PART IV.

MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA AND OTHER STATES.

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MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS OF BAVARIA.

I. MILITARY SYSTEM.

Bavaria, with a population in 1867 of 4,824,421, on an area of 29,347 English square miles, maintained in 1869-70, an armed force of 56,760 men on a peace footing, and of 92,500 when placed on a war footing.

The armed force consists of the permanent army, the army of reserve, and the landwehr, or militia. The strength of the permanent army at the end of 1869 was as follows:--

16 Regiments of the line, each of 3 battalions, 28,304 men. 10 Battalions of Yager infantry, 5,870 “ 20 Regiments of cavalry, each of 5 squadrons, 7,290 “ 52 Batteries of artillery, with train, 6,361 “ 10 Companies of engineers, with train, 1,212 “ 4 Companies of sanitary troops, 624 “ 6 Detachments of victualing troops, 288 “ ------ Total strength of permanent army, 49,449

The army of reserve numbered over 30,000 men, and is to be made more efficient. The landwehr is only organized in the large towns. The army is recruited by conscription. All men, from the age of 21 are liable to serve, but the sons of the nobility (_hohe adel_) are exempt, and they with the sons of superior employés in the service of the state have the privilege of entering the military school of cadets. Those who are drawn for the army are held liable to active service for eleven years, but are kept under arms, when on the peace footing, only three years, passing three years more in the Reserve when called out for actual training, and held for service for the remaining five years in the landwehr. No substitutes are allowed.

By the treaties of 1870, in time of war, the supreme command of the army of Bavaria passes to the Emperor of Germany, and in the further development of the Imperial policy, the military system of Bavaria as well as of the other German States, will be merged in that of Prussia. The following account of the system of Military Education, as it was in 1869, is taken from the Report of the Military Education Commission for 1870.

II. MILITARY EDUCATION.

There are four establishments for Military Education in Bavaria--1. The Cadet Corps. 2. The War School 3. The Artillery and Engineer School. 4. The War Academy.

I. THE CADET CORPS.

The Cadet Corps was by a royal decree of May 14th, 1864, placed on the same footing with regard to instruction and final examination as the Real Gymnasium, and by a further decree of April 2d, 1868, the signification and value which are attached to an _Absolutorium_, or certificate of final examination, of a Real Gymnasium, were equally made to apply to an _Absolutorium_ of the Cadet Corps.

There are three classes.

For admission into the first class, candidates must be acquainted with the following subjects:

_Religious Instruction._--(_a._) For Catholics: First chapter on Belief (_von den Glauben_) with preceding introduction, from page 33 to page 96.

The larger Catholic Catechism for all Bavarian bishoprics.

(_b._) For Protestants: The heads of the Christian doctrine, with the ecclesiastical explanation of the same, as well as the most important passages of the Bible contained in the catechism.

_German._--Grammar: formation of sentences; change in the form of sentences; copying from dictation small stories, narratives, and letters; facility in orthography and correct punctuation.

_Latin._--Elementary rules: easy translations from Latin into German, and from German into Latin.

_French._--Tolerably correct reading.

_Mathematics._--Vulgar fractions; decimals; rule of three; interest; exercises in mental calculations.

_Geography._--Europe generally, and Germany in particular, with especial regard to mountain chains and river districts.

_Caligraphy._--German and English characters.

_Second Class._

For admission into the second class candidates must be acquainted with the following subjects:

_Religious Instruction._--(_a._) For Catholics: A knowledge of the second chapter on the Commandments (_von den Geboten_), pages 100 to 159 inclusive.

The larger catechism for all Bavarian bishoprics.

(_b._) For Protestants: All the knowledge obtained from the so-called preparatory instruction for confirmation (_Praeparanden-Unterricht_).

_German._--Same as in first class.

_Latin._--Syntax: verbal and written translations from German to Latin, and from Latin to German, out of Cornelius Nepos.

_French._--Grammar: translation; reading; orthography.

_Greek._--Syntax up to verbs in μι; written and verbal translations from German to Greek, and _vice versâ_. Greek characters.

_Mathematics._--System of weights and measures; fractions; decimals; mental arithmetic.

_History._--Greek and Roman history, including the period up to Clovis, king of the Franks.

_Geography._--The world in general. Europe excepted.

_Caligraphy._--German and English characters.

_Third Class._

Candidates for immediate admission into the third class must not have exceeded their fifteenth year, and must produce certificates of all the classes of the Latin school.

