Chapter 4

And this was undertaken in prosecution of the Design which the _ROYAL SOCIETY_ has propos’d to it self. For the Members of the Assembly having before their eys so many _fatal_ Instances of the errors and falshoods, in which the greatest part of mankind has so long wandred, because they rely’d upon the strength of humane Reason alone, have begun anew to correct all _Hypotheses_ by sense, as Seamen do their _dead Reckonings_ by _Cœlestial Observations_; and to this purpose it has been their principal indeavour to _enlarge & strengthen_ the _Senses_ by _Medicine_, and by such _outward Instruments_ as are proper for their particular works. By this means they find some reason to suspect, that those effects of Bodies, which have been commonly attributed to _Qualities_, and those confess’d to be _occult_, are perform’d by the small _Machines_ of Nature, which are not to be discern’d without these helps, seeming the meer products of _Motion_, _Figure_, and _Magnitude_; and that the _Natural Textures_, which some call the _Plastick faculty_, may be made in _Looms_, which a greater perfection of Opticks may make discernable by these Glasses; so as now they are no more puzzled about them, then the vulgar are to conceive, how _Tapestry_ or _flowred Stuffs_ are woven. And the ends of all these Inquiries they intend to be the _Pleasure_ of Contemplative minds, but above all, the _ease and dispatch_ of the labours of mens hands. They do indeed neglect no opportunity to bring all the _rare_ things of Remote Countries within the compass of their knowledge and practice. But they still acknowledg their _most useful_ Informations to arise from _common_ things, and from _diversifying_ their most _ordinary_ operations upon them. They do not wholly reject Experiments of meer _light_ and _theory_; but they principally aim at such, whose Applications will _improve and facilitate_ the present way of _Manual Arts_. And though some men, who are perhaps taken up about less honourable Employments, are pleas’d to censure their proceedings, yet they can shew more _fruits_ of their first three years, wherein they have assembled, then any other _Society_ in _Europe_ can for a much larger space of time. ’Tis true, such undertakings as theirs do commonly meet with small incouragement, because men are generally rather taken with the _plausible_ and _discursive_, then the _real_ and the solid part of Philosophy; yet by the good fortune of their institution, in an Age of all others the most _inquisitive_, they have been assisted by the _contribution_ and _presence_ of very many of the chief _Nobility_ and _Gentry_, and others who are some of the _most considerable_ in their several Professions. But that that yet farther convinces me of the _Real esteem_ that the more _serious_ part of men have of this _Society_, is, that several _Merchants_, men who act in earnest (whose Object is _meum & tuum_, that great _Rudder_ of humane affairs) have adventur’d considerable sums of _Money_, to put in practice what some of our Members have contrived, and have continued _stedfast_ in their good opinions of such Indeavours, when not one of a hundred of the vulgar have believed their undertakings feasable. And it is also fit to be added, that they have one advantage peculiar to themselves, that very many of their number are _men of Converse and Traffick_; which is a good Omen, that their attempts will bring Philosophy from _words_ to _action_, seeing the men of Business have had so great a share in their first foundation.

And of this kind I ought not to conceal one particular _Generosity_, which more nearly concerns my self. It is the _munificence_ of _Sir John Cutler_, in endowing a Lecture for the promotion of _Mechanick Arts_, to be governed and directed by This _Society._This _Bounty_ I mention for the _Honourableness_ of the thing it self, and for the expectation which I have of the _efficacy_ of the _Example_; for it cannot now be objected to them, that their Designs will be esteemed _frivolous_ and _vain_, when they have such a _real Testimony_ of the _Approbation_ of a _Man_ that is such an _eminent Ornament_ of this renowned City, and one, who, by the _Variety_, and the _happy Success_, of his negotiations, has given evident proofs, that he is not easie to be deceiv’d. This Gentleman has well observ’d, that the _Arts_ of life have been too long _imprison’d_ in the dark shops of Mechanicks themselves, & there _hindred from growth_, either by ignorance, or self-interest: and he has bravely _freed_ them from these _inconveniences_: He hath not only obliged _Tradesmen_, but _Trade_ it self: He has done a work that is worthy of _London_, and has taught the chief City of Commerce in the world the right way how Commerce is to be improv’d. We have already seen many other great signs of Liberality and a large mind, from the same hand: For by his _diligence_ about the _Corporation for the Poor_; by his honorable _Subscriptions_ for the rebuilding of St. Paul’s; by his chearful _Disbursment_ for the replanting of _Ireland_, and by many other such _publick works_, he has shewn by what means he indeavours to _establish_ his Memory; and now by this last gift he has done that, which became one of the _wisest Citizens_ of our Nation to accomplish, seeing one of the _wisest of our Statesmen, the Lord Verulam_, first propounded it.

