CHAPTER VI

CLOSE OF THE OLD STONE AGE--INVASION OF NEW RACES--HISTORY OF THE MAS D'AZIL, OF FÈRE-EN-TARDENOIS--FOREST ENVIRONMENT AND LIFE--ORIGIN OF THE AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN CULTURE--CHARACTERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE NEW RACES--TRANSITION TO THE NEOLITHIC AND RELATIONS OF THE OLD AND NEW RACES--APPARENT CHIEF LINES OF HUMAN DESCENT AND OF HUMAN MIGRATION INTO WESTERN EUROPE.

We have now reached the very close of the Old Stone Age, a period which is believed to extend between 10,000 and 7,000 years before the present era. The entrance to the final cultures of the Upper Palæolithic, known as the Azilian-Tardenoisian, marks a transition even more abrupt than that witnessed in any preceding stage. It is not a development; it is a revolution. The artistic spirit entirely disappears; there is no trace of animal engraving or sculpture; painting is found only on flattened pebbles or in schematic or geometric designs on wall surfaces. Of bone implements only harpoons and polishers remain, and even these are of inferior workmanship and without any trace of art. The flint industry continues the degeneration begun in the Magdalenian and exhibits a new life and impulse only in the fashioning of the extremely small or microlithic tools and weapons known as 'Tardenoisian.' Both bone and flint weapons of the chase disappear, yet the stag is hunted and its horns are used in the manufacture of harpoons. This is the 'Age of the Stag,' the final stage of the '_Cave Period_' in western Europe, and is subsequent to the 'