employed in the construction of batteries. First, materials for revetments, fascines, gabions, hurdles, sods, bags of earth, withy-bands, stakes, &c. Secondly, materials for platforms; hurtoir, sleepers, planks, beams, pickets. Construction of revetments of different kinds employed in batteries. First, revetment of the interior slope of a battery upon the natural ground. Secondly, revetment in use when the terre-plein is more or less sunken. Ordinary siege battery, battery in a parallel, battery in a crownwork. Third, revetment of the checks of embrasures in the different cases met with in practice; direct batteries with point-blank range; ricochet, breaching, garrison, and field batteries.

_Fifty-fourth Lecture._--(4.) Construction of platforms. Ordinary siege platforms, movable platforms (_à la Prussienne_,) garrison and coast platforms, ordinary mortar platforms, platforms for coast mortars of great range. Peculiar case where the fire has to be elevated or greatly depressed. Construction of the communications from the battery to the parallel and to its fosse. Construction of powder magazines in batteries. Magazines of siege batteries, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4. Case of breaching batteries; garrison battery and field battery. Magazines. Degree of resistance offered by blinded magazines. Modifications adopted for the strengthening of magazines whose construction is already fixed.

_Fifty-fifth Lecture._--(5.) Number of workmen to be employed on the construction of the different parts of batteries: revetments, platforms, communications, powder magazines. Earthworks.

Duration of the total labor necessary for the construction of each kind of battery. Duration of the duty for the different parts of the _personnel_ employed upon the construction; officers, gunners, assistants. Definitive number of workmen necessary for the construction of the different kinds of batteries. Tools of different kinds.

Simultaneous execution. Preliminary operations. Reconnaissance. Prolongations. Sketch of the plan of a battery. Formation of the working party. Transport of materials. Plan of the battery. First, battery having its terre-plein on the level of the ground. Disposition of the working party. Work of the first night, of the following day, of the second night. Second, a battery sunk outside a parallel. Third, battery in a parallel or trench of some kind already established. Day labor, night labor.

(4.) Particular case of crownwork batteries.

_Fifty-sixth Lecture._--(6.) Exceptional constructions. Blinded batteries for cannon or howitzers; for mortars. Batteries of earth-bags. Batteries on stony ground, on the rock, or marshy soil. Floating batteries. Construction on sites deficient in space. Case where the fire of the place is too dangerous. Coast batteries. General arrangement.

Instruction preparatory to working at the plans of batteries. (Course.)

FIFTH PART.

UNIFORM ORGANIZATION AND SERVICE OF THE ARTILLERY.

_Ten Lectures common to Students of both Arms._

FIRST SECTION.--UNIFORM ORGANIZATION OF THE ARTILLERY.

_Fifty-seventh Lecture._--(1.) Historical résumé. Progress of modern artillery, from its origin down to our time. Artillery of Charles VII. and of Louis XI. Progress under Francis I. Effects of the wars of religion. Edict of Blois, 1572. Improvements by Sully. Creation by Gustavus Adolphus. State of the artillery under Louis XIV. Employment of artillery on the field of battle at the commencement of the 18th century. Regulation of 1732. Introduction of howitzers into the French artillery. Regimental pieces. Progress of the artillery in Prussia and in Austria in the Seven Years’ War. Reorganization of the French artillery in 1765. Résumé of the improvements owing to Gribeauval. System of the year XI. Present system.

Historical ideas on the personnel of the artillery. State of the personnel at the commencement of the use of fire-arms. Masters and grand-masters of the artillery, &c. Personnel employed originally on the service, and the guard of ordnance. Creation by Louis XIV. Account of the successive modifications in the personnel from this epoch down to 1765. Organization of 1765. Horse artillery. Pontoneers. Artillery train. Artillery of the Imperial Guard. Organization of 1829. Present state of the personnel. Regiments of artillery. Composition of the personnel of the different kinds of batteries. Companies of pontoneers, workmen, armorers, veteran gunners. Driver-corps (“_train de pare_.”) Naval artillery.

_Fifty-eighth Lecture._--(2.) Committee and central depôt of artillery. Organization of artillery commands. Establishments for the instruction of the personnel; artillery schools. Creation in 1679. Present schools; personnel attached to them. Central school of military pyrotechnics. Establishments for the preservation of the material. Importance of the material of artillery. Its state in France at different epochs. Artillery directions. Division of the territory of France. Personnel of the directions.

Establishments for the manufacture of the material. Ideas on the subject of their management. Arsenals; their object, management, number, personnel. Forges; their object, management, districts, personnel, inspection. Foundries for land artillery; their number, management, personnel, inspection. Naval foundries. Manufactures of arms; their special management, number, personnel, inspection. Branch of the service connected with gunpowder and saltpetre. Powder manufactories and refineries; management, personnel. Direction of the service. Establishments existing in France. Percussion cap manufactory.

SECOND SECTION.--SERVICE OF THE ARTILLERY IN THE FIELD. ORGANIZATION OF THE FIELD ARTILLERY TRAIN, ETC.

Selection of ordnance, conditions which determine it; cannon, howitzers, relation between them. Proportion of the number of pieces of ordnance to that of the combatants. Mean proportion received in France; circumstances which may lead to a modification of it. Organization of ordnance in batteries. Account of the arrangements formerly adopted. Present system. Distribution of the batteries in the army. Principles received. Application of these principles to the artillery train of an army of a given strength. Infantry divisional batteries; cavalry divisional batteries; reserve batteries. Case of the formation of army corps. Composition and supply of batteries. Principles and details of the supply of batteries with ammunition for the guns and for the troops. Second supply distributed amongst the parks.

_Fifty-ninth Lecture._--(3.) Field parks. Their composition, in carriages of all kinds. Application of the principles to the artillery train of an army of a given strength. Approximate relation of the number of the carriages and of the horses of the train to that of the pieces of ordnance. Means of renewing the supply of the parks.

Personnel of the field train. Personnel of the batteries; working companies. Companies forming part of the train. Personnel attached to the parks. Staff. Particular conditions, having reference to war in a mountainous country. Selection of pieces of ordnance. Proportion between their number and that of the combatants. Composition of some artillery trains employed in our African expeditions. Composition and supply of the mountain battery. Lading of the mules. Composition of pontoon trains. Reserve train, boats, wherries, tackle, carriages, and horses. Personnel of the train. Light train: material, personnel.

_Sixtieth Lecture._--(4.) Marches of the artillery. Reception of a battery or of a park. Precautions to be taken before the departure. March at a distance from the enemy. Order of march. Distribution of the personnel; halts. Case of an accident to a carriage; ascents; descents; deep-bedded roads; passage through inhabited places; passage of bridges; of fords. Passage over ice. Night march. Transport of mountain artillery. March of pontoon trains. Transport of the trains by water; navigation by convoys; by isolated boats. Transport of ordnance, powder and projectiles in the boats. Transport of artillery trains by sea.

March in the vicinity of the enemy. Isolated convoys; rule with reference to their command; order of march; general measures of security; precautions to be taken during halts; manner of receiving an attack. Case where resistance becomes impossible; arrangements for the night.

Artillery in the march with other troops. Order of march. Relation of the different corps to each other. Exceptional difficulties which may occur on marches; privations of all kinds; bad weather; bad state of the roads; instances. March among high mountains; passes strongly occupied by the enemy; examples.

Encampments and bivouacs. Choice of ground convenient for a camp; disposition of the artillery camp. Establishment of artillery bivouacs. Disposition of the park; precautions relating to the superintendence. Different measures to be taken on arriving on the place of encampment or of bivouac. Attention to be paid to the horses: special precautions for the mules of the mountain artillery. Precautionary measures variable according to circumstances.

_Sixty-first Lecture._--(5.) Artillery on the field of battle. Measures to be taken on arriving in the neighborhood of the enemy.

Choice of positions adapted for artillery.

1. Different considerations relative to the ground to be occupied; form of the ground; cultivated lands; nature of the ground; communications, &c.

2. Position of the artillery relatively to the enemy.

3. Position of the artillery relatively to the troops to be supported.

Execution of the fire. Choice of the different kinds of fire according to the nature of the object aimed at and the distance. Fire of cannon, with ball, with shot. Fire of field and mountain howitzers. Fire parallel to the ground.

Use of war rockets. General principles relating to the effects to be produced by artillery, and to the warmth of the fire. Proper use of stores; their replacement. Use of the prolong. Arrangements to be made after the engagement. Spiking and unspiking of ordnance.

Use of artillery in the principal circumstances of a campaign. General case of an offensive engagement. Part played by the artillery in supporting infantry and cavalry marching to the attack. Importance of the artillery for following up a first advantage which has been obtained. Examples. Use of the artillery in masses to strike a decisive blow. Examples. Defensive engagement.

Disposition and use of the artillery for the defense of fortified positions. Attack of entrenchments. Reconnaissance. Disposition and use of artillery; attack of lunettes by the gorge. Examples. Attack and defense of villages; disposition of the artillery under these two circumstances. Attack of squares. Importance of artillery towards preparing for it. Examples. Defense of squares; disposition of artillery. Examples. Case of a charge of cavalry upon artillery. Use of artillery in the advanced guard, in the rearguard, in a retreat.

Use of artillery in the passage of streams. Examples. Use of artillery to defend or force the passage of valleys or defiles. Examples.

THIRD SECTION.--SERVICE OF ARTILLERY IN THE ATTACK AND DEFENSE OF PLACES, AND IN THE DEFENSE OF COASTS.

_Sixty-second Lecture._--(6.) Object to be attained with the use of artillery in the attack of places. Selection of ordnance, cannon, howitzers, mortars. Composition of the siege train. Method to be followed in order to determine it. Examples of trains employed in different sieges. Carriages of the train. Supply of the siege train with projectiles, powder, &c.

Personnel of the siege train; troops and staff. Transport of the siege train. Horses to be employed. Limit in either direction. Employment of watercourses. Examples. Establishment of the train before the place. Encampment of the artillery force. Organization of the parks. Workshops, powder magazines, trench-depots. Rules relating to the direction of artillery works.

Commanding officers of attack.

_Sixty-third Lecture._--(7.) Considerations on the different kinds of batteries to be employed in the attack of fortified places. Position of the batteries relatively to the point to be breached. Direct battery within point-blank range; enfilading battery, for a plunging fire, for direct fire within point-blank range, for plunging fire. Mortar batteries. Composition of the different kinds of batteries. Position of the directing lines of an enfilading battery, relative positions of the cannon, the howitzers, or the mortars. Position of the batteries relatively to the parallels and the rest of the trenches. Examination of the circumstances which affect the power of a plunging fire, command of the work over the battery; distance between the height of the traverses. Slope of the crests of the work.

General principles relating to the order of the works of the artillery, commencing from the opening of the trenches.

Times for the construction of the first batteries. Batteries of the first and second parallels. Use of field artillery to defend the flank of the attacks. Replacement of the fire covered by the advance of the works; batteries of the third parallel. Use of vertical fire. Mortars of 15c. Throwing of grenades. Breaching and counter batteries. Considerations relating to their position. Batteries in the covered way.

Case of a breach into an interior work. Composition of the breaching and counter batteries. Calibres to be used. Number of pieces of ordnance.

Ideas upon the operation of arming batteries. Precautions to be taken. Passage out of the parallels or trenches. March in the trenches; examples of some operations of this kind. Supply of the different kinds of batteries. Rule relating to their daily service. Firing of siege batteries. Opening of the fire. Direct fire within point-blank range. Plunging fire. Fire of mortars. Warmth of the fire by day and by night; mean consumption of material. Fire of breaching batteries. Effects to be produced. Height of the horizontal cutting, number of the vertical ones. Execution of the fire; fall of the revetment. Fire upon the counter forts. Fire to render the breach practicable; balls, shells, war-rockets, facts ascertained by experiment.

Consumption of powder and projectiles, length of the operation. Breaching fire in a very oblique direction. Fire upon masked masonry. Breach into an unreveted work. Fire of counter-batteries. Bombardment. Case where it can be employed; manner of executing it.

Occupation of the place; arrangements which must be made by the artillery. Case of raising the siege. Case of its transformation into a blockade.

_Sixty-fourth Lecture._--(8.) Service of artillery in the defense of places. Object to be attained with artillery. Selection of ordnance, guns, howitzers, mortars. Use of war-rockets and arms of precise aim. Field artillery. Basis of the supply of fortified places. Projectiles, powder, small-arms, various carriages. _Personnel_ of the artillery. Troops. Staff.

Measures to be taken before the siege. Reconnaissances. Arrangement of the material. Organization of the _personnel_, of the duty by local divisions, of the workshops of all sorts. Precautionary armament. Basis of its organization. Supply of ordnance. Defensive armament. General principles relating to the armament of different kinds of works. Bastions, cavaliers, demilunes, approaches, &c. Organization of the armament. Traverses, embrasures, gun-carriages to be employed. Powder magazines. Supplies. Service of pieces.

Employment of the artillery against the first works of the besiegers, against the construction and armament of batteries; against the besieging artillery. Partial disarmament in case of inferiority. Part played by artillery in sorties. Modification of the defensive armament in proportion to the progress of the attack. Last defensive armament. Principles relating to its disposition. Armament of the flanking part of the fortification. Increased use of vertical fire. Use of war-rockets against works in close proximity. Crowning batteries, cavaliers of the trenches. Heads of saps, &c. Blinded batteries. Conditions of the establishment. Defense of breaches.

Service of artillery in the defense of coasts. General considerations on the degree of extension admissible in the armament of coasts. Principal points to be defended. Selection of ordnance intended for the armament of coast. Objects to be effected. Effects of balls (utility of large calibres;) of howitzer shells and of shells. Fire with red-hot balls. Material appropriated to the defense of coasts.

Position of coast batteries, conditions which determine it. Composition of coast batteries; their supply. Ideas upon the organization of the batteries and their small redoubts (_réduits_.) Use of the fleet and of field artillery. _Personnel_ allotted to the service of artillery on the coasts.

FOURTH SECTION.--APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES PREVIOUSLY SET FORTH TO THE ATTACK AND DEFENSE OF THE FORTRESS OF METZ, (SHAM SIEGE.)

_Sixty-fifth Lecture._--(9.) Composition of the siege train necessary for the attack of Metz. Carriages of the train.

Supply of the train with projectiles, powder, &c. Personnel of the train, troops and staff. Transport of the siege train. Establishment of the train before the place; encampment of the artillery force. Organization of the parks. Work-shops, powder magazines and depôts.

_Sixty-sixth Lecture._--(10.) Object, disposition, and armament of all the batteries from the first opening of the trenches to the capture of the place. Use of field artillery to flank the batteries, &c.

Service of artillery in the defense of the place. Supply of ordnance, projectiles, powder, small-arms, and different carriages.

Personnel of the artillery. Troops, staff. Organization of the personnel and of the duties by local divisions. Precautionary armament; supply of ordnance. Defensive armament. Armament of the different works. Service of the pieces. Last defensive armament.

_Lectures Preparatory to the Labors of the Course._

1. Drawing and tracing of ordnance, 3 lessons. 2. Design for ordnance, 4 “ 3. Application of the theories of the course, 1 “ 4. Drawing of artillery material, 1 “ 5. Tracing of batteries, 1 “

The sixth lecture of the fourth part of the course (the fifty-sixth) is partly devoted to the communication of the instructions necessary for the execution of the work of tracing plans of batteries.

_Studies in connection with the Artillery Course._

The practical studies which are connected with the artillery course, are,--

1. Drawing of ordnance, 12 days. 2. The designs for ordnance, 24 “ 3. The application of the theories of the artillery course, 6 “ 4. The drawings of artillery material, 26 “ 5. The tracing of batteries, 4 “ -- Total, 72 days.

The tracing of batteries is executed by the students of both arms, the other tasks by the artillery students alone.

I. DRAWING ORDNANCE (12 DAYS.)

The survey of ordnance consists in constructing accurate sketches of a gun, howitzer, and mortar, in measuring their dimensions, and in giving a description of each of the pieces drawn. It is on this occasion that the students are practiced in the management of instruments to insure precision, such as the _étoile mobile_, and the sliding compass, &c. One day is devoted to this work.

The tracing of ordnance consists in the execution of a drawing upon colombier paper, containing an exact and detailed representation of a gun, a howitzer, and a mortar, with their projectiles.

This work is performed with the help of the tables for the construction of ordnance. Eleven days are devoted to it.

_Detailed Programme of the Drawing._

1. For each gun, howitzer, or mortar, a longitudinal section in the direction of the axis, and at right angles to the axis of the trunnions, and a plan parallel to the axis of the bore and of the trunnions.

Besides this, for those cannon and howitzers which have dolphins, a transverse section taken across the middle of the dolphins and the axis of the trunnions. For mortars, a transverse section made by a plane passing in front of the dolphins, the whole on a scale of one-fifth.

2. Detail of the button (comprising the cascable and breeching loop for naval ordnance) on a scale of two-fifths.

3. Detail of the tracing of a dolphin, on the scale of two-fifths.

4. Tracing of the bush of a gun, on a scale of two-fifths, and tracing of a priming-pan at the real size.

5. For garrison ordnance, in cast-iron, detail of the widening of the base ring on a scale of two-fifths.

6. Tracing of a cannon-ball, of a howitzer-shell, and of a shell, on a scale of one-fifth.

Tracing of the lugs of a shell, ring and lug at the real size.

All the parts of the drawing must be colored in uniform tints in conformity to the table of conventional colors; the annexation of the figures of measurement is not required.

This work is preceded by three or four lectures intended to make the students familiar with the tracings which they have to execute, and the solution of the problems in geometry and descriptive geometry, to which the representation on paper of pieces of ordnance and their projectiles give rise.

II. DESIGN FOR ORDNANCE (24 DAYS.)

The design for ordnance has for its object the complete determination of the nature of a projectile, and of a piece of ordnance in accordance with certain special conditions, inquiring into the laws of the motion of the projectile, and into its principal destructive effects, and the settlement of practice-tables for the gun. The general case for treatment is that of a howitzer, which comprehends the gun and the mortar as particular cases.

The data usually adopted are,--

1. For the projectile, its weight and the quantity of powder which it is capable of containing.

2. For the piece, the initial velocity of its projectile. This operation comprises calculations, a drawing, and a memoir.

The drawing, on colombier paper, which must be figured in all its parts, contains,--

1. The tracing of the profile of the piece, as it is determined by calculation, so as to satisfy the different conditions of resistance, on a scale of one-fifth.