But to return to my Subject, from a digression, which, I hope, my Reader will pardon me, seeing the Example is so rare that I can make no more such digressions. If these my first Labours shall be any wayes useful to inquiring men, I must attribute the incouragement and promotion of them to a very _Reverend_ and _Learned Person_, of whom this ought in justice to be said, _That there is scarce any one Invention, which this Nation has produc’d in our Age, but it has some way or other been set forward by his assistance_. My Reader, I believe, will quickly ghess, that it is _Dr. Wilkins_ that I mean. He is indeed a man born for the _good_ of _mankind_, and for the _honour_ of his _Country_. In the _sweetness_ of whose _behaviour_, in the _calmness_ of his _mind_, in the _unbounded goodness_ of his _heart_, we have an evident Instance, what the true and the _primitive unpassionate Religion_ was, before it was _sowred_ by particular _Factions._ In a word, his _Zeal_ has been so _constant_ and _effectual_ in advancing all good and profitable _Arts, that_ as one of the Antient _Romans_ said of _Scipio_, _That he thanked God that he was a _Roman_; because whereever _Scipio_ had been born, there had been the seat of the Empire of the world_: So may I thank God, that _Dr. Wilkins_ was an _Englishman_, for whereever he had lived, there had been the chief Seat of _generous Knowledge_ and _true Philosophy_. To the truth of this, there are so many worthy men living that will subscribe, that I am confident, what I have here said, will not be looked upon, by any ingenious Reader, as a _Panegyrick_, but only as a _real testimony_.

By the Advice of this _Excellent man_ I first set upon this Enterprise, yet still came to it with much _Reluctancy_, because I was to follow the footsteps of so eminent a Person as _Dr. Wren_, who was the first that attempted any thing of this nature; whose original draughts do now make one of the Ornaments of that great Collection of Rarities in the _Kings Closet_. This _Honor_, which his first beginnings of this kind have receiv’d, to be admitted into the most famous place of the world, did not so much _incourage_, as the _hazard_ of coming after _Dr. Wren_ did _affright_ me; for of him I must affirm, that, since the time of _Archimedes_, there scarce ever met in one man, in so great a perfection, such a _Mechanical Hand_, and so _Philosophical_ a _Mind_.

But at last, being assured both by _Dr. Wilkins_, and _Dr. Wren_ himself, that he had given over his intentions of prosecuting it, and not finding that there was any else design’d the pursuing of it, I set upon this undertaking, and was not a little incourag’d to proceed in it, by the Honour the _Royal Society_ was pleas’d to favour me with, in approving of those draughts (which from time to time as I had an opportunity of describing) I presented to them. And particularly by the Incitements of divers of those Noble and excellent Persons of it, which were my more especial Friends, who were not less urgent with me for the publishing, then for the prosecution of them.

After I had almost compleated these Pictures and Observations (having had divers of them engraven, and was ready to send them to the Press) I was inform’d, that the Ingenious Physitian _Dr. Henry Power_ had made several _Microscopical_ Observations, which had I not afterwards, upon our interchangably viewing each others Papers, found that they were for the most part differing from mine, either in the Subject it self, or in the particulars taken notice of; and that his design was only to print Observations without Pictures, I had even then _suppressed_ what I had so far proceeded in. But being further _excited_ by several of my Friends, in compliance with their opinions, that it would not be unacceptable to several inquisitive Men, and hoping also, that I should thereby discover something New to the World, I have at length cast in my Mite, into the vast Treasury of _A Philosophical History_. And it is my _hope_, as well as _belief_, that these my _Labours_ will be no more comparable to the _Productions_ of many other _Natural Philosophers_, who are now every where busie about _greater_ things; then my _little Objects_ are to be compar’d to the greater and more beautiful _Works of Nature_, A Flea, a Mite, a Gnat, to an Horse, an Elephant, or a Lyon.