At their examination for admission they must show that they are acquainted with all the subjects required in the examinations for the first and second class; and also with the following subjects:

_Religious Instruction._--(_a._) For Catholics: A knowledge of the third chapter on Means of Grace _(von den Gnadenmitteln)_, page 160 to page 228.

(_b._) For Protestants: Candidates must not only be thoroughly acquainted with the so-called preparatory instruction for confirmation, but must have been confirmed.

_German._--Composition: translation from Cornelius Nepos. Reading aloud.

_Latin._--Complete Syntax. Written and verbal translations from German to Latin; Cæsar’s Commentaries; select passages from Roman historians; prosody; versification.

_French._--Translations: German into French, and _vice versâ_; orthography and reading.

_Greek._--Rudiments of grammar.

_Mathematics._--Algebra; geometry.

_History._--German history (from Clovis, king of the Franks), especially that of Bavaria.

_Geography._--Europe; including political and statistical relations.

_Caligraphy._--German and English characters.

_Admission to the Army from the Cadet Corps._

On leaving the Cadet Corps--

(_a._) Students who have obtained from the Examination Commission a certificate of “especially qualified” are named candidates, first class, for the rank of officer.

(_b._) Students who have obtained a certificate of “qualified” are sent to a division of the army as candidates, second class, for the rank of officer.

Further, those who have displayed a “marked proficiency,” not only as regards scientific acquirements but also as regards conduct and military capacity, maybe appointed by the Education Commission to the rank of sub-lieutenant.

These last, however, in common with the candidates mentioned under heads (_a._) and (_b._) are required, after six months’ service in a division of the army, to pass through the military scientific course in the War School, and at the end of the course to undergo an examination. The same conditions are alike in force for the young nobility entering the army from the _Pagerie_ with the _Absolutorium_ of a gymnasium.

II. THE WAR SCHOOL.

There are two courses, viz.:--(_a._) The preparatory course. (_b._) The military scientific course.

All persons desirous to obtain commissions as officers, whether compelled to enter the army, or volunteers, must undergo the preparatory course at the War School, unless they are in possession of an _Absolutorium_ of a Latin or Real Gymnasium.

Candidates for the preparatory course (_a._) must pass an examination for admission, and as a qualification for admission must have served an entire year satisfactorily in a division of the army.

After the completion of the preparatory course these students are named candidates, second class, for the commission of officers, and as such enter the military scientific course.

The following enter the second course:

(_a._) Students with the _Absolutorium_ of a Real Gymnasium, or coming from the _Pagerie_.

(_b._) Students who passed the preparatory course successfully.

(_c._) Those to whom military service is compulsory, and volunteers, both possessing the _Absolutorium_ of a Bavarian gymnasium, and being desirous to become officers. These candidates must, however, perform six months’ service satisfactorily, and on termination of this service they are named candidates, second class, for the commission of officers.

At the expiration of the military scientific course there is a general examination of all candidates before the “Commission of High Studies and Examinations,” and decision is given--

(_a._) Respecting efficiency for the position of officer.

(_b._) Respecting the army rank of those who have passed their examination without reference to former rank (_Chargen-verhältnisse_).

Very distinguished conduct before the enemy can alone exempt candidates from this examination.

Candidates examined are classed by the above Commission under the following heads; “_especially qualified_,” “_qualified_,” and “_not qualified_;” and no candidate for the commission of officer can be named officer without the certificate of “_qualified_.”

Candidates, who have shown the necessary efficiency to entitle them to be appointed officers, are named candidates, first class, for the commission of officer, or, in consequence of the diminished number of officers in the active army, are promoted to be sublieutenants.

Only those candidates for the commission of officer, who have received the certificate “especially qualified” in the above final examination of the military scientific course, can present themselves for admission into the War Academy.

III. THE ARTILLERY AND ENGINEER SCHOOL.

In this school, consisting of two courses, each lasting a year, an opportunity is afforded to all candidates, first class, for commissions as officers to devote themselves to technical military science, and to pursue the special studies having reference to the military operations in question; and, in this school, only those candidates for the commission of officer are received, who have successfully passed the military scientific course, and who, at the examination passed before the “Commission of High Studies and Examinations,” have been pronounced “_qualified_” not only to remain in the Artillery and Engineer regiment, but especially qualified to enter the Artillery and Engineer School.