2. The complete tracing of the piece executed in conformity with the rules laid down for the tracing of ordnance on a scale of one-fifth.

3. Tracing of the projectile on a scale of one-fifth.

4. Tracing of the wooden bottom and of the fuse of the projectile, executed in the case of each of these objects in two figures--the one on a large scale (two-thirds, or even the size of nature,) representing the inquiry into their forms and dimensions, the other giving on a scale of one-fifth the results of this inquiry. To this is added, for the mountain howitzer, or any other howitzer for which it is admissible, a tracing of the mounted howitzer carriage.

5. The representation in drawing of the laws of the motion of the projectile, the trajectory, inclinations, remaining velocities, durations of the passage.

In addition, the scale of the elevations and that of the angles of fire, for an object of aim placed at different distances.

6. An inscription showing all the essential elements by which the projectile and the piece are distinguished.

The final tracings of the gun, the projectile, the bottom, and the fuse, must be colored in uniform tints conformably to the table of conventional colors.

As to the tracing of the profile founded upon the calculation, it should receive merely an edging of the color which represents the metal used.

PROGRAMME OF THE MEMORANDUM ON THE DESIGN FOR ORDNANCE.

INTRODUCTION.

_Object of the work. Data of the Question._

A. PROJECTILE.

_First Section.--Substance, Forms, and Dimensions._

1. Choice of the metal employed in the manufacture of this projectile.

2. Forms of the projectile.

3. Internal diameter.

4. External diameter.

5. Dimensions of the vent.

6. Diameters of the high and low gauges.

7. Densities of the projectile empty and filled with powder.

8. Weight of the cast-iron ball of the same calibre as the howitzer shell.

_Second Section.--Minimum Bursting Charge._

9. Theoretical bursting charge for the hollow sphere.

10. Effect of the shock of the gases, and of their loss through the vent.

11. Résumé of the results arrived at in this chapter.

B. ORDNANCE.

_First Section.--Metal, Calibre, and Length of Bore._

12. Choice of the metal of which the piece is to be formed.

13. Windage of the projectile and diameter of the bore.

14. Effect of the windage on the velocity of the projectile.

15. Length of the bore and charge of powder which satisfy the data of the programme.

16. Résumé of the results arrived at in this section.

_Second Section.--Thickness of Metal necessary in order that the Piece may resist the Expansion of the Gases._

17. Explanation of the method employed to resolve the question of the thicknesses of metal.

18. First propulsion of the projectile, mean density of the gases after this propulsion.

19. Second propulsion of the projectile, mean density of the gases after this propulsion.

20. Third, fourth, &c., propulsions of the projectile, mean density of the gases after each of them.

21. Density and position of the strata (of gas) at the moment of the maximum of mean density.

22. Density of the last stratum for the positions which come after that of the maximum of mean density.

23. Tensions which result from the densities found.

24. Corresponding thicknesses of metal.

25. Résumé of the results obtained.

_Third Section.--Profile of the Piece._

26. Inclosing curve, resulting from the calculations of the second section.

27. Modification rendered necessary by the form of the posterior part of the projectile.

28. Utility of the chamber and its dimensions.

29. Tracing of the chamber and of its junction with the bore.

30. Thickness of metal around the chamber.

31. Chase and reinforce.

32. Determination of the angle of sight.

33. Vent and base ring.

34. Minimum weight of the piece for the resistance of the carriage.

35. Approximate calculation of the weight given by the profile previously obtained. Modification of this profile, if there is any.

_Fourth Section.--Trunnions, Breech, and Handles._

36. Dimensions of the trunnions and of the shoulders.

37. Tracing of the breech.

38. Base rings and other moldings.

39. Object and fixing of the preponderance of the breech.

40. Exact settlement of the position of the trunnions, definitive length of the reinforce.

41. Center of gravity of the piece; dimensions and position of the handles.

42. Means of executing the calculations indicated in the two preceding articles.

43. Table of the dimensions of the piece.

C. FIRE OF THE HOWITZER. EFFECTS OF THE PROJECTILE.

_First Section.--Elements of the Charging of a Howitzer._

44. Tracing of the shot bottom.

45. Tracing of the fuse.

46. Diameter of the cartridge (or of the bag.)

47. Charge of powder for firing with ball.

_Second Section.--Laws of the Motion of the Projectile. Establishment of Practice Tables._

48. Preliminary calculations.

49. Trajectory.

50. Curve of the inclinations.

51. Curve of the remaining velocities.

52. Curve of the durations of the passage.

53. Determination of the elevations for the fire at different distances.

54. Angle of fire, corresponding to the different distances of the object aimed at.

55. Angles of descent.

56. Résumé of the laws of the motion and of the practice tables.

_Third Section.--Effects of the Projectile._

57. Depth of penetration in the media indicated by the programme.

58. Effects of explosion in earth.

59. Résumé of the results relating to the effects of the projectile.

NOTE.--The formulas cited in the memoir need not be accompanied by their demonstration, except in the case of the latter not having been already developed in the lessons of the artillery course. It will be sufficient to insert in this notice only the final result of the calculation relating to each formula, without entering into the details of such calculations.

The study of the design for ordnance is preceded by four lessons intended to make the students acquainted with all the details of its execution, and the substance of which is indicated in the programme of the memoir.

III. APPLICATION OF THE THEORIES OF THE ARTILLERY COURSE (6 DAYS.)

This study is intended to apply to the students those theories of the course which have not found their application in the design for ordnance. It comprises the solution by arithmetical calculations of certain questions on the effects of powder, the balistic pendulum, the effects of recoil, the science of projectiles, the draught of carriages, &c. The number of the questions may vary according to their nature and the time which their solution requires. The stating of the questions and the results of the calculations are inscribed on separate papers. This study is preceded by a lesson in which the students have recalled to them the formulas which they have to employ.

IV. DRAWING OF ARTILLERY MATERIAL (26 DAYS.)

The drawing of artillery material has for its object the representation by figured sketches of a gun-carriage, carriage, or other furniture of artillery material. The sketches, on paper put together in the form of a book, and headed by a special programme for the object to be drawn, consist of plans, sections, or elevations of the object, executed on certain scales, and of detailed projections of the principal iron-work and joints. The whole fixed by the special programme in question.

All the simultaneous projections of any one part of the object drawn (fore part or hind part for carriages) must be completely figured; they are accompanied by explanatory inscriptions, with letters of reference to show the names of the pieces in wood or metal which they comprise.

Each collection of sketches must contain as well a notice in confirmation of the drawing, giving the complete description and the properties of the object to which it refers.

The students make two surveys of the same kind; eight days are allowed for each of these surveys, including the composition of the confirmatory notice.

The first survey is followed by the execution of an unfigured drawing, containing a complete representation of the object surveyed (elevation and plan,) obtained by the combination of the partial projections contained in the sketch. The drawing should be colored in the conventional uniform tints, and accompanied by an explanatory inscription, with letters of reference. Ten days are devoted to this work of composition.

V. TRACING OF BATTERIES (4 DAYS.)

This work consists in executing sketches showing, each in accordance with a separate programme, the complete plan of a battery and the essential data having reference to its construction and to its armament. The sketches, made by scale and completely figured, must comprise in the case of each battery to be represented--

1. The general plan of the battery, on the scale of 1/200.

2. The sections or elevations necessary for the understanding of this plan, including the detail of the powder magazines, lines of communication, &c., on the scale of 1/100.

3. An inscription giving the object of the battery, its armament, its general arrangement (_terre-plein_, embrasures, revetment, communications, magazines, &c.,) the workmen, materials, and tools necessary for its construction, and finally the duration of the labor and its distribution by day and night.

Four days are devoted to this work, which must be executed on a half sheet of colombier paper. The separate programmes relating to each of these batteries are shown on the study orders of the rooms.

RECAPITULATIVE TABLE.--ARTILLERY STUDENTS.

[KEY] NL Number of the Lectures. CG Credits given for the Lectures. +A With application at 1h 50m. -A Without application at 3h. TC Total Credits. Q Number of the Questions.

---------------------------------+----+------------+--------+---- LECTURES | | CG | | | +-------+----+ | | NL | +A | -A | TC | Q ---------------------------------+----+-------+----+--------+---- Division of the Course-- | | | | | First Part. Theory, | | | | | Sections 1, 2, 3, | 26 | 18 | 42 | 60 | 4 Second Part. Description of the | | | | | Material, Sections | | | | | 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, | 20 | 30 | .. | 30 | 3 Third Part. Fire of Ordnance, | 4 | .. | 12 | 12 | 1 Fourth Part. Construction | | | | | of Batteries, | 6 | 9 | .. | 9 | 2 Fifth Part. Organization and | | | | | Service of the Artillery, | | | | | Sections 1, 2, 3, | 8 | .. | 24 | 24 | 1 Sham Siege, | 2 | 3 | .. | 3 | .. Lectures in preparation | | | | | for the Studies, | 9 | 13 50 | .. | 13 50 | .. +----+-------+----+--------+---- Totals, | 75 | 73 50 | 78 | 151 50 | 10 ---------------------------------+----+-------+----+--------+----

[KEY] S Sketches D Drawings. M Memoirs. Inv Inventories. ID In-door Attendance. 1½ hours. OD Out-door Attendance. 1½ hours. C Credits in round Numbers.

---------------------------+----------------------------------- STUDIES. | Number of +----+----+----+----+----+----+----- | S | D | M | Inv| ID | OD | C ---------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----- Survey of Ordnance, | 1 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 1 | 5 Tracing of Ordnance, | .. | 1 | .. | .. | 11 | .. | 50 Design for Ordnance-- | | | | | | | Calculations, | .. | .. | .. | 1 | 10 | .. | 45 Drawings, | .. | 1 | .. | .. | 8 | .. | 35 Memoir, | .. | .. | 1 | .. | 6 | .. | 55* Application of Theories-- | | | | | | | (Artillery Question) | .. | .. | 1 | .. | 6 | .. | 55† First Survey of Material-- | | | | | | | Sketch, | 1 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 8 | 35 Composition of Notice, | .. | 1 | .. | .. | 10 | .. | 45 Second Survey-- | | | | | | | Sketch, | 1 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 8 | 35 Sketch of Batteries, | 1 | .. | .. | .. | 4 | .. | 20 +----+----+----+----+----+----+----- Totals, | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 55 | 17 | .. ---------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----

[* The time is doubled for the memoirs.]

[† Ditto.]

RECAPITULATION.

Lectures, 150} Studies, 380} 530

RECAPITULATIVE TABLE.--ENGINEER STUDENTS.

[KEY] Cr Credits given for the Lectures. L Number of the Lectures. +A With application at 1h 50m. -A Without application at 3h. T Total Credits. Q Number of the Questions. ---------------------------------+----+----------+--------+---- LECTURES | | Cr | | | +-----+----+ | | L | A | -A | T | Q ---------------------------------+----+-----+----+--------+---- Division of the Course-- | | | | | | | | | | First Part. Theories, | | | | | Sections 1, 2, 3, | 24 | ... | 72 | 72 | 4 Second Part. Description | | | | | of the Material, | | | | | Sections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, | 14 | ... | 42 | 42 | 2 Third Part. Fire of Ordnance, | 4 | ... | 12 | 12 | 1 Fourth Part. Construction | | | | | of Batteries, | 6 | 9 | .. | 9 | 1 Fifth Part. Organization | | | | | and Service of the | | | | | Artillery, Sections 1, 2, 3, | 8 | ... | 24 | 24 | 1 Mock Siege, | 2 | 3 | .. | 3 | .. +----+-----+----+--------+---- Totals, | 58 | 12 |150 | 162 | 9 ---------------------------------+----+-----+----+--------+----

------------------------+------------------------+--------+ | Number of | | +-----------+------------+ | STUDIES | Sketches. | In-door | Credit | | | Attendance | | ------------------------+-----------+------------+--------+ Sketches of Batteries, | 1 | 4 | 20 | ------------------------+-----------+------------+--------+

RECAPITULATION

Lectures, 162 } Studies, 20 } 182. Round number, 180.

IV. PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE OF MILITARY ART AND FIELD FORTIFICATION.

The course is divided into six parts, and is made up of lectures and works of Application in the Halls of Study and on the ground.

I. LECTURES.

The 1st part contains sundry historical notices on the Organization of Armies, 6 Lectures. 2d part is on Tactics, 3 “ 3d “ Castrametation, 2 “ 4th “ Field Fortification, 16 “ 5th “ Military Communication, 10 “ 6th “ Strategy, 6 “ ---- Total 43

FIRST PART.--HISTORICAL NOTICES ON THE ORGANIZATION OF ARMIES.

The first lecture commences with explanations relating to the Greek and Roman armies; their order of battle, mode of marching; comparison of the Roman Legion with the Greek Phalanx, and of the Roman Legion under Marius and under the Emperors.

2. Military organization of the Franks under the Kings of the first race. Consequences of the feudal system, acting on the military organization. Feudal armies. Chivalry. Crusades, and war against England. Establishment of the first standing armies. Results dependent on the introduction of fire-arms. Progress made in the Art of War and in the organization of armies, from the sixteenth century to the present time.

3. Necessity for standing armies. Their proper character. Recruiting. Promotion. Degrees of rank. Station of the officers. Various positions of military men. On the composition of armies, Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery, Engineers. _Corps d’Etat-Major._ Composition of the army during the Revolution and during the Empire. Actual formation of a French army.

General Staff. Commissariat. (_Intendance._)--Different services dependent on it.

Relations between the strength of each of the arms that make up an army. On other corps which are not classed among the principal arms.

4, 5, 6. Summary relating to the military organization of the principal Powers of Europe.

SECOND PART--ON TACTICS.

1. Definitions. Formations. Manœuvers; character of a good manœuver. Order of battle: first, of the Infantry; second, of Cavalry; third, of the Artillery; relating to Sharpshooters (_tirailleurs._)

2. Brief summary of the principal movements in battalion drill to pass from line to the order in columns and reciprocally. Movements in column. Movements in battle. Dispositions to be made against Cavalry.

3. Of the principal movements in line. Order of battle. Line of battle. Formation of Infantry to advance against the enemy. Action of Cavalry. Principal formations. Charges of Artillery. Use of the Three Arms.

THIRD PART.--CASTRAMETATION.

1. General principles of castrametation. Situation. Construction and disposition of barracks. Camp of a Regiment of Infantry, of Cavalry, and of a Battery of Artillery.

2. Manner of tracing a camp on the ground. Huts; details relating to their construction. Tents. Bivouacs. Screens. Kitchens and camp ovens. Choice of the site of a camp; precautions to be taken for its security. Main guards. Advanced posts. Patrols and sentinels.

FOURTH PART.--FIELD FORTIFICATION.

1. Definition of fortification in general. Object and character of field fortification; its utility demonstrated by historical examples. Napoleon’s opinion. Essential principle of field fortification. Discussion on the ordinary profile of earthen entrenchments; on the dimensions to be given to the ditch in level ground.

2. Definitions relating to the trace; general principles. Redoubts.

3. On the elements of lines. Relation that should exist between the crest and the internal size of a closed work. Maximum and minimum of the sides of a square redoubt. Defects inherent to the trace of this kind of redoubt. Circular redoubts. Redoubts _en crémaillères_. Star forts. Lines with bastions.

4. Revetments of various kinds; case in which the slope of the ditch should be reveted; choice to be made of the different kinds of revetments.

5. Exterior dispositions; accessories to the defense; abattis; _trous de loups_; palisades; _chevaux de frise_, &c. Precautions to be adopted with reference to such accessories.

6. Interior dispositions; armament of musketry, artillery, barbettes, and embrasures; their advantages and disadvantages; construction of.

7. Powder magazines of different kinds. Small earthen entrenchments; palisades, carpentry, or blockhouses; advantages and disadvantages of blockhouses. African blockhouse. Closing of field-works.

8. Artificial inundations; under what circumstances they can be considered as obstacles. Positions and dimensions of dikes. Details of their execution; what advantage can be drawn from an inundation having less than five feet depth of water.

9. What is understood by the defilading of a work. The defilading of fieldworks should, above all things, be made to depend on their trace and situation. Definitions: dangerous ground; dangerous points. Defilement of an isolated and closed work; in what case it is practicable. Use of traverses. A partial defilement may sometimes be sufficient.

10. Continuous lines. Broken lines. Traces of redan, tenailles, cromailleres. Bastioned lines. Comparison between continuous and broken lines. Principal objections to their use. Utility of each demonstrated under certain circumstances.

11. Lines in broken ground: their form should depend on the nature of the ground. On the manner of fortifying a table-land. Expedients for defilading portions of lines. On the manner of making use of the natural obstacles of the ground; forests, scarps, marshes, water-courses, &c. Method of fortifying a house, village, an open town. Defense of a bridge or road.

12. _Têtes de pont_. Utility of small earthen entrenchments in these cases to facilitate the passage of a retreating army. Traces of a large _tête de pont_. Principal circumstances relating to the use of lines in war. Lines of circumvallation and countervallation. Frontier lines. Retrenchments against a descent. Lines that an army should make in an enemy’s country, far from its base of operations. Entrenchment on the field of battle. Lines, mixed, proposed by General Rogniat.

13. Attack and defense of entrenchments, of a continuous line; of a line at intervals; of an isolated work, &c. Examples of the attack and defense of lines.

14. Instruction relating to the operations for profiling and defilading on the ground.

15. Instruction on the project of field fortification. Calculation of the dimensions of a ditch corresponding to the face of a work of a variable relief, and to be constructed in level or other ground. Details relating to traverses, small entrenchments; defensive caponnieres, and accessories to defense, &c.

16. On the construction of entrenchments. Practical operations and organization of workshops to obtain durable and solid work. Necessity, in most cases, for accelerating the construction of entrenchments. Vauban’s precepts. In what manner the work must proceed to obtain a useful result; and, in the event of plenty of hands, how to finish it promptly.

FIFTH PART.--ON MILITARY COMMUNICATIONS.

1. On roads. 1 and 2, Classification of roads. Section and trace of roads in level and mountain country. Details connected with the study of a project for a road. Particular conditions relating to military roads. Execution of paved and macadamized roads. Roads for passing difficult places by the use of fascines, logs, &c. Maintenance and destruction of roads.

2. On military bridges.

3. Observations on the currents and change of form in the bed of rivers. Fords. Transverse sections, &c. Reconnaissances of rivers. Properties essential to military bridges. Relation between the buoyancy and the load in the case of floating supports. Anchorage. Construction of the abutments. Means of rendering bridges stable.