* * * * *

MICROGRAPHIA,

OR SOME

Physiological Descriptions

OF

MINUTE BODIES,

MADE BY

MAGNIFYING GLASSES;

WITH

OBSERVATIONS and INQUIRIES thereupon.

* * * * *

Observ. I. _Of the Point of a sharp small Needle._

As in _Geometry_, the most natural way of beginning is from a Mathematical _point_; so is the same method in Observations and _Natural history_ the most genuine, simple, and instructive. We must first endevour to make _letters_, and draw _single_ strokes true, before we venture to write whole _Sentences_, or to draw large _Pictures_. And in _Physical_ Enquiries, we must endevour to follow Nature in the more _plain_ and _easie_ ways she treads in the most _simple_ and _uncompounded bodies_, to trace her steps, and be acquainted with her manner of walking there, before we venture our selves into the multitude of _meanders_ she has in _bodies of a more complicated_ nature; lest, being unable to distinguish and judge of our way, we quickly lose both _Nature_ our Guide, and _our selves_ too, and are left to wander in the _labyrinth_ of groundless opinions; wanting both _judgment_, that _light_, and _experience_, that _clew_, which should direct our proceedings.

We will begin these our Inquiries therefore with the Observations of Bodies of the most _simple nature_ first, and so gradually proceed to those of a more _compounded_ one. In prosecution of which method, we shall begin with a _Physical point_; of which kind the _Point of a Needle_ is commonly reckon’d for one; and is indeed, for the most part, made so sharp, that the naked eye cannot distinguish any parts of it: It very easily pierces, and makes its way through all kind of bodies softer then it self: But if view’d with a very good _Microscope_, we may find that the _top_ of a Needle (though as to the sense very _sharp_) appears a _broad_, _blunt_, and very _irregular_ end; not resembling a Cone, as is imagin’d, but onely a piece of a tapering body, with a great part of the top remov’d, or deficient. The Points of Pins are yet more blunt, and the Points of the most curious Mathematical Instruments do very seldome arrive at so great a sharpness; how much therefore can be built upon demonstrations made onely by the productions of the Ruler and Compasses, he will be better able to consider that shall but view those _points_ and _lines_ with a _Microscope_.

Now though this point be commonly accounted the sharpest (whence when we would express the sharpness of a point the most _superlatively_, we say, As sharp as a Needle) yet the _Microscope_ can afford us hundreds of Instances of Points many thousand times sharper: such as those of the _hairs_, and _bristles_, and _claws_ of multitudes of _Insects_; the _thorns_, or _crooks_, or _hairs_ of _leaves_, and other small vegetables; nay, the ends of the _stiriæ_ or small _parallelipipeds_ of _Amianthus_, and _alumen plumosum_; of many of which, though the Points are so sharp as not to be visible, though view’d with a _Microscope_ (which magnifies the Object, in bulk, above a million of times) yet I doubt not, but were we able _practically_ to make _Microscopes_ according to the _theory_ of them, we might find hills, and dales, and pores, and a sufficient bredth, or expansion, to give all those parts elbow-room, even in the blunt top of the very Point of any of these so very sharp bodies. For certainly the _quantity_ or extension of any body may be _Divisible in infinitum_, though perhaps not the _matter_.

