VOLUME ONE

P. F. COLLIER & SON COMPANY NEW YORK

Copyright 1922 BY P. F. COLLIER & SON COMPANY

MANUFACTURED IN U. S. A.

METEOROLOGY THE SCIENCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

BY CHARLES FITZHUGH TALMAN

CHAIRMAN, COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC INFORMATION, AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY

P. F. COLLIER & SON COMPANY NEW YORK

PREFACE

Meteorology is the science of the atmosphere and its phenomena, including weather.

Nowadays, when we speak of a “meteor,” we generally mean a shooting star; but formerly this term was applied (and it still often is in technical literature) to a great variety of phenomena and appearances in the atmosphere, including clouds, rain, snow, rainbows, and so forth. That is how the science of the atmosphere came to have its present name.

Meteorology is not a branch of astronomy. These two sciences are as different from each other as zoölogy is from botany. They are both founded on physics, and they “overlap” each other to some extent, just as every science does certain others; but if you want information about the atmosphere, weather and climate, an astronomical observatory is not the place to seek it; while if you wish to make inquiries about comets, sun spots, eclipses, standard time, or the date on which Easter fell in the year 1666, do not apply to the Weather Bureau.

In the city of Washington the Government maintains an astronomical and timekeeping institution known as the Naval Observatory, and it maintains in the same city the central office of the United States Weather Bureau. The two establishments are a mile apart in space and nearly a whole library apart in the subjects with which they are concerned. The fact that their functions are persistently confounded by the public indicates the necessity of writing this preface to a popular book on meteorology.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE I. THE ANATOMY OF THE ATMOSPHERE 9 II. THE RESOURCES OF THE ATMOSPHERE 24 III. THE ATMOSPHERE AS A HIGHWAY 39 IV. DUST AND SMOKE IN THE ATMOSPHERE 52 V. WEATHER AND WEATHER INSTRUMENTS 66 VI. CLOUDLAND 90 VII. PRECIPITATION 106 VIII. WINDS AND STORMS 123 IX. ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY 141 X. ATMOSPHERIC OPTICS 164 XI. ATMOSPHERIC ACOUSTICS 186 XII. CLIMATE AND CLIMATES 197 XIII. ORGANIZED METEOROLOGY 212 XIV. WEATHER MAPS AND FORECASTS 224 XV. AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY 245 XVI. COMMERCIAL METEOROLOGY 261 XVII. MARINE METEOROLOGY 271 XVIII. AERONAUTICAL METEOROLOGY 284 XIX. MILITARY METEOROLOGY 306 XX. MEDICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL METEOROLOGY 316 XXI. WEATHER-MAKING 332 XXII. ATMOSPHERIC BYWAYS 346 GLOSSARY 365

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FUNNEL-SHAPED CLOUD OF A TORNADO _Frontispiece_ _Painted from an unusual Photograph_

FACING PAGE

EXPLORING THE UPPER AIR--BEGINNING OF A PILOT BALLOON FLIGHT 32

EXPLORING THE UPPER AIR--SENDING UP A SOUNDING BALLOON 32

METEOROGRAPH FOR USE WITH A SOUNDING BALLOON 33

KITE METEOROGRAPH TO BE SENT ALOFT ATTACHED TO A KITE 33

ALTO-CUMULUS--FLEECY MASSES SHOWING BLUE SKY BETWEEN 96

CUMULUS, OR WOOL-PACK CLOUD 96

MAMMATO-CUMULUS, OR “RAIN BALLS” 97

CUMULO-NIMBUS--THE THUNDERCLOUD 97

CLOUD BANNER OVER MOUNT ASSINIBOINE, CANADIAN ROCKIES 100

CIRRUS, WITH LOWER CLOUDS IN THE FOREGROUND 100

LENTICULAR CLOUD OVER MOUNT RAINIER 101

ICE STORM AT PHILADELPHIA--TREES COVERED WITH GLAZE 116

NIEVE PENITENTE IN THE ARGENTINE ANDES 117

CLOUDS OR FOG CASCADING THROUGH LAST FORK CAÑON INTO SANTA ANITA CAÑON 136

CLOUDBURST IN SOUTHERN UTAH 137

PHOTOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF LIGHTNING--SINGLE AND DOUBLE DISCHARGES 160

PHOTOGRAPH OF LIGHTNING, SHOWING “BLACK” FLASHES 161

ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY INSTRUMENTS 161

GLASS WEATHER MAP IN THE UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU 224

THE SUN DRAWING WATER 225

ORCHARD HEATERS IN OPERATION AS PROTECTION AGAINST EXPECTED FROST 256

SNOW SURVEYOR AT WORK, USING A CYLINDRICAL SNOW SAMPLER 257

SNOW ROLLERS, OR WIND-BLOWN SNOWBALLS 257

BED OF THE POTOMAC RIVER PHOTOGRAPHED FROM THE AIR 288

DRILLING WITH COMPRESSED AIR IN A COPPER MINE 289

LAUNCHING A WEATHER BUREAU KITE TO EXPLORE THE AIR OVER THE OCEAN 289

WEATHER BUREAU KIOSK, UNION SQUARE, SAN FRANCISCO 320

UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU STATION AT PEORIA, ILLINOIS 320

CENTRAL OFFICE OF THE UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU AT WASHINGTON 321