4. Construction of a bridge of boats in different ways. Bridges made of ordinary boats. Method of withdrawing a bridge of boats.

5. Raft bridge. Relation between the weight and the extrinsic load of a raft. Number of trunks of trees required for a raft bridge on a river of given dimensions. Weight of the trunk of a tree. Number and space between rafts. Construction of a raft and a bridge of rafts. Bridges of casks and trestles.

6. Rope bridges; their use. Calculations respecting the tension and diameters of ropes. Construction of a suspension bridge, and calculations relating to it.

7. Bridges on piles, carriages, gabions, &c.

8. Measures to be taken for the preservation of military bridges. Destruction of military bridges; also of masonry bridges. Reëstablishment of bridges.

9. Flying bridges. Ferry-boats, tubs, passage by fords, on the ice, by swimming.

10. Execution of the passage of rivers. Advancing and in retreating. Examples.

SIXTH PART.--STRATEGY.

1. Definition. Fundamental principles of all operations in war. In all cases there are--first, the base of operations; second, the point to be arrived at; third, the line of operations. Strategetical points and lines.

2. On marching. Preparatory and manœuvering marches. Advanced and rear guard. On provisions. System of magazines. Requisitions. Invasions. Battle. Examples.

3. On positions. War in a mountainous district. Retreats. Pursuit. Convoys. Partizans.

4. Winter quarters. Cantonments. War against irregular bands. Military reconnaissances.

5. Precis of the campaigns of the French armies.

6. Analysis of the principal campaigns of great captains.

II. PROGRAMME OF THE WORKS OF APPLICATION EXECUTED IN THE HALLS OF STUDY.

These works consist of four Plates of Drawings, two Memoirs, and a Project, of Field Fortification. Of the four Plates of Drawings, two relate to Field Fortification, and two, accompanied by Memoirs, relate to Military Communications.

Plate 1--Elements of lines. Tracing, on the scale of 1/1000 of the interior crest (only) of a redan, lunette, redoubt, star fort, bastioned fort, according to particular data given to each Sous-Lieutenant. Construction on the scale of 1/200 of a complete profile for each of these works, supposed to be established on level ground. Complete calculation of the deblais and remblais for one of the preceding works, according to the instructions of the Professor.

Plate 2.--Details of a field-work. Trace on the scale of 1/200 of a portion of the work of which the deblais and remblais has been calculated. Graphic construction of a barbette and of a direct or oblique embrasure. Details of revetments in fascines, hurdles, turf. Pisé. Drawing of a blockhouse.

Plate 3.--Accompanied by a Memoir. Project of a portion of road on ground represented by certain lines, according to certain data.

Plate 4.--Accompanied by a Memoir. Military bridges.

1. Drawing of a portion of a bridge of boats, three openings being shown; the two first relating to the successive construction of the bridge, and the third, of the construction by portions.

2. Project for establishing a raft bridge; the width of the river; the kind of troops to pass over the bridge; the length; mean diameter of the available trunks of trees and the length and scantling of the joints being given. The drawing to exhibit a plan of two openings of the bridge, and a transverse section.

3. Tressel bridge. To draw a longitudinal elevation and a transverse section of a tressel bridge, being given the length of the top and of the feet of the tressels up and down the stream.

4. Project for the repair of a broken arch; being given the opening of the head, the elevation of the roadway of the bridge above the level of the water; the depth of the water, the rapidity of the current, the kind of troops to pass over the bridge, and the available time and the resources as regards men and materials which can be had recourse to.

_Programme of the Project of Field Fortification._

This project is made by the Sub-Lieutenants, according to certain data given to each of them. It has for its object to cause them to study:--1st. The trace. 2d. The complete organization necessary for its defense. 3d. The details of construction of a field-work. In consequence, the work comprises three Plates of Drawings and a Memoir divided into three parts.

_Programme of the Drawings._

Plate 1.--Plan of the whole. This plate has for its object the research of a trace and of a combination of suitable works for the fortification of a certain portion of ground under certain circumstances of war defined by particular data. Each Sub-Lieutenant receives a lithographed sheet representing the ground to be fortified, and he has to exhibit on this sheet the works he proposes, in tracing in plain lines the horizontal projections of the interior crests and superior limits of the ditch, and in dotted lines the stockades or palisades; to show in black figures at the angles of the works the relief of the interior crests; the sites of barbettes, embrasures, traverses, barriers, &c., being indicated by reference letters and explanatory notes, the lines in red showing the directions and objects of the line of fire.

Plate 2.--Organization of a work.

This plate has for its object the study of the details of the interior and exterior organization of a work of a certain form, in order to render it susceptible of making a good defense.

Each Sub-Lieutenant will draw a complete plan of such one of the works shown on Plate 1, as may be pointed out by the Professor. He will represent the ditches, parapets, embrasures, accessory defenses, small entrenchments, descents into the ditch, &c., according to the particular data furnished to him; the figures of the relief of the crests of all kinds, the deblais and remblais being marked at all the angles. The figures of the natural ground will be underlined. The same plate will contain figured profiles which have served for the determination of the complete projection of the work. Scale 1/250.

Plate 3.--Details of construction.

The object of this plate is to show the composition of workshops and the manner that should be adopted in the construction of field-works, according to circumstances, for the execution of the deblais and remblais.

Each Sub-Lieutenant will indicate the manner in which the work drawn on Plate 2 should be constructed:--1st. To render it durable and solid. 2d. To arrive rapidly at a useful result, even with limited resources of workmen and tools. 3d. To finish the work in the shortest possible time, by making use of all the necessary means. A plan will show the composition of the workshops under each of these hypotheses, and the successive advancement of the work will be represented by certain profiles supposed to be made at certain periods of the construction through the center of one of the faces of the work. In these profiles a firm trace, figured with altitudes, will show the limits of the deblais and remblais at the period represented by the profiles; and in addition by dotted lines, the final results proposed to be obtained. All these projects must be accompanied by a figured plan, showing the principal altitudes in meters. The remblais will be colored with gamboge, the undisturbed earth in bistre, and the deblais will be left white.

_Programme of the Memoir._

Each Sub-Lieutenant will write at the head of his Memoir the text of the particular programme, to which he is obliged to conform in the preparation of his project, and he should add to the text of the Memoir all the sketches properly figured, which are necessary for the proper appreciation of the dispositions which are not sufficiently detailed on the Drawings.

The Memoir is divided into three parts, corresponding to the three Plates of Drawings.

FIRST PART.--CONSIDERATIONS RESPECTING THE WHOLE PROJECT.

1st. General principles, according to which it would be proper to trace the works indicated in the particular programme, such as lines at intervals, continuous lines, têtes de pont, &c.

2d. Description of the tracing in Plate 1. Reasons deduced from the form of the ground or the nature of the military operations that led to the adoption of the trace. Object of the works, and their connection with each other.

3d. Number, description, and position of the pieces of artillery composing the armament.

4th. Maximum and minimum of troops that could be employed in the defense of these works.

5th. Dispositions which should be adopted (relatively to the necessary preparations in materials and to the separation and movement of troops) for the attack and for the defense.

SECOND PART.--COMPLETE ORGANIZATION OF A WORK.

1st. Particular object of the work shown in Plate 2. Trace of the complete projections of the parapets, barbettes, ramps, embrasures, traverses, &c.

2d. Conditions that should be fulfilled by the ditch. Approximate calculation of dimensions which should be given to it, taking into account the increased means of providing for an excess or defect of the deblais.

3d. Discussion on the site and the part which might be expected from small entrenchments, accessory defenses, shutters, descents of ditches, &c.

4th. Site of powder magazines; capacity that should be given to them, suitable to the state of the munitions necessary for the armament of the work.

THIRD PART.--DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTIONS.

1st. Means of ascertaining the nature of the earth; considerations respecting relays for the transport of earth with the shovel.

2d. Description, number and disposition of the workmen in a shed for deblai and remblai, according to the nature of the ground and number of relays.

3d. Explanation of Plate 3. Organization of the sheds and conduct of the work where the duration and solidity of the work are the greatest essentials; where, on the other hand, rapidity of execution is the principal thing to be fulfilled.

4th. Which of the modes of construction exhibited in Plate 3 it would be desirable to employ for the proposed works, according to the circumstance specified in the particular programme. Calculation for this mode of construction, of the time and of the numbers of men and tools necessary for the execution of the deblais and remblais of the work given in the plate.

5th. Details of construction of the revetments, magazines, shutters, accessory defenses, artillery platforms, &c.

III. PROGRAMME OF EXTERIOR WORKS.

These works consist of an exercise in tracing out a camp, and an exercise on the profiling and defilement of field-works.

The exercise on tracing camps has no particular programme, but is preceded by a lecture given by the Professor.

_Programme of Practical Exercises on the Defilement and Profiling of Field Works._

This exercise comprehends: 1st, work on the ground; 2d, a Memoir.

The work on the ground has for its object: 1st, the trace of the projections of the interior crest of a work, whose position and form are known; 2d, the determination of the relief of the interior crest; 3d, the profiling of the different parts, so that the relief of the different parts of the parapet, barbettes, traverses, &c., may all be fixed.

The Sub-Lieutenants for this kind of work are divided into groups of six or eight, employed together on the same work, each group being divided into two squads. The work may be a lunette or a redan of given dimensions, having a parapet of three meters thick, and a natural slope of one to one.

1st. The direction of the capital will be marked out in front by two numbered pickets.

2d. The tracing will be executed by means of poles or pickets placed at all the angles, and at the extremities of the gorge; the relief will be determined by the practical methods of defilement adverted to in the lecture which preceded the work.

3d. The relief obtained by the defilement will be marked on all the poles or pickets placed at the angles, and at the extremities of the sides of the work.

4th. On each face two vertical profiles will be executed, perpendicular to the horizontal projections of its interior crest. In order that these profiles shall not interfere with those placed at the angles, they must be established at several meters distant from the extremity of each face.

5th. The profiles of the angles will be deducted by simple prolongations, and the same for the profiles of the gorge. If the homologous crests of two contiguous faces do not meet each other, they should be reconciled by joining two points taken on each of them at half a meter from the intersection of their projections.

6th. On the traverse, designed to secure the defenders from a reverse fire, two profiles are constructed, near to its extremities if its crest is a right line, but if it is bent, another profile must be set up at the junction.

7th. The data of all these profiles are, the relief of the interior crest at the point where it is encountered by the profile, the thickness of the parapet, the constant parts of every profile, and the natural slope of the ground; the portion of the slope of the traverses exposed to the view of the dominant heights should not be reveted, the others should be.

8th. At the points of intersection of the profiles with the projections of the ridges of the works, as well as at the points used for adjusting, poles or pickets are placed, on which the points belonging to the ridges are marked. These points will be joined together in each profile by twine, indicating the different planes of the work.

9th. The form and dimensions of the batteries, either of barbettes or embrasures, will be equally determined by poles or pickets placed at all their angles, and united together by twine in the manner that will be subsequently explained.

10th. For the barbette batteries, the first thing to be done is to establish and to construct the front coupé of the salient of the interior crest, and substitute an interior horizontal crest throughout the extent of the barbette for that situated in the plane of defilement. The necessary adjustments are then made between the slope of the parapet of the barbette and that of the rest of the face, and indicate by means of twine the intersections of the terre-plein of the barbette and of its slope with the different planes of the work.

11th. For the embrasures, after having determined their direction, the intersections of the cheeks and bottom, with the interior and exterior slope of the parapet, and with its slope; also the slope which terminates the interruption of the banquette throughout the extent of the battery. In the case where the platform is formed more than 0^m 4 elevated above the soil, a ramp is constructed with its slope, and the intersections with the slope from the platform are shown.

12th. After the batteries, the slope of the ends of the traverses and of the passages for entry and exit are constructed.

13th. The traverse will be finished by adjusting its different planes with those of the parapet. In the particular case, where it was interfered with to make a passage over the banquette, it is finished by reveting the slope passing by the crest of the banquette of the work.

14th. At the passages of entry and exit from the work, the parapets will be finished by the slope of the revetment, whose intersections with the different planes of the parapets must be determined.

15th. For each squad of workmen, the distance of the salient of the work to the point on which it will be defiladed must be determined.

MEMOIR.

1st. Object of defilement--which is considered to be dangerous ground, dangerous point, plane of defilement.

2d. Position of the dangerous point relatively to the work which is to be defiladed. Practical method on the ground. Results to which it leads.

3d. On the field this method is not always applicable to an isolated work, and never is so to entrenchments of a great development, such as lines, large têtes-de-pont, &c. By what proceeding is it generally expedient to attempt to fulfill in war the indisputable condition of defilement.

RECAPITULATION FOR THE SUB-LIEUTENANTS OF ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS.

[KEY] NL Number of the Lectures. +A With application. -A Without application. I No. of Interrogations.

---------------------------------+----+---------------------- First Lectures.-- | |Credits for Lectures. | +----+----+-------+--- Parts of the Course. | NL | +A | -A | Total | I ---------------------------------+----+----+----+-------+--- 1st Part. Historical notions | | | | | on the Organization of Armies | 6 | | 18 | 18 }| 2nd Part. Tactics | 3 | | 9 | 9 }| 1 3rd “ Castrametation | 2 | | 6 | 6 }| 4th “ Field Fortification | 16 | 24 | | 24 | 2 5th “ Military Communications | 10 | 15 | | 15 | 1 6th “ Strategy | 6 | | 18 | 18 | 1 +----+----+----+-------+--- Totals | 43 39 51 90* 5 ------------------------------------------------------------

[* The number 90 is applied to the interrogations and to the obligations of the notes.]

[KEY] D Drawings M Memoirs I In the Halls O Outside C Credits

-------------------------------------+-------------------------- | Number of +--+---+------------+------ EXECUTION OF WORK. |D | M |Attendances | C | | +-----+------+ | | | I | O | -------------------------------------+--+---+-----+------+------ Drawings of Military Art,-- | | | | | Plate 1. Elements of Lines | 1|.. | 4 | .. | 20 Plate 2. Details of a Field-work | 1|.. | 8 | .. | 35 Plate 3. Project of a Road | 1|.. | 8 | .. | 35 Memoir |..| 1 | 2 | .. | 20 Plate 4. Military Bridges | 1|.. | 8 | .. | 35 Memoir |..| 1 | 2 | .. | 20 Project of Field Fortification,-- | | | | | Plate 1. Plan of the whole | 1|.. | 3 | .. | 15 Plate 2. Organization of a work | 1|.. | 8 | .. | 35 Plate 3. Details of Construction | 1|.. | 5 | .. | 20 Memoir |..| 1 | .. | 3 | 30 Tracing of Camps |..|.. | .. | 1 | 5 Tracing on the Ground |..|.. | .. | 2 | 10 Memoir |..| 1 | 1 | .. | 10 +--+---+-----+------+------ Totals | 7| 4 | 51 | 3 | 280 -------------------------------------+--+---+-----+------+------

RECAPITULATION OF THE CREDITS OF INFLUENCE.

Lectures, 90 Execution of Work, 280 ----------------------- Totals 370

4th. Methods of defilement employed. Determination of the different planes of barbettes, of their ramps, of the profiles of the gorge, &c. Construction of embrasures.

5th. Means made use of in practice for determining the distance of the salient of the work to the dangerous point on which it is defiladed.

V.--PROGRAMME OF PERMANENT FORTIFICATION, AND THE ATTACK AND DEFENSE OF PLACES.

The course of instruction in Permanent Fortification and the Attack and Defense of Places, is divided into three parts, viz:--

[KEY] Art. Artillery. Eng. Engineers.

----------------------------------------------------+------------- | No. of | lectures to +------+------ | Art. | Eng. ----------------------------------------------------+------+------ The first part consists of the study of the | | Construction of existing Fortifications, | | and it is common to the two services; | | it comprises, | 10 | 10 The second part contains principles | | of the Art of Fortification, divided into | | three sections, of which the | | {1st section relates to | | Fortification on level ground | 19 | 19 {2nd section relates to | | Fortification on hilly ground | 19 | 26 {3rd section relates to general | | questions of Fortifications | 4 | 5 Third part relates to the Attack | | and Defense of Places, | 24 | 24 +------+------ Total number of Lectures, | 76 | 84 ----------------------------------------------------+------+------

The first part contains a description of the various works of permanent fortification, their respective uses, and the changes that have been successively made in them, together with a short history of ancient fortification prior to the invention of powder, and the changes introduced by the use of fire-arms.

The systems of Errard, Beville, Pagan, Vauban, Cochorn, and Cormontaigne.

The first section of the second part describes the principles on which the various parts of a front of fortification on level ground, and according to Cormontaigne’s system, are regulated, such as the command, relief, defilement, form, length, and material of which the various parts should be constructed; the modifications required by the absence or presence of water; the changes which are necessary as regards exterior or advanced works, and ending with a comparison of a front of fortification according to Cormontaigne, with a modification of the same system introduced by the French engineers.

The second section commences with the principles of defilement and its application under various given circumstances, proceeds with the description of an imaginary work founded on certain given data, and furnishes the data of its proposed construction. It then supplies the theory relating to mines, and their use in the attack, defense, and destruction of places, and points out the particular duties of engineers in fortified places, and the proper and most efficient manner of carrying them on.

The third section relates to the preparation of projects for the improvement of inefficiently fortified places, and to the utility, particular organization, and proper position of fortified places on a frontier line. It then explains the necessity for military law in providing for the security of fortified places and districts along the frontiers of a state.

The third part describes the various operations connected with the attack and defense of a bastioned fortification, commencing with the operations preliminary to the siege and investment of the place, and continuing to describe the several processes to be employed in the attack of the place, with the corresponding efforts that should be made during its defense, and ending with an historical account of certain sieges.

This course requires the practical completion of the following:

Nature of the Work; Time allowed for its completion. Subject of the Work. Scale

1st Part.--On existing fortifications.

Single Plate, 20 days, Complete projection of the front of Cormontaigne without counterguard or cavalier, 1/1000 Three profiles of the front, 1/500

2d Part.--Principles of the Art of Fortification.