But to proceed: The Image we have here exhibited in the first Figure[1], was the top of a small and very sharp Needle, whose point _aa_ nevertheless appear’d through the _Microscope_ above a quarter of an inch broad, not round nor flat, but _irregular_ and _uneven_; so that it seem’d to have been big enough to have afforded a hundred armed Mites room enough to be rang’d by each other without endangering the breaking one anothers necks, by being thrust off on either side. The surface of which, though appearing to the naked eye very smooth, could not nevertheless hide a multitude of holes and scratches and ruggednesses from being discover’d by the _Microscope_ to invest it, several of which inequalities (as A, B, C, seem’d _holes_ made by some small specks of _Rust_; and D some _adventitious body_, that stuck very close to it) were _casual_. All the rest that roughen the surface, were onely so many marks of the rudeness and bungling of _Art_. So unaccurate is it, in all its productions, even in those which seem most neat, that if examin’d with an organ more acute then that by which they were made, the more we see of their _shape_, the less appearance will there be of their _beauty_: whereas in the works of _Nature_, the deepest Discoveries shew us the greatest Excellencies. An evident Argument, that he that was the Author of all these things, was no other then _Omnipotent_; being able to include as great a variety of parts and contrivances in the yet smallest Discernable Point, as in those vaster bodies (which comparatively are called also Points) such as the _Earth_, _Sun_, or _Planets_. Nor need it seem strange that the Earth it self may be by an _Analogie_ call’d a Physical Point: For as its body, though now so near us as to fill our eys and fancies with a sense of the vastness of it, may by a little Distance, and some convenient _Diminishing_ Glasses, be made vanish into a scarce visible Speck, or Point (as I have often try’d on the _Moon_, and (when not too bright) on the _Sun_ it self.) So, could a Mechanical contrivance succesfully answer our _Theory_, we might see the least spot as big as the Earth it self; and Discover, as _Des Cartes_[2] also conjectures, as great a variety of bodies in the _Moon_, or _Planets_, as in the _Earth_.

But leaving these Discoveries to future Industries, we shall proceed to add one Observation more of a _point_ commonly so call’d, that is, the mark of a _full stop_, or _period_. And for this purpose I observed many both _printed_ ones and _written_; and among multitudes I found _few_ of them more _round_ or _regular_ then this which I have delineated in the third figure of the second Scheme, but _very many_ abundantly _more disfigur’d_; and for the most part if they seem’d equally round to the eye, I found those points that had been made by a _Copper-plate_, and Roll-press, to be as misshapen as those which had been made with _Types_, the most curious and smothly _engraven strokes_ and _points_, looking but as so many _furrows_ and _holes_, and their _printed impressions_, but like _smutty daubings_ on a matt or uneven floor with a blunt extinguisht brand or stick’s end. And as for _points_ made with a _pen_ they were much _more ragged_ and _deformed_. Nay, having view’d certain pieces of exceeding curious writing of the kind (one of which in the bredth of a _two-pence_ compris’d _the Lords prayer, the Apostles Creed, the ten Commandments, and about half a dozen verses besides of the Bible_, whose _lines_ were _so small_ and _near together_, that I was unable to _number_ them with my _naked eye_,) a very ordinary _Microscope_, I had then about me, inabled me to see that what the Writer of it had asserted was _true_, but withall discover’d of what pitifull _bungling scribbles_ and _scrawls_ it was compos’d, _Arabian_ and _China characters_ being almost as well shap’d, yet thus much I must say for the Man, that it was for the most part _legible_ enough, though in some places there wanted a good _fantsy_ well _preposest_ to help one through. If this manner _of small writing_ were made _easie_ and _practicable_ (and I think I know such a one, but have never yet made tryal of it, whereby one might be inabled to write _a great deale_ with _much ease_, and _accurately_ enough in a very _little roome_) it might be of very good use to convey _secret Intelligence_ without any danger of _Discovery_ or _mistrusting_. But to come again to the point. The _Irregularities_ of it are caused by three or four _coadjutors_, one of which is, the _uneven surface_ of the _paper_, which at best appears no smother then a very course piece of _shag’d cloth_, next the _irregularity of the Type_ or _Ingraving_, and a third is the _rough Daubing_ of the _Printing-Ink_ that lies upon the instrument that makes the impression, to all which, add the _variation_ made by the Different _lights_ and _shadows_, and you may have sufficient reason to ghess that a _point_ may appear much more _ugly_ then _this_, which I have here presented, which though it appear’d through the _Microscope_ _gray_, like a great splatch of _London_ dirt, about three inches over; yet to the _naked eye_ it was _black_ and no bigger then that in the midst of the Circle A. And could I have found Room in this Plate to have inserted an O you should have seen that the _letters_ were not more distinct then the _points_ of Distinction, nor a _drawn circle_ more exactly _so_, then we have now shown a _point_ to be a _point_.