Immediately after passing the second course of the War School, and before admission into the Artillery and Engineer School, these candidates must serve six months in an Artillery or Engineer regiment.

Candidates pass over from the first to the second course without a general examination, and should a doubt exist respecting the efficiency of any of the candidates, such candidates will be required to undergo a special examination before the “Commission of High Studies and Examinations,” who will decide, in the case of such candidates, whether they are to go through the course a second time, or retire from it.

The same regulations apply for the second course, and the appointments as sub-lieutenants of Artillery or Engineer students are determined according to the number of officers required in those corps.

Candidates for the Engineers are required, after passing through their school, to undergo a six weeks’ course of design, during which period each candidate must without assistance make a complete Drawing of an edifice.

IV. THE WAR ACADEMY.

The War Academy has for its object the higher scientific and practical education of officers, in every branch of the military profession, on the staff, as also of the higher adjutants. It aims also at the development of all military scientific subjects.

The War Academy has three courses, each lasting nine months, and the intervals are employed in practical exercises.

The number of students in one course must, as a rule, not exceed twelve, and every upper or sub-lieutenant who has served not less than four years with the troops, can attend the academy.

Officers are only admitted into this school who possess the requisite knowledge of their respective branches of the military service.

Further, their conduct must have been highly satisfactory; they must be sound in health, and their pecuniary affairs must be in good order, and they must combine prominent mental qualifications with a tendency to higher scientific attainments.

The “Commission of High Studies and Examinations” decides by examination as to the necessary qualifications for admission; then follows a summons, issued by the Ministry of War, to attend the War Academy, and each time only for one year.

Officers who, on the decision of the Examination Commission, do not display sufficient capacity or zeal, or whose military behavior or moral conduct has not been satisfactory, will not be summoned to attend the next course.

The scientific education of those admitted into the War Academy consists also in--

(_a._) Attending lectures at the University and the Central Polytechnic School.

(_b._) Higher lectures upon military scientific subjects.

(_c._) Exercises in living languages.

The practical education embraces the duties of staff officers and of higher adjutants, acquaintance with the different branches of military service, also corporal activity, and especially exercises on horseback.

Officers who, on the decision of the Examination Commission, have during the three courses of the War Academy displayed zeal, talent, and application, will, on leaving the academy, have their names sent in to the King for especial notice.

Each of the military schools has its own commandant. The Cadet Corps is commanded by a First Lieutenant of Infantry, the War School by a Major of the Quartermaster-General’s Staff, the Artillery and Engineer School by a Major of the Engineer Staff, and the War Academy by a Colonel of the General Staff, to whom an Adjutant is attached.

With regard to the systematic process of education pursued in the military schools, and to the application of the different means employed to impart instruction, these establishments are placed under the superior direction of the “Inspection of Military Schools;” in all other respects, they are under the control of the Ministry of War, and the professors employed in them are selected according to their special qualifications.

ROYAL MILITARY SCHOOL AT DRESDEN[1]

[Footnote 1: Document.

_Bericht über_ (report on) _die Kgl. Turnlehrer Bildungsanstalt, von Dr. Kloss_, 1864, pp. 34, (with a representation of the grounds and buildings.)]

1.--_Organization and Admission._

The Royal Military School at Dresden was reorganized in 1867, after the war, and organized like the schools of the same rank in Prussia. Formerly it consisted of two separate schools, the artillery school and the _Cadettencorps_, both completing the education of their pupils; but now a higher academy in Prussia must be attended for finishing the professional education, either in Berlin, Erfurt, &c.

By the new “regulative,” the _Cadettencorps_ in Saxony consists of six classes, and has (1,) 20 free scholars; (2,) 84 half-free scholars; (3,) 20 not free scholars--in all, 124. Besides these, “volunteers” may be admitted; but, if foreigners, without any claim to being admitted afterwards to the royal army.

For admission to any of the 124 places, the sons of officers of the army, killed or invalid, or of such subalterns as have served 25 years, and of civil officers of high merits, are preferred to others.

The aspirant must have completed his 11th year of age, and not be over 18 years of age.

In general the boys must have, if 11 years old, the requisite knowledge of Quinta; if 12, of Quarta; if 13, of Quarta; if 14, of Tertia; if 15-17, of Secunda, of a gymnasium, (college.)

On admission, every pupil has to pay 100 thalers for a full equipment, for books, &c.; and to bring with him 12 shirts, 18 pairs of stockings, 18 handkerchiefs, 6 drawers, 1 pair of house shoes, 2 white cotton night-jackets.