Plate, No. 1, 8 “ 1st Section: Fortifications on level ground.--Principal graphical constructions of the front on level ground according to particular data given to each Student 1/1000 Plate, No. 2, 28 “ Complete projection of the whole of the visible and underground parts of the same front, 1/1000 Three profiles of the front, 1/500 Memoir, 6 “ Description of the principles of the Fortification, with a detailed discussion of the dispositions adopted in the particular case treated by the Students. Plate 3, 20 “ 2d Section: Fortification on hilly ground.--Drawing of the ideal fortress and of its Tête-du-pont, with the interior entrenchments, inundation, sluices, and all necessary details to enable a proper comprehension to be had of the action of the water. Drawing complete of one of the fronts of the place and its outworks, described by a particular programme. Defilement of all the works of this front and of the masonry of one of its faces, 1/5000 Memoir, 3 “ On the situation of the fortification; description of the imaginary fortress, and of the management of the water; explanation of the operations of defilement drawn on Plate 3. Plate 4, (Artillerie.) 10 “ Plan and profile of a full revetment of the escarp with its counterforts, 1/200 Plan, profiles, and elevation of a revetment “en décharge.” 1/200 Detail of a gallery and small chamber of a mine, of its tamping and mode of firing, 1/50 Plate 4, (Engineers.) 20 “ Detailed project of one of the parts of the front of fortification defiladed in Plate 3. Plans at different height; disposition of the galleries and small chambers of mines required for blowing up the whole of the ground between two listening galleries. 1/250 Plate 5, 10 “ Sections and elevations of the preceding project. Foundations, coping of vaults, dressing of cut stones, &c., 1/125 Detail of a small gallery and chamber of a mine, comprised in the dispositions of Plate 4. Tamping and mode of firing. Avant, 3 “ Abstractions of measurement of a part of the preceding project, .... Plate 6, 11 “ Study of the alterations in the earth of the same part of the projects, representing the four principal periods of the work, by a plan and section, with an elevation of the 4th period, 1/250 Memoir, 2 “ General theory of the removal of earth. Application to a particular project, .... Register, 3 “ Register of the removal of earth as represented in Plate 6. Estimate, 1 “ Estimate of the part of the project to which the abstraction of measurements has been applied. 3d Section: Projection of the improvement of an existing fortified place. Plate 7, 30 “ Complete projection of the project for improving an existing fortified place, 1/1000 Plate 8, 6 “ Details of the most interesting parts of the project, in plans, sections, and elevations, 1/250 Memoir, 2 “ Marginal notes on the defects presented by the existing system, and on the means employed for correcting them. Calculation, 5 “ Balance of the “deblais” and “remblais” of the project.

3d Part.--Attack and Defense of Places. Single Plate, 30 “ Project of attack of a front of fortification on level ground, 1/2000 Details of the attack, Journal, 4 “ Journal of the siege. Details relating to the composition of the garrison and of the besieging army; also on the material for the Artillery and Engineers required for the attack and defense. Pen sketch of the most elementary works of attack. 1/200

[Transcriber’s Note: The “Observations” column is divided into four sections: Through Plate 3: Common to Students of Both Services. Plate 4: Artillery. Plate 4 (Engineers), through end of 2nd Part: Special to Engineer Students. 3d Part: Common.]

RECAPITULATION FOR THE ARTILLERY.

[KEY] NL Number of Lectures. Cr Credits for the Lectures. +A With application (_a._) -A Without application (_b._) T Total. I Number of Interrogations.

-------------------------------+----+-------------------+----- I. LECTURES. | | Cr | PARTS OF THE COURSE. | +------+------+-----+ | NL | +A | -A | T | I -------------------------------+----+------+------+-----+----- First Part. Study of | | | | | existing Fortifications, | 10 | 4.5 | 21 | 26 | 1 Second Part. Principles | | | | | of the Art of Fortification, |....| .... | .... | ....| ... First Section. Fortification | | | | | on level ground, | 19 | 24.0 | 9 | 33 | 2 Second Section. Fortification | | | | | on hilly ground, | 19 | 19.5 | 18 | 38 | 2 Third Section. General | | | | | questions of Fortification, | 4 | .... | 12 | 12 | .... Third Part. Attack and | | | | | Defence of Places, | 24 | 24 | 24 | 48 | 2 +----+------+------+-----+----- Totals, | 76 | 72 | 84 | 157 | 7 -------------------------------+----+------+------+-----+-----

[(_a._) The lectures with application count for 1 hour 5 minutes.]

[(_b._) Those without application for 3 hours.]

[KEY] D Drawings. M Memoirs. V Various. S Sitting in the Halls of Study. Cr Credits.

------------------------------------+------------------+------- II. EXECUTION OF WORK. | Number of | +----+---+---+-----+ | D | M | V | S | Cr ------------------------------------+----+---+---+-----+------- First Part. | | | | | Front of Cormontaigne | 1 | | | 20 | 90 Second Part. | | | | | Plate 1. Construction of Project | | | | | on Level Ground | 1 | | | 8 | 35 Plate 2. Project on Level Ground | 1 | | | 28 | 125 Memoir on ditto | | 1 | | 6 | 55 Plate 3. Project on Hilly Ground | 1 | | | 20 | 90 Memoir on ditto | | 1 | | 3 | 30 Plate 4. Project of Details. Plan | 1 | | | 20 | 90 Plate 5. Project of Section. Plan | 1 | | | 10 | 45 Abstraction of Measurements | | | 1 | 3 | 25 Plate 6. Removal of Earth | 1 | | | 11 | 50 Memoir on ditto | | 1 | | 2 | 20 Register of ditto | | | 1 | 3 | 25 Estimate of the Project | | | 1 | 1 | 10 Plate 7. Project of Improvements | 1 | | | 30 | 135 Plate 8. Details of ditto, | 1 | | | 6 | 25 Memoir on ditto | | 1 | | 2 | 20 Balance of Deblais and Remblais | | | 1 | 5 | 45 Third Part. | | | | | Project of Attack | 1 | | | 30 | 135 Journal of the Siege | | 1 | | 4 | 35 +----+---+---+-----+------- Totals | 10 | 5 | 4 | 212 | 1,085 ------------------------------------+----+---+---+-----+-------

RECAPITULATION OF THE CREDITS OF INFLUENCE.

Lectures, 165 } Execution of Works, 1,085 } 1,250

------------------------------------+--------------+----- II. STUDIES AND EXECUTION | Number of | OF WORK. +----+---+-----+ | D | M | V | Cr ------------------------------------+----+---+-----+----- First Part. | | | | Front of Cormontaigne, | 1 | | 20 | 90 Second Part. | | | | Plate 1. Construction of the | | | | Project on Level Ground, | 1 | | 8 | 35 Plate 2. Project on Level Ground, | 1 | | 28 | 125 Memoir, | | 1 | 6 | 55 Plate 3. Project on Hilly Ground, | 1 | | 20 | 90 Plate 4. Details of the Project, | 1 | | 10 | 45 Memoir, | | 1 | 3 | 30 Third Part. | | | | Plate. Project of Attack, | 1 | | 30 | 135 Journal of Attack, | | 1 | 4 | 35 +----+---+-----+----- Totals | 6 | 3 | 129 | 640 ------------------------------------+----+---+-----+-----

RECAPITULATION OF THE CREDITS OF INFLUENCE.

Lectures, 160 } Studies and Execution of Work, 640 } 800.

RECAPITULATION FOR THE ENGINEERS.

[KEY] Cr Credits for Lectures. NL Number of Lectures. +A With application. -A Without application. T Total Credits. I Number of Interrogations.

------------------------------------+----+-----------------+--- | | Cr | I. LECTURES. | +-----------------+ | NL | +A | -A | T | I ------------------------------------+----+------+----+-----+--- First Part. | | | | | Study of Existing Fortification, | 10 | 4.5 | 21 | 26 | 1 | | | | | Second Part. | | | | | Principles of the Art | | | | | of Fortification, | | | | | First Section. Fortification | | | | | on Level Ground, | 19 | 24.0 | 9 | 33 | 2 Second Section. Fortification | | | | | on Hilly Ground, | 26 | 36.0 | 6 | 42 | 2 Third Section. General Questions | | | | | on Fortification, | 5 | 1.5 | 12 | 13 | Third Part. | | | | | Attack and Defense Places, | 24 | 24.0 | 24 | 48 | 2 +----+------+----+-----+--- Totals | 84 | 90.0 | 72 | 162*| 7 ------------------------------------+----+------+----+-----+---

[* The number 162 is applicable to the Interrogations.]

VI. PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE OF TOPOGRAPHY.

The course of Topography comprehends two parts.

The first relates to the art of topographical drawing, and the second to the art of making topographical surveys. Both parts are carried on _pari passu_; but as the order in which the different branches of the instruction can be given depends very much on the other works carried on in the School, it will be more convenient to give the programme for each separately.

FIRST PART.--INSTRUCTION IN TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING.

The instruction in topographical drawing comprehends lectures and exercises in graphical representation. It is based on a complete exposition of the conventional principles of this species of drawing, and it is illustrated by engraved examples of the characteristics adopted for the representation of the various details.

_First Section.--Lectures._

The lectures have for their object the explanation of the general principles of the instruction in topographical drawing, and the geometrical conditions which should regulate the shading of maps and their reduction. They immediately precede the exercise to which they relate.

Lecture 1 relates to small maps, copies, and reductions of these; and it explains the object of topographical maps, the various kinds and the different scales generally used. The manner in which the form of the ground is represented by equi-distant contour or level lines is also explained, and mention is made of the conventional tints used, and the species of writing and value of the scale employed.

Lectures 2 and 3 relate to the execution of shaded plans by the brush and the pen, under different circumstances of light and shade.

Lecture 4 explains the different methods for reducing topographical maps, also the description, mode of using, and verification of pentagraphs.

_Second Section.--Exercises._

These exercises are intended to teach the students the conventional signs used in topographical drawing, and to give them facilities with the pencil and brush for producing shaded maps, and in reducing them from one scale to another.

SECOND PART.--INSTRUCTION IN TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYING.

This instruction comprises:

1st. Lectures given in amphitheatre. 2d. Practical lectures or exercises. 3d. The execution of topographical surveys.

_First Section.--Oral Lectures._

These lectures are divided in two classes, which comprehend:--

1st. Those relating to the description of the instruments, and of the methods used in topography.

2d. Those which have reference to the manner in which the students should proceed in the execution of the work, and principally of surveys of limited extent.

Eight lectures are devoted to the description of the various instruments, the method of adjusting their errors, and the manner of using them, as well as to the different ways of proceeding in topography; touching also on the various modes of measuring distances, with descriptions of the compass, plane table, and instruments used for leveling, and on the taking observations for and preparation of sections, and the orientation of maps.

Four preparatory lectures are given, showing the manner in which the students should proceed when on the ground to make a survey of small extent.

Two lectures relate to the methods that should be employed in making a survey of considerable extent, and on the appropriate scales.

Two lectures on military reconnaissance plans; instruments and scales employed.

Two preparatory lectures relate to the execution of a reconnaissance plan, in which the operations of a sham siege are intended to be recorded.

_Second Section.--Practical Lectures or Exercises._

The object of these lectures, which take place on the glacis of the fortification, is to show the students the practical modes of using the instruments, and the precautions which must be taken, together with the most elementary proceedings in topography. They are given to ten or twelve students at the same time, and the Professor is assisted by an officer of the staff. Each lecture lasts two and a half hours.

_Third Section.--On the Execution of Topographical Surveys._

The object is to familiarize the students with the use of the principal instruments and the principal operations, and they comprehend out-of-door work, of which the results are sketches, registers, and minutes made in pencil, and in the construction of plans, and inking in of the minutes in the Halls of Study.

The out-of-door work is performed under the superintendence of officers of the staff, who assist the students in their work. The construction of the plans is not commenced until the pencil minutes have been examined by the Professor.

These exercises comprise:--

1st and 2d. Construction of plans by the aid of the compass. 3d. The plan of a fortification made with the plane table. 4th. The determination of the variation of the compass. 5th. The execution of a second survey by the aid of the compass. 6th. “ “ rapid survey by pacing the distances. 7th. “ “ reconnaissance survey. 8th. “ “ an itinerary and reconnaissance sketch. 9th. The preparation of a plan on which the whole of the operations of a sham siege may be laid down, as the works of attack and defense proceed.

RECAPITULATION FOR THE ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS.

[KEY] Cr Credits for Lectures. NL Number of Lectures. +A With application. -A Without application. T Total Credits. I Number of Interrogations.

------------------------------------+----+------------------+--- | | Cr | | +------------------+ I. LECTURES. | NL | +A | -A | T | I ------------------------------------+----+------+----+------+--- 1st part: | | | | | Topographical drawing, | 4 | 6 |....| } | Art of Surveying-- | | | | } 36 | On the instruments and | | | | | Topographical processes, | 8 | 12 |....| } | On Surveys of considerable | | | | | magnitude, | 2 | .... | 6 | } | 2 On Reconnaissance Plans, | 2 | 1.5 | 3 | } | Preparatory to out-of-door work, | 5 | 7.5 |....| } | +----+------+----+------+--- Total, |21 | 27 | 9 | 30* | 2 ------------------------------------+----+------+----+------+---

[* The credit is diminished here and carried forward to the exercises, which serve for the interrogations of many lectures. These lectures have therefore really three series of interrogations.]

[KEY] D Drawings. M Memoirs. V Various. +H In the halls. -H Out of the halls. O Out of doors. C Credits.

------------------------------+----+----+----+--------------+----- | | | | Attendances | EXECUTION OF WORK. | | | +----+----+----+ | D | M | V | +H | -H | O | C ------------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----- 1st Part:-- | | | | | | | Topographical Drawing: | | | | | | | Conventional Tints, | 1 |....|....| 3 |....|....| 10 Study of Maps, | 4 |....|....| 26 |....|....| 120 Reduction, | 1 |....|....| 2 |....|....| 10 Construction of a | | | | | | | Triangulation with the | | | | | | | Compass, | 1 |....|....| 3 |....|....| 15 1st Survey with the Compass:| | | | | | | Out-of-door work, |....|....| 1 |....|....| 6 | 50 Laying down, | 1 |....|....| 4 |....|....| 20 Survey of Fortifications | | | | | | | with the Plane-Table: | | | | | | | Out-of-door work, |} 1 |....| 1 |....|....| 10 | 80 Laying Down, |} | 1 |....| 4 |....|....| 25 Determination of the | | | | | | | Variation of the Compass, | 1 |....|....| 1 | 1h |....| 5 2d Survey with the Compass: | | | | | | | Out-of-door work, | 1 |....| 1 |....|....| 8 | 65 Laying down, | 1 |....|....| 2 |....| 10 | Rapid Survey: | | | | | | | Out-of-door work, |} 1 |....| 1 |....|....| 6 | 50 Laying down, |} | 1 |....| 4 |....|....| 25 Reconnaisance survey: | | | | | | | Out-of-door work, |} 1 |....| 1 |....|....| 4 | 30 Laying down, |} | 1 |....| 3 |....|....| 20 Itinerary and | | | | | | | Reconnaissance,* | 1 |....|....|....|....| 1 | 10 Topographical operations | | | | | | | relative to sham siege† |....|....|....|....|....|....| .... Topographical exercises, | | | | | | | 4 each of 2½ hours | | | | | | | duration, |....|....|....|....| 6 |....| 20‡ +----+----+----+----+----+----+----- Total | 15 | 3 | 5 | 52 | 7 | 35| 565 ------------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----

[* The description Itinerary is reckoned with the simulated siege operations.]

[† For a memoir.]

[‡ This number is formed with 5 taken from it for the credit of the interrogations because the exercises serve for the interrogations of several lectures.]

RECAPITULATION OF THE CREDITS OF INFLUENCE.

Lectures, 30} Execution of work, 565} 595.

VII. PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE OF GEODESY AND DIALLING.

This course is divided into two parts--the one part special for the engineers, and the other common to the artillery and engineers.

The first comprises:--

1st. The study of the execution of a triangulation of some extent, and of its connection with the general triangulation of France, executed under the superintendence of the Dépôt de la Guerre, and

2d. Leveling with the barometer.

The second contains:--

1st. The study of reflecting instruments.

2d. The principles of dialling.

Each of these parts comprehend:--

1st. Lectures given in the amphitheatre.

2d. Practical lectures or exercises.

3d. An application.

FIRST PART.--SPECIAL FOR ENGINEERS.

1st Section--Lectures.

These Lectures include:--

1st. A description of the principal geodesical instruments.

2d. The establishment of the triangulation.

3d. The survey and the calculations connected with it.

4th. The orientation of the triangulation.

5th. The calculation of the co-ordinates of the points and their construction from the minutes of the survey.

6th. The geodesical and barometrical leveling.

The first lecture is devoted to the explanation of the different kind of signals used under various circumstances; on the method of measuring bases and angles, and the principles on which these operations are performed; and concluding with the description and mode of using certain instruments for measuring angles.

The second lecture continues and enlarges on the subject of the measurement of angles, horizontal and vertical, with different kinds of instruments.

The third lecture relates to the corrections and reductions which must be made to observed angles, such as the correction for the eccentricity of the instruments, to the reduction of the angles to the horizon, and to the center of the station, and also on the adjustments of the instruments, or the application of corrections for certain errors.

The fourth lecture discusses the calculation of the triangles and their errors, and points out the best organization that can be given to the triangulation, and the exactitude which can be expected from it.

The fifth lecture also relates to the calculation and the development of the triangulation, and explains the nature of the geodesical operations for the map of France.

The sixth lecture explains the manner of observing for, and determination of the azimuthal bearing, for the orientation of the triangulation.

The seventh lecture has reference to the convergence of meridians, calculation of rectangular co-ordinates, sundry problems, and geodesical leveling.

The eighth lecture shows in what manner the barometer is made use of for the determination of differences of altitude, the nature of the corrections to be applied to the instrument, and the degree of exactitude to be found in the results of this process.

The ninth lecture points out the order in which geodesical calculations should be performed and the verifications which should be exacted.

The Second Section contains five lectures or exercises, and they have for their object to familiarize the students with the use of the various kinds of instruments employed in carrying on the operations which have been shortly described in the first section.

The Third Section relates to the practical application of the preceding principles, and mostly consists of geodesical applications.

SECOND PART.--COMMON TO THE ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS.

The First Section consists of lectures given in the amphitheatre, and relates to reflecting instruments, such as the sextant, reflecting circle, and the method of using them, and also on the principles of dialling, and its connection with various problems in astronomy; describes also the different kinds of dials.

SECOND SECTION.--PRACTICAL EXERCISES.

In which the students are called upon, in the presence of the Professor, to adjust the sextant, and to use it in connection with an artificial horizon for the measurement of the angle between any two objects of the altitude of these objects above the horizon, and also the same altitude.

Third Section contains the practical application of the principles enunciated in the preceding sections, in the preparation by the students of two drawings, in which they will exhibit the graphical representation of the hour in terms of the altitude of the sun previously observed, and show the various constructions of a sun-dial, according to the specified conditions based on the observation of the hour angle.