* * * * *

Observ. II. _Of the Edge of a Razor._

The sharpest _Edge_ hath the same kind of affinity to the sharpest _Point_ in Physicks, as a _line_ hath to a _point_ in Mathematicks; and therefore the Treaty concerning this, may very properly be annexed to the former. A Razor doth appear to be a Body of a very neat and curious aspect, till more closely viewed by the _Microscope_, and there we may observe its very Edge to be of all kind of shapes, except what it should be. For examining that of a very sharp one, I could not find that any part of it had any thing of sharpness in it; but it appeared a rough surface of a very considerable bredth from side to side, the narrowest part not seeming thinner then the back of a pretty thick Knife. Nor is’t likely that it should appear any otherwise, since as we just now shew’d that a _point_ appear’d a _circle_, ’tis rational a _line_ should be a _parallelogram_.

Now for the drawing this second Figure[3] (which represents a part of the Edge about half a quarter of an inch long of a Razor well set) I so plac’d it between the Object-glass & the light, that there appear’d a reflection from the very Edge, represented by the white line abcdef. In which you may perceive it to be somewhat sharper then elsewhere about d, to be indented or pitted about b, to be broader and thicker about c, and unequal and rugged about e, and pretty even between ab and ef. Nor was that part of the Edge ghik so smooth as one would imagine so smooth bodies as a Hone and Oyl should leave it; for besides those multitudes of scratches, which appear to have raz’d the surface ghik, and to cross each other every way which are not half of them exprest in the Figure, there were several great and deep scratches, or furrows, such as gh and ik, which made the surface yet more rugged, caus’d perhaps by some small Dust casually falling on the Hone, or some harder or more flinty part of the Hone it self. The other part of the Razor ll, which is polish’d on a grinding-stone, appear’d much rougher then the other, looking almost like a plow’d field, with many parallels, ridges, and furrows, and a cloddy, as ’twere, or an uneven surface: nor shall we wonder at the roughnesses of those surfaces, since even in the most curious wrought Glasses for _Microscopes_, and other Optical uses, I have, when the Sun has shone well on them, discover’d their surface to be variously raz’d or scratched, and to consist of an infinite of small broken surfaces, which reflect the light of very various and differing colours. And indeed it seems impossible by Art to cut the surface of any hard and brittle body smooth, since _Putte_, or even the most curious _Powder_ that can be made use of, to polish such a body, must consist of little hard rough particles, and each of them must cut its way, and consequently leave some kind of gutter or furrow behind it. And though Nature does seem to do it very readily in all kinds of fluid bodies, yet perhaps future observators may discover even these also rugged; it being very probable, as I elsewhere shew, that fluid bodies are made up of small solid particles variously and strongly mov’d, and may find reason to think there is scarce a surface _in rerum naturâ_ perfectly smooth. The black spot mn, I ghess to be some small speck of rust, for that I have oft observ’d to be the manner of the working of Corrosive Juyces. To conclude, this Edge and piece of a Razor, if it had been really such as it appear’d through the _Microscope_, would scarcely have serv’d to cleave wood, much less to have cut off the hair of beards, unless it were after the manner that _Lucian_ merrily relates _Charon_ to have made use of, when with a Carpenters Axe he chop’d off the beard of a sage Philosopher, whose gravity he very cautiously fear’d would indanger the oversetting of his Wherry.

* * * * *

Observ. III. _Of fine Lawn, or Linnen Cloth._

This is another product of Art, A piece of the finest Lawn I was able to get, so curious that the threads were scarce discernable by the naked eye, and yet through an ordinary _Microscope_ you may perceive[4] what a goodly piece of _coarse Matting_ it is; what proportionable cords each of its threads are, being not unlike, both in shape and size, the bigger and coarser kind of _single Rope-yarn_, wherewith they usually make _Cables_. That which makes the Lawn so transparent, is by the _Microscope_, nay by the naked eye, if attentively viewed, plainly enough evidenced to be the multitude of square holes which are left between the threads, appearing to have much more hole in respect of the intercurrent parts then is for the most part left in a _lattice-window_, which it does a little resemble, onely the crossing parts are round and not flat.