During his stay every pupil has to pay, (besides 25 thalers for books when transferred to III,) annually, (_a_,) 50 thalers, if a free scholar; (_b_,) 110 if half free; (_c_,) 210 if not free; (_d_,) 260 if a Saxon “volunteer;” and, (_e_,) 300 if a foreign “volunteer.”

2.--_Course of Instruction._

The course of instruction in the Military School embraces six years, with six classes, of which, as was said before, VI, (the last,) V, IV, and III correspond to V, IV, and III in a gymnasium, II and I to lower and upper Secunda, with the only difference, that instead of Greek, instruction is given in English and in the elements of a military education. It will be, therefore, sufficient to mention the course of instruction in the highest class as given in the new regulation.

1. Religion. (The number of lesson hours is not stated.)

2. Latin: Written exercises; Livy, Ovid, Virgil.

3. German: History of literature; explanation of dramatic pieces; free discourses, with a verbal résumé, and debates.

4. French: Translations; extemporalia; compositions; exercises in speaking.

5. Mathematics: Progressions; logarithms, and their application; applying of algebra to geometry; trigonometry; elements of stereometry.

6. English: Oral and written exercises; free discourses on historical and geographical subjects; review of the same in English; reading of poetry.

7. History: Modern history; review of universal history; history of Northern Germany.

8. Geography: Mathematical and physical geography; review of political geography, with particular regard to Northern Germany.

9. Natural philosophy: Electricity, magnetism, sound and light.

10. Drawing of plans; finishing the designs of the survey.

11. Surveying: Topographical surveying on a large scale; drawing of grounds; _croquiren_.

12. Free-hand drawing. (Not obligatory.)

Those cadets to whom, in consequence of the examination at the end of the course, the testimonial of maturity for ensigncy can be given, are presented to his Majesty as “characterized” ensigns, whilst all others who do not answer the demands have to perform, in some other way, their legal service in the army.

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V. MILITARY SYSTEM AND EDUCATION IN HOLLAND.

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I. MILITARY SYSTEM.

The regular army of Holland is divided into two portions--one of which takes all the ordinary duties of the Dutch possessions beyond the seas, while the other serves entirely in Europe. In the event of war, the Home army is liable to be sent to the support of the Colonial army; but except in such emergency, the officers and men of each portion are as distinct, almost, as though they composed parts of the military forces of two independent countries. The entire military force consists of the regular army of about 52,000 men, which can be swelled to twice that number in an emergency, by militia conscripts and reserve levies.

The Dutch Colonial Army consists of regiments of cavalry and artillery, as well as of infantry, of which the depots for recruiting as well as of arms, ammunition, and ordnance, are at home. But the service companies, when they have once embarked for their colonial stations, return no more as armed bodies--and even as individuals, neither officers nor men return until they have taken part in the avocations of colonial life.

The army of Holland, both in its European and colonial branches is recruited by voluntary enlistment. The term of service is six years, beyond which, however, the soldier not disqualified by loss of health, may remain. The service is not particularly attractive; neither the pay being large, nor promotion from the ranks rapid, or certain, the recruits are not drawn from the most intelligent, and enterprising classes. Still, as discipline is strictly enforced, and the natural courage of the Batavian race is good, there is seldom any outbreak or disorder.

II. MILITARY EDUCATION.

The officers, as a body, are well educated, and belong to the higher class of society, and before admission to the service, they must prove their qualifications by a rigid examination, which is practically competitive, as promotion is determined by the order of merit, as shown in the results. Preparation for the examination could be made, till recently, (1.) either by joining the Cadet Corps as a volunteer, and after a specified term of service in the field, undergoing an examination in the studies, and practical knowledge required; or (2.) by going successfully through a regular course in the Military Academy at Breda. The army is now officered exclusively from the graduates of the Military Academy.

III. MILITARY ACADEMY AT BREDA.

The Military Academy at Breda, prepares officers for every branch of the service, and is well equipped in respect to buildings, and appliances of illustration and practice, as well as with numerous professors for doing its work as thoroughly as any school can which receives its pupils so young.