RECAPITULATION FOR THE ENGINEERS.

[KEY] Cr Credits for Lectures. L Number of Lectures. +A With application. -A Without application. I Number of Interrogations. ---------------------------------+----+-------------------+--- LECTURES. | | Cr | | +------+----+-------+--- | L | +A | -A | Total | I ---------------------------------+----+------+----+-------+--- First Part:--Geodesy: | | | | | Lectures with application, | 4 | 6 |....|} 21 | 1 Lectures without application, | 5 | .... | 15 |} | Second Part: | | | | | Reflecting Instruments, | 1 | 1.5 |}...| | Dialling, | 2 | 3 |} | 4.5 | 1 +----+------+----+-------+--- Total, | 12 | 10.5 | 15 | 25.5 | 2 ---------------------------------+----+------+----+-------+---

[KEY] Att Attendances D Drawings. M Memoirs. V Etats Divers. +H In the halls. -H Out of the halls. C Credits.

------------------------------+----+----+----+---------+---- | | | | Att | EXECUTION OF WORK. | | | +----+----+ | D | M | V | +H | -H | C ------------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+---- First Part: | | | | | | Geodesical calculations, |....|....| 1 | 4 |....| 20 Exercises of 2½ hours, |....|....| 1 |....| 5 | 10 | | | | | | Second Part: | | | | | | Drawings of Dialling, | 2 |....|....| 4 |....| 20 Exercises of 2½ hours, |....|....|....|....| 1 | 5 +----+----+----+----+----+---- Total | 2 |....| 2 | 8 | 6 | 55 ------------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----

RECAPITULATION OF THE CREDITS OF IMPORTANCE.

Lectures, 25 } Execution of Work, 55 } 80.

RECAPITULATION FOR THE ARTILLERY.

[KEY] Cr Credits for Lectures. L Number of Lectures. +A With application. -A Without application. I Number of Interrogations. ---------------------------------+-----+-------------------+--- LECTURES. | | Cr | | +------+----+-------+ | L | +A | -A | Total | I ---------------------------------+-----+------+----+-------+--- Reflecting Instruments, | 1} | 4.5 |....| 5 | 1 Dialling, | 2} | | | | +-----+------+----+-------+--- Total, | 3 | 4.5 |....| 5 | 1 ---------------------------------+-----+------+----+-------+---

[KEY] D Drawings. M Memoirs. +H In the halls. -H Out of the halls. C Credits.

------------------------------+-------------------+---- | Number of | ------------------------------+----+---------+----+ | | Days | | EXECUTION OF WORK. | +----+----+ | | D | +H | -H | M | C ------------------------------+----+----+----+----+---- Drawings of Dialling, | 2 | 4 |....|....| 20 Exercises of 2½ hours, |....|....| 1 |....| 5 +----+----+----+----+---- Total, | 2 | 4 | 1 |....| 25 ------------------------------+----+----+----+----+----

RECAPITULATION OF THE CREDITS OF IMPORTANCE.

Lectures, 5 } Execution of Works, 25 } 30.

VIII.--PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE OF SCIENCES APPLIED TO THE MILITARY ARTS.

Lectures. 1st part--Geology, 12 2d “ On the Metallurgy of Iron, on Working in Iron, 6 3d “ Applications of the Working in Iron, 3 4th “ On the Manufacture of Small-arms, 4 5th “ “ “ of Ordnance, 5 6th “ “ “ of Powder, 5 7th “ On Pyrotechny, 2 -- Total, 37 --

FIRST PART.--GEOLOGY.

_Lecture_ 1.--Preliminary notions. Definition of geology expressed from its applications. Division in four sections:--1st. Mineralogy. 2d. Paleontology. 3d. Geognosy. 4th. Geogeny. (Only the three first are here treated of.)

First Section.--Mineralogy. Generalities. Distinctive characters of minerals. Fundamental principle of a mineralogical classification. Minerals are distinguished as having characters either exterior, crystalline, chemical, or physical; classification of minerals.

_Lecture_ 2.--First class: Simple bodies forming one of the essential principles of minerals. Genus silica, quartz, sulphur. Second class: Alkali and alkaline salts, potass, soda, &c. Third class: Alkaline earths, and earths. Genus lime. Fourth class: Metals. Iron of various kinds; copper, lead, tin, zinc.

_Lecture_ 3.--Fifth class: Silicates of various kinds. Sixth class: Combustibles, minerals.

_Lecture_ 4.--Description of various rocks. Classification of rocks.

_Lecture_ 5.--Use of rock and stone in the arts, and particularly in the art of construction.

_Lecture_ 6.--On the calcination of calcareous stones, lime-kilns.

_Lecture_ 7.--Manufacture of artificial hydraulic lime, manufacture of bricks, stucco, or cements.

_Lecture_ 8.--Second Section: Paleontology. General division established in zoology and botany. General notions relating to the different kinds of animals and vegetables, of which the remains are found in various geological formations. Third section: Geognosy. Lectures 9, 10, 11, 12, occupied with the explanation of the various formations.

SECOND PART.--ON WORKING IN IRON.

_Lecture_ 13.--Preliminary notions. Definitions and general considerations. Characteristics of iron, steel, cast-iron, &c.

_Lecture_ 14.--On iron ore and the various kinds of fluxes.

_Lecture_ 15.--On combustibles. Vegetable combustibles, mineral combustibles.

_Lecture_ 16.--Manufacture of cast-iron. High furnaces, different modes of proceeding with vegetable and mineral combustibles.

_Lecture_ 17.--Manufacture of iron and steel and the different kinds of iron.

THIRD PART.--APPLICATION OF THE WORKINGS OF IRON.

_Lecture_ 19.--Making of projectiles, carriages for guns and mortars, axle-trees and anchors. Use of cast-iron for artillery. General notions in moulding. Use of wrought-iron and steel. Materials first made use of for the making of projectiles, and in the casting of cannon-balls, &c.

_Lecture_ 20.--On the manufacture of hollow projectiles and the carriages for guns and mortars.

_Lecture_ 31.--On the manufacture of axles and anchors.

FOURTH PART.--ON THE MANUFACTURE OF SMALL-ARMS.

_Lecture 22._--Preliminary considerations. Assay of metals. Fire-arms, manufacture of gun-barrels, describing the various details.

_Lecture_ 23.--Bayonets, locks, &c.

_Lecture_ 24.--On the making of stocks. Finishing. Rifling small-arms.

_Lecture_ 25.--Manufacture of sabres, swords, lances, hatchets, cuirasses, and on the preservation, maintenance, and repair of arms.

FIFTH PART.--ON THE MANUFACTURE OF ORDNANCE.

_Lecture_ 26.--Preliminary notions. Metals proper for the manufacture of ordnance. Composition and properties of gun-metal. Wrought and cast-iron ordnance. Moulding generally. Moulding of cannons.

_Lecture_ 27.--Moulding of howitzers. Foundries. Fusion of the metals.

_Lectures_ 28, 29.--Boring. Turning. Carving. Turning of the trunnions, &c. Manufacture and reception of bushes. Insertion and replacement of bushes.

_Lecture_ 30.--Last operations. Proofs and reception of cannon. Chemical operations. Assay and analysis of the metals employed in the casting of gun-metal; proportion of the several ingredients.

SIXTH PART.--ON THE MANUFACTURE OF POWDER.

_Lecture_ 31.--General notions. Various kinds of powder, &c. On saltpetre and sulphur.

_Lecture_ 32.--Charcoal; wood employed; various kinds of charcoal; proceeding followed in making powder in various ways by the pestle.

_Lecture_ 33.--Manufacture by mills, &c.

_Lecture_ 34.--Influence of the proportion of the several ingredients, and of the manner of making it on its various properties. Preservation, inflammation, and combustion.

_Lecture_ 35.--Proofs and reception of powder. Proof of its projectile force. Mortar proof, and various kinds of other proofs to which it is subject. Reception and analysis of powder.

SEVENTH PART.--PYROTECHNY.

_Lecture_ 36.--Preliminary ideas. Objects of the course. Precautions that should be adopted to prevent accident. Mixture of the materials. Manufacture of leaden balls of various kinds. Caps. Fireworks for warlike purposes, used for setting buildings, &c., on fire. Firing cannon and exploding mines.

_Lecture_ 37.--Fireworks employed under various circumstances in war. Signal rockets. For illuminating or setting on fire. For explosions. Petards. On ordinary fireworks.

_Works of Application._--The works of application which are connected with the course of science applied to the military arts are as follows:--

1st. Study of samples of mineralogical specimens. 2d. Study of geological maps to be followed by a memoir. 3d. Memoirs on: 1st. Iron and its applications. 2d. Manufacture of cannon. 3d. Manufacture of small-arms and powder. 4th. Out-of-door geological excursions to be followed by memoirs. 5th. Manipulations relative to moulding in earth or sand. 6th. Chemical manipulations. 7th. Pyrotechnic manipulations.

_First.--Study of Samples of Mineralogical Specimens._

This study has for its object the determination of the kind of minerals described in the course. It is made in sections of ten or twelve Sub-Lieutenants and by attendances of one hour, each Sub-Lieutenant being called upon to reply at least three times.

_Second.--Study of Geological Maps, followed by a Memoir._

The study of geological maps will consist in indicating, by conventional colors, the different geological formations of a lithographical map, and to make a section in a particular direction. The map will be the same for all, and it will be conceived so as to correspond with the geological formation of France, but the sections will differ for each student.

An explanatory memoir will have for its object to call the attention of the Sub-Lieutenants to the most salient facts which will be placed in relief by this study.

One attendance in the halls of study will be devoted to this work.

_Third.--Three Memoirs._

Three memoirs on different parts of the course, other than the geological, will be made immediately after the interrogations relative to each section. Particular data will be furnished to each Sub-Lieutenant. Three attendances in the halls of study will be allowed for these memoirs.

_Fourth.--Geological Excursions._

Three geological excursions will be made in the environs of Metz by groups of ten or twelve Sub-Lieutenants under the direction of the Professor, and at the period of the out-of-door work, so as not to interfere with the current work in the halls. The first excursion will have for its object the study of the lias and lower oolite, met with in the vicinity of Metz. If the time will admit of it, a reconnaissance will be made to the great oolite at Taumont or at Amanvillers.

The second excursion will be made in the direction of Gorze for the study of the lower oolitic formation and to trace it up to Bradford clay, where an important fault occurs in this direction near to Metz. The study of this fault will be the great object of this excursion.

The third excursion will be made in the direction of Forbach, meeting with the lias, chalk-colored freestone, &c.

Three entire days will be devoted to these excursions, and each Sub-Lieutenant will enter his observations in a note-book, and make a certain number of sections, and report the results of these excursions in three memoirs in a specified time.

_Fifth.--Manipulations relative to Moulding in Earth or Sand._

These mouldings of projectiles will be made by sections of ten or twelve Sub-Lieutenants, two attendances of three hours each being devoted to them, one for ordinary and the other for hollow projectiles.

The manipulations for the moulding of cannon will be executed by the Professor.

All the Sub-Lieutenants will be successively called by sections a certain number of times, in order that they may be enabled to render an account of the different states of advancement of the work.

Programme of practical instruction for the casting of projectiles.

1st attendance. Making shot, &c. 2d attendance. Making hollow projectiles.

Programme of the moulds to be executed by the Professor.

Manufacture of cannon; moulding in earth and the various processes to be carried on.

_Sixth.--Chemical Manipulations._

The chemical manipulations are made by sections of ten or twelve Sub-Lieutenants.

Nine attendances of three hours each are employed.

1st. To the determination of the specific gravity and real density of gunpowder and to its analysis. 2d. To two other analyses of gun-metal, iron-ore, &c.

_Seventh.--Manipulations in Pyrotechny._

The manipulations in pyrotechny will be made by the whole division, divided into three brigades. Each brigade will be assembled in one of the halls at the School of Pyrotechny, and will execute the different manipulations indicated in the following programme, under the direction of the Professor, and with the assistance of the master artificers of the School of Pyrotechny. Five attendances of three hours will be employed at these manipulations.

PROGRAMME OF THE PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS ON MUNITIONS AND FIREWORKS.

1st Attendance. Munitions for small-arms. {Construction of bullets. Infantry cartridges, { “ of pouches and caps. { “ of cartridges. Cartridges with oblong bullets. 2d Attendance. Ammunition for field guns. Construction and filling of pouches, packing in wood, &c. 3d Attendance. Ammunition for siege artillery, &c. Construction and filling of cartridges, &c. Charging hollow projectiles. 4th Attendance. Fireworks for war purposes. Construction of matches, quick matches, tubes, fusees for shells and grenades. Construction of signal rockets. 5th Attendance. Carriage of field ammunition. Loading and unloading field ammunition chests for cannons, howitzers, and infantry wagons. Construction of ornamental lances and Roman candles.

RECAPITULATION FOR THE ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS.

[KEY] NL No. of Lectures. +A With Application, 1h. 5m. -A Without Application, 3h. 0m. T Total Credits I No. of Interrogations

------------------------------------+----+---------------+---- Lectures.-- | | Credits for | | | Lectures. | | +-----+----+ | Parts of the Course. | NL | +A | -A | T | I ------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+---- 1st Part, Geology, | 12 | 15 | 6 | 20 | 2 2d “ on Working in Iron, | 6 | | 18 | 20}| 1 * 3d “ Applications of | | | | | working in Iron, | 3 | 15 | 6 | 10}| † 4th “ Manufacture of Small Arms, | 4 | | 12 | 10 | 1 5th “ Manufacture of Cannon, | 5 | | 15 | 15 | 1 6th “ Manufacture of Powder, | 5 | | 15 | 15}| 1 7th “ Pyrotechny, | 2 | 3 | | 5}| | -- +-----+----+----+---- | 37 |19.50| 72 | 95 | 6 ------------------------------------+----+-----+----+----+----

[* The first series of interrogations relates to mineralogy.] [† The second to geognosy.]

[Transcriber’s Note: The printed Observations column (shown here as footnotes) is ambiguous; the best guess is that both items refer to Geology.]

[KEY] St Studies. Sk Sketches. M Memoirs. E Exercises. Mp Manipulations. H Attendances in halls, 4h. 5m. OD Attendances out of doors, 6h. Attendances at the Laboratory: L1 1h. to 2h. L3 of 3h. P Attendance at the School of Pyrotechny 3h. Cr Credits.

----------------------------------+-----------------------------+---- Works of | Number of | +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ Application. |St|Sk|M |E |Mp|H |OD|L1|L3|P | Cr ----------------------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---- Study of Mineralogical Specimens, | 3|..|..|..|..|..|..| 3|..|..| 5 Study of Geological Map, |..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..| .. followed by a Memoir Map, |..| 1|..|..|..| 1|..|..|..|..| 5 Memoir, |..|..| 1|..|..|..|..|..| 1|..| 10 Memoirs on the Metallurgy |..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..| .. of Iron, and its-- |..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..| .. 1. Application, |..|..| 1|..|..| 1|..|..|..|..| 10 2. Manufacture of cannon, |..|..| 1|..|..| 1|..|..|..|..| 10 3. Manufacture of small arms |..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..| .. or powder, |..|..| 1|..|..| 1|..|..|..|..| 10 Geological Excursions, |..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..| .. followed by Memoirs: |..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..| .. Excursions, |..|..|..| 3|..|..| 3|..|..|..| 20 Memoirs, |..|..| 3|..|..|..|..|..|..|..| 20 Manipulations in-- |..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..|..| .. Moulding, |..|..|..|..| 2|..|..|..| 2|..| 5 Chemistry, |..|..|..|..| 9|..|..|..| 9|..| 25 Pyrotechny, |..|..|..|..| 5|..|..|..|..| 5| 15 +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---- Total, | 3| 1| 7| 3|16| 4| 3| 3|12| 5|135 ----------------------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+----

RECAPITULATION OF THE CREDITS OF INFLUENCE.

Lectures, 95 } } 230. Works of Application, 135 }

IX. PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE OF APPLIED MECHANICS.

FIRST SECTION.--GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

_Lectures_ 1 and 2.--Short account of the general principles which serve as a base for the application of mechanics to machines, under the compound ratio of their establishment and of the calculation of their effects.

_Lecture_ 3.--General composition of a factory; power, recipient, transmission of movement, tools. General method of calculating the effect of forces in a complete factory.

_Lectures_ 4, 5, and 6.--Theoretical rules and the results of experiments concerning the flow of liquids. (Particular reference is made to the principles which relate to the large orifices of machines moved by water.)

_Lecture_ 7.--Gauging of the volumes and valuation of the dynamical power of water-courses which feed machines.

SECOND SECTION.--MOTOR MACHINES.

_Lecture_ 8.--Theory of the effect of water on hydraulic wheels. Determination of the elements of the calculation.

_Lectures_ 9 to 13.--Application of the general theories to the principal hydraulic recipients. Conditions of the maximum, relative to the useful effect of each kind. Results of experiments, &c. (With reference to turbines, those which are most generally employed in the artillery workshops must be adverted to.)

_Lecture_ 14.--Comparative abstract of the usual properties of various hydraulic “recepteurs.” Operations that must be carried on in order to arrive at their results and to their reception in manufactories.

_Lecture_ 15.--Physical ideas relative to the use of the vapor of water as a motive power. Theoretical bases of the calculation of the effects of steam-engines. Force exerted by the compression and expansion of elastic fluids.

_Lectures_ 16 to 18.--Practical notions and results of experiments relating to the effects and to the usual properties of the principal systems of steam-engines in use, as to the employment, reception, and maintenance in workshops.

THIRD SECTION.--RESISTANCE OF MATERIALS.

_Lecture_ 19.--Resistance to compression: 1st, by gradual pressure; 2d, by shock. Results of experience. Application to wooden and cast-iron supports, and to the foundations of machines. Stocks of hammers.

_Lecture_ 20.--Resistance to traction. Application to the shank of a piston, to bolts, chains, cordage, and leather straps. Resistance to flexure. Practical formulæ for calculating the transverse dimensions of the wooden or cast-iron arms of hydraulic wheels, of the catches or sails.

_Lecture_ 21.--Continuation of the resistance to flexure. Practical formula for calculating the dimensions of the several parts of such machines. Cranks, winches, and handles in wood or in metal.

_Lecture_ 22.--Resistance to torsion. Practical formulas. Results of experiments relative to the resistance of wood and metals to boring and turning. Resistance of cast-iron plates to clipping.

FOURTH SECTION.--WORKING MACHINES

_Lectures_ 23 and 24.--Of blowing machines. General expression of their useful effect. Conditions of the maximum effect. Ventilators; their use in workshops and galleries of mines. Practical bases of their construction. Blowing machines with a piston. Description. Calculation of the effects and results of experiment.

_Lectures_ 25 and 26.--Description and properties of alternative and circular sawing machines. Practical rules for their establishment. Results of experiments concerning the motive power they require, the useful effect obtained, and the resistance of various kinds of wood to the action of the tool. Results of observation relative to the work in shops by hand-saws.

_Lectures_ 27 and 28.--Machines which act by shocks. Practical formula for the calculation of the loss of acting force in the shock. Description and usual properties of various kinds of hammers employed in workshops. Results of experiments proper for serving as the base for the establishment of lever hammers and pestles in powder manufactories. Results of calculation and observation relative to hammers and pestles moved directly or by the transmission of a movement by steam.

_Lecture_ 29.--Grindstones for powder manufactories. Rapidity suitable to the different parts of the work. Means of obtaining it. Calculation of the necessary motive power. Sharpening grindstones for the manufacture of arms. Ventilation.

_Lecture_ 30.--Lathes and drilling bits. Description. Rapidity of movement and form of the tools, according to the nature of the matter and kind of work. Results of experiments concerning the motive force required, and its relation to the useful effect obtained. Composition of a workshop of turning-lathes for an arsenal of artillery.

_Lecture_ 31.--Boring. Machines for cutting and boring. The form of the tool and the rapidity of its action must depend on the nature of the material and the kind of work. Results of experience concerning the motive power required, and its relation to the useful effect obtained, principally for the boring machines of the manufactories of arms and of foundries. Boring machines, disposal of them in an arsenal.

_Lecture_ 32.--Flatteners. Machines for centering, for making screw holes. Descriptions. Different rapidity of the work, dependent on its nature and that of the material. Results of experiments concerning the amount of the motive power and its relation to the useful effect obtained.

FIFTH SECTION.--LECTURES PREPARATORY TO THE WORKS OF APPLICATION.

_Lecture_ 33.--Proceeding to be followed in the preparation of the sketches of a machine. Observations on the effects of machines, their duration, original cost, and cost of maintenance, mode of making, &c. Indications of the difficulties which are met with, and means which should be employed.

_Lecture_ 34.--Project of a factory (specially for the sub-lieutenants of artillery.) Legal conditions respecting the erection of factories. General mode of proceeding with the project. Choice of motor machines dependent on local circumstances and the nature of the work to be performed.

_Lecture_ 35.--(Special for the sub-lieutenants of artillery.) Determination of the effects supported by the pieces, whose dimensions should be calculated in applying the practical formula of the resistance of materials. Selection of materials.

_Lecture_ 36.--(Special for the sub-lieutenants of artillery.) Principal assemblages of various pieces of machines. Building, foundations, supports of trunnions and pivots.

SECTION SECOND.--WORKS OF APPLICATION.

_Survey of Workshops._

This survey of workshops comprehends:--

1st. Figured sketches and observations made on the ground.

2d. Drawing of the whole and of details shaded.

3d. A memoir containing an accurate description of the machines and workshops, the calculation of the dynamical effect, the exposition of the mode of fabrication, and, in general, the results and consequences of the observations made on the spot. It must be executed by each, conformably with the particular programme, and to the instruction which will be given to him. He is allowed for this work thirty-four days.

_Project of Machines._

This work, executed immediately following the preceding, by the sub-lieutenants of artillery only, has exclusively for its object the establishment of a workshop for the service of the artillery, comprehending the driving machines and the principal operators; or, if there be time, the improvement of the workshops of the same arm, described in the preceding work. This project must be executed conformably to the particular programme given to each sub-lieutenant. It comprehends; 1, sheet of drawings: 2, a memoir. Twenty-six days are allowed for this work,

RECAPITULATION.

NL No. of Lectures. CL Credits for Lectures. +A With application. -A Without application. C Total Credits. I No. of Interrogations.

-------------------------------------------------------------------- | Artillery. | Engineers. Oral Instruction +----+----+----+----+---+----+-----+----+-----+--- --Parts of | | CL | C | D | A | CL | | D the Course. | +----+----+ | | +-----+----+ | | NL | +A | -A | TC | I | NL | +A | -A | TC | I ------------------+----+----+----+----+---+----+-----+----+-----+--- 1st Section--General Principles, | | | | | | | | 7 | 6 | 9 | 15 | 1 | 7 | 6 | 9 | 15 | 1 2d Sec.--Driving Machines, | | | | | | | | | 11 | 12 | 9 | 21 | 1 | 11 | 12 | 9 | 21 | 1 3d Sec.--Resistance of materials,| | | | | | | | 4 | 5 | 3 | 8 |...| 4 | 5 | 3 | 8 |... 4th Sec.--Working Machines, | | | | | | | | | 10 | 15 |....| 15 | 1 | 10 | 15 | | 15 | 1 5th Sec.--Lectures preparatory to the works of application, | | 4 | 6 |....| 6 | | 1 | 1.50|....| 1.50|... +----+----+----+----+---+----+-----+----+-----+--- Total | 36 | 44 | 21 | 65 | 3 | 33 |39.50| 21 |60.50| 3 ------------------+----+----+----+----+---+----+-----+----+-----+---

RECAPITULATION.

D Sheets of drawings. M Memoirs. Att Attendances. H In the halls. O Out-of-doors. C Credits.

---------------------+----------------------+---------------------- | Number of | Number of +---+---+--------+-----+---+---+---------+---- Works of application | | | Att | | | | Att | | | +----+---+ | | +----+----+ | D | M | H | O | C | D | M | H | O | C ---------------------+---+---+----+---+-----+---+---+----+----+---- Survey of workshops: | | | | | | | | | | Figured sketches | | | | | | | | | | and observations,| * |...|....| 8 | 65 | 1 |...|....| 8 | 65 Shaded drawings, | 1 |...| 22 |...| 100 | 1 |...| 22 |....| 100 Memoir, |...| 1 | 4 |...| 40 |...| 1 | 4 |....| 40 Project of machines: | | | | | | | | | | Calculations | | | | | | | | | | and drawings, | 1 |...| 20 |...| 90 |...|...|....|....|.... Preparation | | | | | | | | | | of memoir |...| 1 | 6 |...| 60 |...|...|....|....|.... +---+---+----+---+-----+---+---+----+----+----- Total, | † | 2 | 52 | 8 | 355 | † | 1 | 26 | 8 | 205 ---------------------+---+---+----+---+-----+---+---+----+----+-----

[* 1 note book.]

[† 1 note book 2 sheets]

RECAPITULATION.

Artillery. Engineers. Credits for lectures assigned to the interrogations, 65 60 Credits for works of application, 355 205 --- --- 420 265

X.--PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE ON CONSTRUCTION.

The course on construction is divided into four parts.

The first part relates to the elements of masonry and the principles which should regulate the form, dimensions, and the construction of walls, and the different parts of buildings; it contains eighteen lectures.

The second part is devoted to the architecture of military buildings--twelve lectures.

The third part supplies the theory of the stability of construction, and is divided into--

1st section, relating to the resistance of materials--six lectures.

2d “ to the stability of walls of revetments and arches--nine lectures.

The fourth part applies to constructions in water--twenty lectures.

The course is very nearly the same for the Artillery as for the Engineers.

ELEMENTS OF MASONRY, ETC.

_Lectures_ 1, 2, and 3.--Relate to the elements of which masonry is composed, such as the different kinds of stones, usual dimensions, manner in which good stone may be known; bricks, lime, cement, sand, mortar, stucco, mastic plaster, asphalte, &c., and to the general considerations relating to foundations, and the different kinds of walls under various circumstances.

_Lecture_ 4.--Treats of sustaining walls and the probable effects of the pressure of the earth. Of the conditions which must be fulfilled to insure stability. Various formulæ on the subject. Details of construction and on the proper material to be used.

_Lecture_ 5.--Refers to the manner of facing masonry. Openings in walls, windows. Partition-walls.

_Lecture_ 6.--On cylindrical arches, vaults, key-stones. Formulæ for the calculation of the thickness of piers of an arch or vault. Construction and use of tables for the calculation of the thickness. Construction of arches and vaults in different materials.

_Lecture_ 7.--Arches continued, flat arches, plate bands, &c.

_Lecture_ 8.--On the woods used in construction. On the influence of the soil on its quality. Characteristics of good wood. Preservation of wood. Proper wood for constructions.

_Lecture_ 9.--Flooring. Beams. Girders. Joists. Ceilings.

_Lecture_ 10.--Staircases, conditions respecting. Construction of different kinds of staircases, part of masonry, wood, &c.; steps. Construction of landing-places, &c.

_Lectures_ 11 and 12.--Roofs in carpentry. Conditions which should be satisfied. Composition of the roof of a building. On the different kinds of roofs.

_Lecture_ 13.--On the different ways of joining pieces of wood or timber together.

_Lecture_ 14.--On permanent kinds of roofing. Conditions which should be fulfilled by good roofing. Composition of roofing. Tiles, lathing, cut slates, ridge tiles, hollow tiles, Dutch tiles. On slate roofing. Metallic roofing. Metal mostly used. Precautions to be taken with reference to all metal roofing.

_Lecture_ 15.--Details relating to inhabited buildings. Cellars. Privies. Drainage. Chimneys; cause of their smoking. Most favorable forms of the flues, pipes. Bake-house, hearth.

_Lecture_ 16.--On joinery and locksmiths’ work. Flooring of different kinds. Doors. Camp-beds. Racks and mangers in stables. Shutters.

_Lecture_ 17.--Apparatus for heating and for cooking food. Hearth, ash-pan. Grate-flues. Amount of surface to be given to heating apparatus. Furnace of kitchens in barracks. Summary notions on the heating and ventilating of buildings. Calorifiéres with hot air, steam, and hot water.

_Lecture_ 18.--Plan of a building. Projections adopted for the representation of a building. Plans, sections, and elevations. Order in which the measurements should be made, and the sketch prepared. Height at which the horizontal plane of projections should pass, &c.

SECOND PART.--ARCHITECTURE OF MILITARY BUILDINGS.

_Lecture_ 1.--Decoration, without making use of the orders of architecture. Principal conditions relating to decoration. Symmetry, regularity, simplicity, unity, and apparent soliditity. Proper character. Proportions of the façades. Height of the stories. Basements. Horizontal chains or fillets. Vertical chains and pilasters. Proportions of the doors and windows. Arcades and arched windows. Cornices, pediments.

_Lecture_ 2.--Distribution of buildings. Considerations that should have weight in the distribution. Number composing the edifice. Circumstances that guide in the disposal of masses. Conditions that should be satisfied in placing a building. Locality and suitable dimensions. Relations that should exist between them. Interior and exterior communications. Stories on the same floor. Position of the large rooms. Separation of the rooms. Position and arrangement of staircases. Verification of stability.

_Lecture_ 3.--Conditions to be fulfilled in the distribution of the principal military establishments. Arsenals. Polygons for drill. Military establishments to the School of Bridges.

_Lecture_ 4.--Foundries. Manufacture of arms.

_Lecture_ 5.--Refining saltpetre. Powder. Powder magazines. Details relative to the construction of lightning conductors.

_Lecture_ 6.--Infantry and cavalry barracks.

_Lecture_ 7.--Hospitals. Military prisons and penitentiaries.

_Lecture_ 8.--Storehouse for corn. Store-pits. Storehouse for fodder. Preserving houses.

_Lecture_ 9.--Cisterns. Filtration.

_Lecture_ 10.--Military tribunals. Guard-house. Gates of cities. Hotels and dwelling-houses. Officers’ quarters.

_Lecture_ 11.--Preparatory to the execution of a project for a building. Method of proceeding. Composition of the sketch; approximate surface of all the locality; separation into symmetrical groups in the case of several buildings; number of stories; surface of the ground floor; length and breadth of the building between its walls; distribution of each story; verification of the relation between the stories. Elevation of the building. Sketches. Memoir. General details, and details of execution.

_Lecture_ 12.--Discussion before the abstraction of the measurements and the preparation of the estimate of the building.

THIRD PART.--FIRST SECTION: ON THE RESISTANCE OF MATERIALS.

1. Resistance of prismatic bodies to extension and compression. Elasticity of bodies. Modulus of elasticity. Limits of permanent efforts. Resistance to extension and compression of stone, bricks, and analogous materials; also of wood and metals. Applications.

2. Transverse resistance. Some cases in which it is brought into play. Results of experience. Resistance of bodies submitted to the effects of transversal flexure. Results of experience and conventions. Conditions of equilibrium of bodies submitted to efforts directly transversal to their length. Direction and value of molecular efforts. Equation of the axis of the body. Equation of the squaring. Discussion of these equations.

3. Geometrical method for determining the inertia. Application to the research for the inertia of various sections. Applications of general equations of equilibrium and of squaring to straight pieces.

1st. A horizontal piece set in a frame at one extremity, and subjected to a weight acting at the other extremity, with a uniform vertical effect.

2d. Horizontal beam placed upon two supports, and subjected to a weight acting at its center, and with a uniform vertical effect.

3d. Beam placed horizontally on two supports, and having two equal weights symmetrically placed with respect to its center.

4th. Beam placed horizontally on two supports, and subjected to a weight acting at any point whatever throughout its length.

5th. Horizontal beam fixed at both its extremities, and subjected to a weight acting at its center with an equal vertical effect.

6th. Horizontal beam placed on three points of support, at unequal distances, and weighted with two weights acting at the middle of the intervals between the supports.

7th. Vertical beam fixed at the foot, and charged with a weight acting at a certain distance from the axis of the beam.

5. Solids of equal resistances. Most suitable form for cast girders. Applications of the formula of equilibrium and squaring to various kinds of carpentry.

6. On polygonal roofs. Conditions respecting them. Arched roofs, pressure, &c. On the stability of walls required to resist the pressure of roofs.

SECOND SECTION: ON THE STABILITY OF REVETMENT WALLS AND ARCHES.

7. On the pressure of earth. Explanation of the theory on Coulomb’s system. Investigation of the pressure of earth by analysis. Hypothesis necessary in order to simplify the calculations. General formula of the value of the pressure, &c. Equations of stability and equilibrium under the hypothesis of slipping and rolling.

8. Simplification of the general equations of equilibrium in three particular cases. Determination of the co-efficient of stability in Vauban’s profile. M. Poncelet’s formula for calculating the thickness of revetment walls with perpendicular face. Transformation of the profile of a revetment to another of equal stability. Vauban’s counterforts, &c.

9. Geometrical method for determining the pressure of earth, whatever may be the profile of the wall and of the earth, taking into account the friction of the earth on masonry. Geometrical determination of the amount of the pressure. Proceeding for the determination, by geometry, of the thickness of a revetment wall at the level of the exterior ground.

10. On buttresses. Geometrical determination of the buttressing of earth, and of its momentum. Simplification of the geometrical constructions of the pressure, of the buttressing, and of their momenta under certain hypotheses.

11. Points of application of the pressure and of the buttress. 1st. In the case of a terrace sloping less than the natural slope of the ground. 2d. In the case of the ordinary revetments of fortification.

On the stability of the foundations of revetment walls.

Compressible soil. The resultant of all the forces should pass through the center of the base. Size of the footing of the wall or depth of the foundations to arrive at the result. Possibility of the wall slipping over the base of the foundations. Use of the buttress to prevent this movement. Graphical method to determine the depth of the foundations. Depth of the foundations in unstable soil.

12. Pressure of arches. Case of cylindrical arches. Explanation of the theory of the pressure of arches. Point of application of the pressure in the five modes of possible rupture. Expression for the pressures and resistances by rolling or slipping. Proceeding to be followed to find by calculation the pressures and resistances.

13. Geometrical determination of the pressures and resistances by rolling. Explanation of the solution of this question. Construction of lines proportional to the surfaces of the voussoirs. 1st. In the case of an arch. Extrados without coping or additional weight. 2d. In that of an arch with extrados in the form of coping, and with or without additional weight. Construction of the verticals passing through the center of gravity of the voussoirs. Abstract of the operations to be performed. Determination by geometrical means of the pressure and resistance against slipping.

14. Co-efficient of stability of arches from the springing. Manner of finding the outline of an arch for a certain given co-efficient. Stability of a cylindrical arch on its piers. Thickness of the piers. Considerations relative to the value of the co-efficient of stability. Stability of an arch on the base of its foundations. Filling in and depth of the foundations of piers.

Extension of the geometrical methods serving for the determinations of the pressures and thicknesses of piers in case of cross vaulting, arcades, and spherical vaulting.

15. Investigation by analysis of the pressures and resistances of an arch.

1st. Hypothesis of a plat-band; stability at the springing charge necessary on the coussinet; stability of the plat-band on its piers; thickness of the piers. Squaring of a tie-beam of iron which annihilates the pressure.

2d. Hypothesis of a semicircular vaulting with arched extrados. Pressures and resistances. In similar arches the pressure is proportional to the square of the radius.

FOURTH PART.--HYDRAULIC CONSTRUCTION.

1st. Classification of ground on which it may be necessary to place a foundation. Soundings. Their object. Various kinds of sounding line. Dams in earth, and in wood and earth combined. Case of an unstable foundation. Construction on rock. Thickness of dams and of the clay work. General disposition of a dam. Bottom-springs. Means of choking or smothering them or of diverting them. Use of sunk dams. Service bridges. Their height and disposition. Railways in great constructions. Their disposition.

2d. Summary review of draining or pumping machines. Choice between the different methods of draining. Table of the useful effect of such machines.

Pile driving. Pile driving machine with band ropes. Preparation of the pile and operation of driving. Pile driving machine with catch. Choice between the two kinds of pile driving machines. Precautions to be taken in the driving of piles. Distribution of piles, the space to be left between them, and the squaring of them. Disposition and driving of planks. Method of drawing up piles and planking. Execution of a foundation on piles. Driving stakes out of water. Machine for squaring piles.

3d. Parafouilles. Their object and construction.

Foundations in mortar under water. Preparation and immersion of the mortar. Examples.

Thickness of sunk dams with the enceint in mortar.

4th. Foundation frames and platforms. Their object and their construction. Preparation of the foundation frames in masonry.

Foundation by packing.

Foundation by coffer-dams. Details of a coffer-dam.

5th. Foundations on solid gravel. Properties of gravel. Case where it is advantageous to make use of gravel. Examples.