Within an extensive redoubt, separated from the town by a rampart and wet ditch, stands an old palace which the late King set apart as a college for officers. Here are good stables and an ample stud, a swimming school, and an extensive plateau, with cannon of every calibre, which supplies the means of drill applicable to each branch of service. The accommodation within doors is excellent. Youths, sleeping in long dormitories, are yet separated one from another by curtains, within which stand each inmate’s iron bedstead, his little dressing-table, his basin, jug, clothes-press, and all other matters necessary to cleanliness and comfort. There is a spacious hall or day-room, besides a convenient dining-room, a good library, a well-stocked model-room, a small but judiciously selected museum of arms, with a good collection of minerals and fossils, of chemical and mechanical apparatus, &c. Finally, the class-books used in the place are compiled and arranged by the professors, and, in every branch of science and learning touched by them, appear well adapted to the purposes for which they are intended.

The establishment of the Breda Military Academy, when full, includes--besides the Governor, a major-general, and the Commandant, a colonel--an adjutant, a quarter-master, three captains of infantry, three of artillery, one of engineers, one of cavalry; five first lieutenants of infantry, two of cavalry, three of artillery, one of engineers; two second lieutenants of infantry, one of cavalry, one of artillery, and two of engineers--two medical officers and an apothecary. There are besides, of civilian professors and teachers, seven; and the place is capable of accommodating one hundred and ninety-two cadets. These, whether intended for the European or colonial branch of the service, live and pursue their studies together. The course comprises four years, during the first two of which, all the cadets are educated together without reference to the specific corps or services for which they may be intended: but with the commencement of the third year, such as may be selected for the artillery or engineers pass into distinct classes, while the remainder go on, by a less abstrusely scientific course, to commissions in the cavalry or infantry.

The qualifications for admittance into the Academy are not extravagantly high. Youths seem to be eligible who can read, write, and spell their own language correctly--who are able to construe an easy Latin author, and exhibit some acquaintance with the French; who are advanced in arithmetic to vulgar fractions, can demonstrate an easy proposition in geometry, and are masters of the fundamental processes of algebra. During the two first years all are well instructed in history, geography, mathematics, fortification, the theory of projectiles, plan-drawing, the French and German languages. After this they break up, and pursue their peculiar studies in different rooms under different teachers. Their progress is tested by severe periodical examinations; according to the results of which, they are either advanced or held back. But as no second trial is granted in the examination for admittance, so two failures at any of the examinations which follow, insure dismissal from the Academy. Finally, prayers are read daily to the cadets in a large hall, where also, if the weather be unfavorable, one of the ministers from the town attends on Sunday to celebrate public worship. When the weather is fine the young men march to church--Protestants under their own officers to a Protestant place of worship--Roman Catholics under like surveillance to a Roman Catholic chapel.

Although the army is to some extent officered from the ranks for meritorious service, or from those who have performed duty in the field under a peculiar system of cadetship, as well as from the graduates of the Military Academy, it is proper to add, that no promotion can be made, or commission issued, until a satisfactory examination has been passed. The prospect of this examination keeps up the habit of professional study and reading, as well as a feeling of honorable rivalry among officers of the same grade.

NAVIGATION SCHOOLS FOR THE MERCANTILE MARINE.

There are ten special Navigation Schools (besides a nautical division in the Academy at Groningen) located in the principal commercial ports, and among the sea-going population. They are generally under the management of local mercantile societies, but subject to government inspection, and final examination, on which the rank of the graduates as first, second, and third mate, depends.

The pupils are admitted on examination in the elementary studies, physical ability, and aptitude for sea-service.

The course in the best schools embraces, besides a review of the elementary branches, a knowledge of geography, especially of the climate and products of different countries; mathematics, including trigonometry, nautical astronomy, practical use of instruments at sea, and the calculation of latitude and longitude, a knowledge of the code of signals, the laws of storms and tides, mercantile laws and usages, and practice in letter-writing, keeping the ship’s books, and chart-drawing.

Opportunities of practice are secured on vessels in port, in coasters, and even long voyages to the West and East Indies.

Ability to hold the rank of mates depends on the results of the final examination, and promotion from one position to a higher depends on successive examinations, after leaving the schools.

The statistics of attendance at these schools in 1867 were as follow:

Rotterdam, 133 pupils; Leyden, 87; Amsterdam, 87; Amsterdam, 18; Harlingen, 59; Nes, 19; Schiermonnikoog, 84; Vundam, 37; Groningen, 85; Delfzye, 68; Nautical section of the Groningen Academy, 39.

[Erratum for Part IV (Bavaria): Groningen, 85; Delfzye, 68; _semicolon ; after “85” invisible_]

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