Foundations on sunk wooden piles, in gravel, and in gravel and mortar.

Foundation on pillars built in masonry.

Foundations on quicksand.

Species of foundation to adopt according to the nature of the ground.

6th. Banks of reservoirs. Conditions which should be fulfilled in their establishment. Banks in earth; their profile; revetments to protect them; the wet slope; sort of remblai; precautions which exact a large remblai. Banks in remblai and sustaining walls combined. Banks entirely in masonry; movements observed in walls; most suitable profile. Comparison between banks in earth and masonry. Works which are employed in connection with banks of reservoirs. Dikes of inundations. Their profile; defense of their slope against the action of water; their establishment and works in connection with them.

7th. Batardeaux in the ditches of strong places. Situation; profile; details of construction. Weirs. Their object; effect of a weir in a current. Advantages of the wedge or circular form. Height to give to a weir; and longitudinal form of the swelling occasioned by a horizontal dam. Construction of weirs with vertical walls, with a long slope down the stream. Injuries to which weirs are liable. Profile to adopt according to the nature of the ground.

8th. Sluice-dams, their object; form of the piles; distance apart, and dimensions. Details of construction. Various kinds of apparatus for opening and shutting sluice-dams. Play of a revolving gate. Calculation of the dimensions of the two half sluice gates and of the wicket. Carpentry of a revolving gate. Movable dams with iron wickets. Modifications to render them applicable to the retention of water at a greater height than 2.80 meters.

9th. Navigable locks. Canal lock; its management; form of the chamber; profile of the cheeks. Trace of the pier on which the gates work. Means of filling and emptying the chambers. Means of raising the paddle-valves. Wood-work of the gates sheathed in timber. Planes. Details of the pivots, collars and rollers. Arrangements for the management of the sheathed gates.

10th. Gates sheathed in wood; curves. Ties of cast-iron, and lining in wood or sheet-iron. Cast-iron gates.

_River Navigation._--Advantages and disadvantages of water transit. Conditions of a navigable river. Works for the improvement of the navigation on a river.

_Artificial Navigation._--Classification of canals. Conditions which determine the best position for a summit level. Search after a minimum of elevation. Expenditure of water at the summit level.

11th. Principal processes employed to economise the water in passing through a lock. Profile of a navigable canal.

Deep cuttings; their profile. Great landslips and means of remedying them.

Tunnels; their profile. Piercing of a tunnel.

12th. Bridges in masonry. Position; breadth of the roadway; outlet to be left for the water; size and form of the arches; trace of the surbased arches on more than five centers. Expansion of the bridge-heads. Profile of the arch. Thickness of the piles and abutments. Apparatus for the arches and bridge-heads. Parts above the arches. Leveling with the banks. Fixed and movable centerings. Removal of the centerings of arches.

13th. _Wooden Bridges_ composed of straight pieces. Arrangement of the stakes and starlings. Different construction of the openings according to their span. Arrangement of the platform.

_American Bridges._--Arrangement of the earliest form of bridge on Town’s system. Height of the trusses constructed in the form of trellis-work. Modifications introduced to increase the resistance of the bridge. Calculation of the resistance of the trusses.

Arched frame-work of bridges. Composition of the arches. Junction of the straight beams with the arches.

_Cast-iron Bridges._--Different systems. General principles of their construction.

_Aqueducts_ in masonry; in cast-iron.

14th. _Suspension Bridges._--Equation of the curve of the chains and construction of this curve. Tension supported by the suspension cables, their thickness. Influence of the length of the flèche upon the tension of the cables. Inconveniences resulting from a long flèche. Vibrations and means of diminishing them. Limits of length of the flèche. Length of the curve of suspension. Causes operating to vary this length; means of obviating the effects produced by them. Length of the suspension rods. Number of supports to be adopted. Thickness of the piles. Points at which the fixing cables are to be attached. Advantages and disadvantages of chains composed of bars and of cables of iron wire. Some details of construction.

15th. _Drawbridges._--Conditions which they must satisfy. General principle of their balance.

_Drawbridges with Plyers._--Special theory of this bridge. Reduction of it to practice. Alteration of equilibrium and means of remedying it.

Disadvantages of the drawbridge with plyers.

16th. Spiral drawbridge of Captain Berché. Trace of the spiral. Determination of the radius of the chain-roller, and of the greatest radius of the spiral.

17th. Drawbridges with variable counterbalances, invented by M. Poncelet. Construction of the chains of the counterbalance. Establishment of the leverage. Calculation of the counterbalances for the special case of the pulleys in front corresponding to the axis of the platform. Influence of the nature of the chains. Method of allowing for the weight of the small chains. Definitive construction of the chains of the counterbalance. Provision of loose cords.

18th. Succinct ideas upon the motion of the sea, and its action on the shore.

Undulating movement. Height of the waves, and depth at which the agitation is perceptible. Effects of the waves on the coasts. Tides; spring-tides; neap-tides. Height of tides and hour of flood. General currents. Action of the sea on its shores. Protection of level and steep shores.

19th. Sea-ports. Requisites of a good port. Ports in the Mediterranean. Conditions of a good roadstead. Moles and breakwaters. Ocean ports, channel tide-dock, floating dock, and sluice of floating dock, laying-up dock, and sluice for the ditch of fortifications. General arrangement of a harbor.

20th. Construction of moles. Stones dropped for foundations. Profile of a loose heap. Volume of the materials which insure their stability. Settling of masonry resting on a heap. Instances of masonry constructed at sea. 1. Wall of Cherbourg. 2. Fort Boyard.

_Piers._--Direction, length, form of interval between, and profile of piers. Their construction. Passages reserved through piers.

RECAPITULATION.

First Part.--Parts of Buildings 18 Second Part.--Architecture of Military Buildings 12 { First Section. Resistance of Materials, 6} Third Part.--{ } 15 { Second Section. Stability of } { Constructions, 9} Fourth Part.--Hydraulic Constructions, 20 -- Total 65

WORKS OF APPLICATION.

Name of work. No. Days allowed for execution of work to Students of Artillery. / Engineers. Subject employed on. Observations.

Survey of a Building: 31 // 31 Sketch (out-of-door work,) 8 / 8 Drawing, 21 / 21 Memoir, 2 / 2 Representation of an existing building or a part of a building by means of plans, sections, and elevations. The memoir contains an accurate and critical description of the distribution, construction, and decoration of the building. Each day is equivalent to 4½ hours’ work. The sketches are executed to scales approximating to one-fiftieth for the whole drawing, of one-twentieth for the large details, and of ¼ to ½ for the minute details. The drawing prepared from the sketches is made on the scale of 1-100th.

Project for a Building: 42 // 42 Sketch, (first study in pencil.) 12 / 12 Drawing, (fair copy) 18 / 18 Details, 4 / 4 Memoir, 4 / 4 Abstraction of Measurements and Estimates 4 / 4 Study and preparation of a project of a building, in accordance with certain given data. The sketches, the result of the first study, are made in pencil; the drawing is the fair copy of the sketch, modified as may be necessary. The memoir contains an explanation of the rules and principles which must be observed in the construction of buildings, and the grounds on which the dispositions contained in the building have been adopted. The abstraction of the measurements and their reduction to the proper elements, and the estimates, are prepared in conformity to the instructions laid down for the Engineer Service in towns: these supply the estimated cost of the construction of the building according to the project. This work, common to the students of the two arms, is an application of the first part of the course. The scale for the drawing is in general 1-200th for the plans and elevations, and 1-100th for the sections. It is restricted by the condition that the whole of the drawings should be given on a single sheet of paper. The details need only occupy half a sheet of paper, and its scales must depend on the size of the objects to be represented. The details need only occupy half a sheet of paper, and its scales must depend on the size of the objects to be represented. The project for a building is an application of the first two parts of the course, as well as of the 1st section of the 3d part.

Diagram of the Stability: 9 // 9 Drawing, 6 / 6 Memoir, 3 / 3 Determination of the profile for a revetment wall, according to certain conditions. Verification of the stability of an arch, and calculation of the pier supporting this arch. In the memoir a short explanation is given of the theory relating to the strength of the revetment walls and arches, as well as the results of the application of these principles to the particular case. The drawing is executed to the scale of 1-100th. This work is an application of the 2d section of the 3rd part.

Project for an Hydraulic construction: 28 // 34 Sketches, 10 / 12 Drawing, 15 / 18 Memoir, 3 / 4 Study and composition of a project for a great work of art on certain given data. In the memoir an explanation is given of the principles and the results of the theories which are to be applied in making this project. The arrangements adopted in the project are discussed for the foundation and all other parts of the construction. The scale of the drawing is chosen in such a manner that the project may be placed on a single sheet; generally it is 1-200th, or smaller. The project of a hydraulic construction is an application of the 1st section of the 3rd part as well as of the 4th part of the course.

Total, 110 // 116

[KEY] NL No. Lectures CL Credits for Lectures +A With application -A Without application T Total I No. Interrogations

------------------+-----------------------++------------------------ 1st. Lectures.-- | Artillery. || Engineers. +---+---------------+---++---+---------------+--- Parts of | | CL | || | CL | the Course. | +------+---+----+ || +------+---+----+ |NL | +A |-A | T | I || NL| +A | -A| T | I ------------------+---+------+---+----+---++---+------+---+----+--- 1st Part: | | | | | || | | | | Elements of Masonry, form and dimensions of | | | | the different parts of buildings, | || | | | | | 18| 24*| 6| 30| 2|| 18| 24*| 6| 30| 2 2d Part: | | | | | || | | | | Architecture of military buildings, | || | | | | | 12| 18 |...| 18| 1|| 12| 18 |...| 18| 1 3d Part: | | | | | || | | | | Theory respecting stability: | | || | | | | 1st section--Resistance of materials, || | | | | | 6| 6 | 6| 12| 1|| 6| 6 | 6| 12| 1 2d section--Stability of revetment walls and arches,| | | | 9| 10.5 | 6|16.5| 1|| 9| 10.5 | 6|16.5| 1 4th Part: | | | | | || | | | | Hydraulic Constructions, | | | || | | | | | 20| 24 | 12| 36| 1|| 20| 24 | 12| 36| 1 +---+------+---+----+---++---+------+---+----+--- Total, | 65| 82 | 30| 112| 6|| 65| 82 | 30| 112| 6

[* A lecture with application is equivalent to 1½ hours of work, and a lecture without application is equal to 3 hours.]

[KEY] D Drawings and Sketches. M Memoirs. V Various. H Attendances in halls 4½ hours. O Attendances out of doors, 6 h. C Credits.

------------------+-----------------------++------------------------ 2d. Execution of | Artillery. Number of || Engineers. Number of the Work. +---+---+---+---+---+---++---+---+---+---+---+---- | D | M | V | H | O | C || D | M | V | H | O | C ------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---++---+---+---+---+---+---- Plan of a Building: | | | | | || | | | | | Sketches (pen,) | 1 |...|...|...| 8| 50|| 1 |...|...|...| 8| 50* Drawing, | 1 |...|...| 21|...| 95|| 1 |...|...| 21|...| 95 Memoirs, |...| 1 |...| 2|...| 20||...| 1 |...| 2|...| 20† Project of a Building:| | | | | || | | | | | Sketch, | 1 |...|...| 12|...| 55|| 1 |...|...| 12|...| 55 Drawing, | 1 |...|...| 18|...| 80|| 1 |...|...| 18|...| 80 Detail, | 1 |...|...| 4|...| 20|| 1 |...|...| 4|...| 20 Memoir, |...| 1 |...| 4|...| 35||...| 1 |...| 4|...| 35 Abstraction of quantities and estimates,|| | | | | | |...|...| 1 | 4|...| 20||...|...| 1| 4|...| 20 Diagram of Stability. | | | | | || | | | | | Drawing, | 1 |...|...| 6|...| 25|| 1 |...|...| 6|...| 25 Memoir, |...| 1 |...| 3|...| 25||...| 1 |...| 3|...| 25 Project of an Hydraulic construction. | || | | | | | Sketch, | 1 |...|...| 10|...| 45|| 1 |...|...| 12|...| 55 Drawing, | 1 |...|...| 15|...| 70|| 1 |...|...| 18|...| 80 Memoir, |...| 1 |...| 3|...| 25||...| 1 |...| 4|...| 35 +---+---+---+---+---+---++---+---+---+---+---+---- Total, | 8 | 4 | 1 |102| 8 |565|| 8 | 4 | 1 |108| 8 |595

[* Of which 20 is for the out-of-door work, and 30 for the sketch.]

[† The time allowed for the preparation of the memoirs in the halls should be doubled, in order to take an account of the correction out of the halls of study.]

RECAPITULATION OF THE CREDITS OF INFLUENCE FOR THE COURSE.

Artillery, {Lectures, 112} 677, or about 680. {Execution of Work, 565}

Engineers, {Lectures, 112} 707, or about 710. {Execution of Work, 595}

XI.--PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE IN THE GERMAN LANGUAGE.

SECOND DIVISION.--FIRST YEAR’S STUDY.

_Number of Lectures_, 50.

Grammar and composition during the 25 Lectures forming the odd numbers.

Oral translations of German authors. Phraseology. Lecture on idioms, founded on the passages which have been translated and given in the form of conversation during the first half of the 25 Lectures forming the even numbers.

Dialogues and conversations, on various subjects of every-day life, such as are particularly useful to an officer traveling in Germany, carried on during the second half of the Lectures of the even numbers.

FIRST DIVISION.--SECOND YEAR’S STUDY.

_Number of Lectures_, 100.

Translations of German authors, and conversations in German on the passages translated, during fifty Lectures, reckoning the odd numbers.

Military reconnaissances, in the form of a dialogue in German and in French, during the first half of the fifty Lectures, even numbers.

Translation of French into German: 1st, Narratives; 2d, Historical and descriptive fragments; 3d, Dramatic scenes; 4th, Epistolary style, during the second half of the fifty Lectures, even numbers.

At the close of the second year, the Sub-Lieutenants give in a composition on a certain subject.

The Sub-Lieutenants most advanced are not obliged to follow the course in German, but they should make translations of articles taken from German military works. These translations, after having been corrected, are deposited in the Library of the School.

Abstract of the course in German:--

1st year’s study, 50 Lectures. 2d “ “ 100 “ --- Total, 150 at ½ hour each--112. 3 0. Credits of influence, 110.

XII.--PROGRAMME OF A SHAM SIEGE.--(Common to the Artillery and Engineers.)

FIRST SECTION.--PRELIMINARY MEASURES.

ART. I.--_Commission charged to study the Project for a Sham Siege._

A Commission is charged with drawing up and presenting to the General commanding the School a project for a sham siege. This is composed of:--

The Colonel second in command of the School, President. The Major of Artillery, } The Major of Engineers, } Members. The Professor of Artillery, } The Professor of Fortification, } Clerk.

The Professors of Artillery and Fortification may be replaced by the Assistant Professors.

The General Commandant of the School decides in a Council of Instruction on the dispositions to be adopted for the project of a sham siege.

ART. II.--_Preparatory Lectures._

By the Professor of Military Art, 2 1st. Considerations relating to the fortress of Metz. Circumstances which might bring on a siege of it. Force of the garrison and of the besieging army. Investment. 2d. Trace of the lines of circumvallation and of countervallation. By the Professor of Topography, 1 Execution of the second reconnaissance plan (_memoire_,) (1 lecture.) 1st. Measure of the base. Plan of the ground of the attack. Construction of the plans. Plans of the work executed. By the Professor of Permanent Fortification, 2 1st. Discussion on the points of attack. Organization of the _personnel_ and _matériel_ of the Engineers of the besieging army and of the garrison. 2d. General progress of attack, and general dispositions of defense. By the Professor of Artillery, 2 1st. Composition of the personnel and matériel of the Artillery of the besieging army. Transport of the siege equipage. 2d. General dispositions of the artillery in the attack and defense.

SECOND SECTION.--COMPOSITION OF THE PERSONNEL.

Director of the Siege.--The General Commandant of the School.

Chief of the Staff.--The Colonel second in command of the School.

Chief of the Artillery Service.--The Major of Artillery attached to the Staff.

Director of the Park of Artillery.--This may be given to the preceding.

Chief of the Engineer Service.--The Major of the Engineers attached to the Staff of the School.

Director of the Engineer Park.--This may be given to the preceding.

Major of the Trenches.--A Captain. Chiefs of Attacks. Captains.

Chiefs of Brigades.--Named by the General Commandant of the Siege.

THIRD SECTION.--CONFERENCES.

Before proceeding to the ground, the sub-lieutenants assist at conferences which are held for the purpose of explaining to them the successions of the several operations of the siege, as well as upon the traces which they have to execute. These conferences, eight in number, are divided as follows:--

The Chief of the Artillery Service will hold 4 conferences, and The Chief of the Engineer Service “ 4 “

FOURTH SECTION.--TRACING OF LINES AND TOPOGRAPHICAL WORK.

1st. The second reconnaissance survey (comprised in the course of topography.) Tracing of lines; one day is allowed for this work.

2d. “Director” plan. The execution of this plan comprises out-of-door work and drawing. The out-of-door work includes the measurement of one or many bases, the observation of the angles which are formed by this base, and the direction of certain remarkable points in the city and fortification, and the formation of a net-work of triangulation, intended to co-ordinate the surveys of the details.

The work of constructing the plan consists in laying down, day by day, the surveys of the details of the ground, as well as of the traces executed. Five days are allowed for the execution of the topographical work, which precedes the opening of the trenches. The Director Plan is kept close up during the whole duration of the siege.

3d. Itineraries and sketches (comprised in the course of topography.)

The Professor of Topography directs the whole of the surveys and the execution of the Director Plan.

FIFTH SECTION.--TRACING OF THE WORKS OF ATTACK, AND ACTUAL EXECUTION IN FULL RELIEF OF CERTAIN WORKS.

The sub-lieutenants, divided into brigades, trace the works of the siege, under the direction of the officers of the staff, and take part in the superintendence of the works executed in full relief when the exigencies of the service will permit the chief of the Artillery Service and the Colonel of the Regiment of Engineers to place workmen at the disposal of the General Commandant of the School. Six days are appropriated to this work.

SIXTH SECTION.--WORK IN THE HALLS OF STUDY.

The work in the Halls of Study consists of:--

1st. A memoir on the sham siege, which memoir must be approved by the General Commandant of the School.

2d. Of a sketch representing one of the works traced or executed in full relief. These works in the Halls are performed during the interval of the attendances devoted to out-of-door work. Two days are appropriated to the preparation of the memoir, and two to the execution of the sketch. This time is included in the eleven days allowed to the sham siege.

RECAPITULATION FOR THE ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS.

[KEY] NL No. of Lectures or Conferences. CL Credits for Lectures or Conferences. L Lectures. Cf Conferences. T Total. Q No. of Questions.

----------------------+----+----------------+----+--- | | CL | | Lectures and | +-----+----+-----+ | Conferences. | | | | | | | NL | L | Cf | T | Q | ----------------------+----+-----+----+-----+----+--- By the Professor | | | | | | * of Military Art, | 2 | 3 |....| 3 |} | “ Topography, | 1 | 1½ |....| 1½ |} | “ Permanent | | | | | | Fortification, | 2 | 3 |....| 3 |} | “ Artillery, | 2 | 3 |....| 3 |} 2 | Conferences by the Chief of the Service, | | } of Artillery, | 4 | ... | 6 | 6 |} | } of Engineers, | 4 | ... | 6 | 6 |} | +----+-----+----+-----+----+--- Total, | 15 | 10½ | 12 | 22½ | 2 | ----------------------+----+-----+----+-----+----+---

[* One series of questions by the Chief of the Artillery Service, as to what relates to that arm.

One series of questions by the Chief of the Engineer Service, as to what relates to that arm.

A Credit of 11 is assigned to each series of questions.]

[KEY] D Drawings. M Memoirs. H Attendances in the Halls. I Credits.

--------------------+--------------------------------+--- | Number of | +---+---+------------+------+----+--- | | |Attendances | | | | | | out of | | | | | | doors. | | | | | +-----+------+ | | Works of | | | of | of | | | Application. | D | M |4½ h.| 8 h.| H | I | --------------------+---+---+-----+------+------+----+--- 2nd Reconnaissance Plan (Memoir.) | | | | Topographical Work, | | | 4 | | | 20}| * Itinerary and Sketch (Memoir,) | | | }| Plan “Director,” | | | | | 1 | 5}| Tracing of Lines, | | | | 1 | |{10 | † Tracing of Works of Attack and of Defense, | | | | | 6 | | |{25 | Sketch, | 1 | | | | 2 | 1}| ‡ Memoir, | | 1 | | | 2 | 2}| +---+---+-----+------+------+ 90 | Total, | 1 | 1 | 10 | 1 | 5 |----| --------------------+---+---+-----+------+------+----+---

[* Credits given by the Professor of Topography.]

[† Credits given by the Captains of the Staff, Chiefs of Brigades.]

[‡ Credits given by the Chiefs of the Service of the Artillery and Engineers.]

XIII.--PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE ON THE VETERINARY ART.

FIRST PART.--INTERIOR OF THE HORSE.

_Lecture 1_.--Classification and nomenclature of the various matters which constitute the horse. Skeleton (head and body.)

_Lecture 2_.--Skeleton (limbs.) Mechanical importance of the skeleton. Nomenclature and use of the muscles. Cellular and fatty tissues, grease, skin. Insensible perspiration.

_Lecture 3_.--Functions for maintenance. Arteries of the nerves. Animal heat.

_Lecture 4_.--On various functions.

SECOND PART.--EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE.

_Lecture 5_.--Proportions. Equilibrium. Description and importance of the natural beauties and defects of the head and region of the throat.

_Lecture 6_.--Description and importance of the other parts of the horse. Blemishes. Soft tumors.

_Lecture 7_.--Osseous tumors. Various accidents. Temperaments. Description of clothing, &c.

_Lecture 8_.--Data respecting horses.

_Lecture 9_.--To know the age. On various bad habits. Examination of the eyes; their diseases.

_Lecture 10_.--Defective paces, &c. Draught and pack horses. Mules.

_Lecture 11_.--Stud and remounts. Races.

_Lecture 12_.--Vicious horses, and different bits. Manner of bitting a horse. On grooms and punishment.

THIRD PART.--ON THE HEALTH OF THE HORSE.

_Lecture 13_.--Examination of the foot, and shoeing with the hot shoe.

_Lecture 14_.--Shoeing with the cold shoe. Different kinds of horse-shoe, &c.

_Lecture 15_.--On stables. Food. Rations.

_Lecture 16_.--Description and nomenclature of the saddle. Harness and pack. Various saddles.

_Lecture 17_.--On work and rest. Horse and mule on the road and in bivouac. On diseases and accidents.

Abstract of the course:--

Interior of the horse, 4 } 17 lectures at 1½ hours. Exterior, 6 } Total time, 25½ hours. Health, 7 } Credits, 25.

The instruction on horseback can, under certain circumstances, be considered as connected with this course; and questions are asked during the time when the sub-lieutenants are not engaged in actual riding exercise. This instruction is described under the head of Practical Military Instruction; it comprises at the maximum 272 attendances, and its credit of influence is valued at 240.

ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS’ REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS.

I. ARTILLERY REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS.

These are intended for the theoretical and practical instruction of officers, _sous-officiers_, and gunners.

Each School is under the orders of the General of Brigade commanding the Artillery in the military division in which it is situated.

Independent of the general officer, the school has the following staff:--

A Lieutenant (associated assistant to the General.) A Professor of Sciences, applying more particularly to the Artillery. A Professor of Fortification, of drawing, and construction of buildings. Two _Gardes_ of Artillery (one of the first, and the other of the second class.)

There are, in addition, attached to each school the number of inferior officers (captains, lieutenants, or _sous-lieutenants_) required for carrying on the theoretical courses, which are not placed under the direction of the professors.

A captain of the first class, assisted by two first lieutenants, is the director of the park of the school. Another captain, also of the first class, but taken from the regiment of Pontooneers, has the direction of that portion of the bridge equipage necessary for the special instruction of this corps, as well as of the material of the artillery properly belonging to this instruction.

The lieutenant-colonel, assistant to the general, fulfills, independent of every other detail of supervision with which he may be charged, the functions of _ordonnateur secondaire_, in what concerns the expenses of the school and their propriety (_justification_.) He corresponds with the minister of war for this part of the service.

The instruction is divided into _theoretical_ and _practical_, and the annual course is divided into half-yearly periods, or into summer and winter instructions.

The summer instruction commences, according to different localities, from the 1st of April to the 1st of May, and that of the winter from the 1st of October to the 1st of November.

The winter and summer instruction is subdivided into school and regimental instruction.

The school instruction comprehends all the _theoretical_ and _practical_ instruction common to the different corps which require the assistance of the particular means of the school, the employment of its professors, locality, and material, as that of the practical instruction in which the troops belonging to the different corps of the army are united to take part.

The regimental instruction is that which exists in the interior of the regiments and the various bodies of the artillery. It is directed by the chiefs of these corps, who are responsible for it, with the means placed at their disposal, under the general surveillance of the commandant of the school.

The special instruction of the Pontooneers not admitting of their following the same instruction as the other regiments of artillery, the chief of this corps directs the special instruction according to certain bases prescribed by the regulations.

There are for the captains of artillery, each year during the winter half-year, six conferences for the purposes of considering and discussing projects for the organization of different equipages and armaments for the field service, and for attack and defense of places.

In a building belonging to each school of artillery, under the name of the hotel of the school, are united the halls and establishments necessary for the theoretical instruction of the officers and sous-officers, such as halls for _théorique_ drill and drawing, library, depots of maps and plans, halls for machines, instruments and models, &c.

Each school is provided with a physical cabinet and a chemical laboratory. There is also a piece of ground, called a polygon, for exercising artillerymen to the manœuvers of cannon and other firearms of great range. Its extent is sufficient in length to furnish a range of 1,200 meters, and in breadth of 600 meters.

Permanent and temporary batteries are established on this ground, and they seem not only for practice, but also to accustom the men to the construction of fascines, field batteries, &c.

The administration of each school, and the accounts relating to it, are directed by an administrative council, consisting of--

The General Officer commanding the Artillery (President.)

The Colonels of the regiments of Artillery in the towns where two regiments of the Artillery are quartered, and in other towns, the Colonel and Lieutenant-Colonel of the regiment.

The Colonel of the regiment of Pontooneers in the town where the principal part of the corps may be stationed, and in any other town the Lieutenant-Colonel or the Major.

The Lieutenant-Colonel associated assistant with the General Commandant.

The functions of secretary of the council are intrusted to a _grade_ of the first class.

The functionaries of the corps of intendants fulfill, in connection with the administrative councils of the artillery schools, the same duties as are assigned by the regulations relating to the interior administration of bodies of troops. They will exercise over the accounts, both of money and material of the said schools, the same control as over the administration connected with the military interests of the state.

II. ENGINEER REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS.

The colonel of each regiment has the superior direction of the instruction.

The lieutenant-colonel directs and superintends, under his orders, the whole of the details of the regimental instruction.

A major, selected from among the officers of this rank belonging to the _état-major_ of this arm, directs and superintends, under the orders of the colonel, the whole of the details of the special instruction.

The complete instruction consists of--

General instruction, or that of the regiment, by which a man is made a soldier.

Special or school instruction, having for its object the training of the miner or sapper.

The instructions are each separated into _theoretical_ and _practical_ instruction.

The theoretical instruction of the regiment comprehends the theories:--

On the exercises and manœuvers of infantry. On the interior service. On the service of the place. On field service. On the maintenance of arms. On military administration. On military penal legislation.

The practical instruction of the regiment comprises:--

The exercises and manœuvers of infantry. Practice with the musket. Military Marches. Fencing.

The teaching of these various duties is confided to officers, _sous-officiers_, and corporals of the regiments, as pointed out by the regulation, and the orders of the colonel.

The fencing school is organized in a similar manner to those of the infantry, and the military marches are also made in the same way as in those corps.

The _special_ and _theoretical_ instruction consists of:--

Primary instruction. Mathematics. Drawing. Geography. Military history of France. Fortification and the various branches of the engineering work.

Three civil professors (appointed by competition) are attached to each regimental school, for the special theoretical instruction, as regards the primary instruction, drawing, and mathematics.

The courses are distributed and taught in the following manner:

Primary instruction for the Soldiers. } French grammar for the Corporals. } Book-keeping for the _Sous-Officiers_. } By the Professor of Primary Instruction.

Elementary arithmetic for the Corporals. } Complete arithmetic } } Elementary geometry } } for the Serjeants. } Complete geometry } } Trigonometry } } for the Serjeant-Major. } Surveys for the _Sous-Officiers_. } Special mathematics for the Officers. } By the Prof. of Mathematics.

Drawing for the Corporals and _Sous-Officers_. By the Professor of Drawing, who is also charged with completing the collection of models which relate to it.

The elements of fortification for the Serjeant-Majors. } Construction, and theories on practical schools } for the _Sous-Officiers_. } Permanent fortification } } The attack and defense of places } } Mines } } Bridges } } Ovens } } Topography } } for the Officers. } Geography } } Military history of France } } for the _Sous-Officiers_. } By the Officers of the regiment, named by the Colonel, independently of those appointed by the regulations

At the end of each course the colonel of the regiment causes a general examination to be made in his presence of the whole of the men who have followed this course, and has a list made out in the order of merit, with notes of the capacity and aptitude of each.

These lists are consulted in the formation of tables of promotion, and placed with the said tables before the inspector-general.

Each captain and lieutenant are obliged to give in at least a single treatise on five different projects, consisting of a memoir discussing or the journal of a siege, with drawing of the whole, and of details in sufficient number to render them perfectly intelligible.

The _special practical_ instruction is composed of seven distinct schools, relating to:--

Field Fortification. Saps. Mines and Fireworks. Bridges. Ovens. Topography. Gymnastics.

And they comprehend, in addition, sham sieges, and underground war. Each of these seven schools is taught in accordance with the special instructions annexed to the regulation, which, however, are not published.

Winter is more especially devoted to the course of special theoretical instruction, which commences on the 1st November, and usually finishes on the 15th March, and the course of _special practical_ instruction is carried on during the summer from the 15th March to the 15th September. The second fortnight of September and the month of October are devoted to sham sieges and underground war, to the leveling of the works executed, and to the arrangement of magazines.

SCHOOL FOR INFANTRY AND CAVALRY

AT ST. CYR.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. CONDITIONS OF ADMISSION. STAFF.

It will have been seen in the accounts of the Polytechnic School and the School of Application at Metz, in what manner young men destined for commissions in the artillery and engineers receive their previous education, and under what conditions appointments as officers in these two services are made in France. The regulations for the infantry, the cavalry, and the marines are of the same description. There are in these also the same two ways of obtaining a commission. One, and in these services the more usual one, is to rise from the ranks. The other is to pass successfully through the school at St. Cyr. Young men who do not enter as privates prove their fitness for the rank of officers by going through the course of instruction given, and by passing the examinations conducted in this, the principal, and putting aside the School of Application at Metz, the one Special Military School of the country.

The earliest foundation of the kind in France was the Ecole Royale Militaire of 1751. Like most other similar institutions of the time, it was intended for the young nobility. No one was to be admitted who could not prove four generations of _Noblesse_. The pupils were taught free of charge, and might enter at eight years old. Already, however, some marks of competition are to be discerned, as the best mathematicians were to be taken for the Artillery and Engineers. Buildings on the Plain of Grenelle (the same which still stand, occupying one end of the present Champs de Mars, and retaining, though only used as barracks, their ancient name,) were erected for the purpose. The school continued in this form till 1776, when it was dissolved (apparently owing to faults of discipline,) and replaced by ten Colleges, at Sorrèze, Brienne, Vendôme, and other places, all superintended by ecclesiastics. A new Ecole Royale Militaire, occupying the same buildings as the former, was added in 1777.

This came to an end in 1787; and the ten colleges were suppressed under the Republic. A sort of Camp School on the plain of Sablons took their place, when the war had broken out, and lasted about a year under the name of the Ecole de Mars.

Under the Consulate in 1800, the Prytanée Français was founded, consisting of four separate Colleges. The name was not long after changed to the Prytanée Militaire; and after some time the number was diminished, and La Flèche, which had in 1764 received the youngest pupils of the old Royal Military School, became the seat of the sole remaining establishment; which subsequently sunk to the proportions of a mere junior preparatory school, and became, in fine, the present establishment for military orphans, which still retains the title, and is called the Prytanée Militaire de la Flèche.

A _special_ Military School, in the meantime, had been set up at Fontainebleau in 1803, transferred in 1808 to St. Cyr, and thus taking the place of the Prytanée Militaire and of its predecessor, the original Ecole Royale Militaire, gradually assumed its present form.[15]

[Footnote 15: Founded the Ecole Royale Militaire, 1751. Junior pupils transferred to La Flèche, 1764.

Suppression of the Ecole Royale Militaire and establishment of ten Colleges, 1776.

New Ecole Royale Militaire, for the best pupils of the Colleges, 1777.

Suppression of the Colleges and of the Ecole Royale Militaire, 1787.

Foundation of the Ecole de Mars, May 1794.

Foundation of the Prytanée Français at Paris, Versailles, St. Germain, Fontainebleau, 1800.

Foundation of the Ecole Spéciale Militaire at Fountainebleau, 1803.

The four Schools of the Prytanée Français are converted into the Prytanée Militaire, 1806; and are transferred to La Flèche, 1808.

The Ecole Spéciale Militaire is transferred to St. Cyr, also in 1808.]

The course of study lasts two years; the usual number of cadets in time of peace is five, or at the utmost six hundred; the admission is by competitive examination, open to all youths, French by birth or by naturalization, who on the first of January preceding their candidature were not less than sixteen and not more than twenty years old. To this examination are also admitted soldiers in the ranks between twenty and twenty-five years of age, who, at the date of its commencement, have been actually in service in their regiments for two years.

The general conditions and formalities are the same as those already stated for the Polytechnic. It may be repeated that all the candidates, in accordance with a recent enactment, must have taken the usual degree which terminates the task at the _lycées_--the baccalaureate in sciences.

Those who succeed in the examination and are admitted, take an engagement to serve seven years either in the cavalry or infantry, and are thus under the obligation, if they are judged incompetent at the close of their two years’ stay at the school to receive a commission, to enter and serve as common soldiers. The two years of their stay at the school counts as a part of their service. It is only in the special case of loss of time caused by illness, that permission is given to remain a third year.

The ordinary payment is 60_l._ (1,500 francs) per annum. All whose inability to pay this amount is satisfactorily established, may claim, as at the Polytechnic, an allowance of the whole or of half of the expenses from the State, to which may be added an allowance for the whole or for a portion of the outfit (from 24_l._ to 28_l._) These _bourses_ or _demi-bourses_, with the _trousseau_, or _demi-trousseau_, have during the last few years been granted unsparingly. One-third of the 800 young men at the school in February 1856 were _boursiers_ or _demi-boursiers_. Candidates admitted from the Orphan School of La Flèche, where the sons of officers wounded or killed in service receive a gratuitous education, are maintained in the same manner here.[16]

[Footnote 16: About twenty-five are sent every year from La Flèche. The admissions from the army (_i.e._, of soldiers between twenty and twenty-five years old) do not amount to more than four or at the utmost five per cent. They are very frequently young men who have previously failed for St. Cyr, and who then enter the army as privates, and come in as such. They have to pass the same examination.]

It was the rule till lately that cadets appointed, on leaving St. Cyr, to the cavalry should be placed for two years at the Cavalry School at Saumur. This, however, has recently been changed; on entering St. Cyr those who desire appointments in the cavalry declare their wishes, and are put at once through a course of training in horsemanship. Those who are found unfit are quickly withdrawn; the remainder, if their place on the final examination allows of their appointment to the cavalry, are by that time sufficiently well practiced to be able to join their regiments at once.

Twenty-seven, or sometimes a greater number, are annually at the close of their second year of study placed in competition with twenty-five candidates from the second lieutenants belonging to the army,[17] if so many are forthcoming, for admission to the Staff School at Paris. This advantage is one object which serves as a stimulus to exertion, the permission being given according to rank in the classification by order of merit.

[Footnote 17: Few usually present themselves; and these also, it is said, are very generally old _élèves_ of St. Cyr, who had not succeeded in obtaining admission to the Staff School before. They are not examined _with_ the pupils of St. Cyr, but are intercalated in the list according to their merit.]

The school consists of two divisions, the upper and the lower, corresponding to the two years of the course. Each division is divided again into four companies. In each of these eight companies there are sub-officers chosen from the _élèves_ themselves, with the titles of _Sergent_, _Sergent Fourrier_, and _Caporal_; those appointed to the companies of the junior division are selected from the second year cadets, and their superiority in standing appears to give these latter some considerable authority, exercised occasionally well, occasionally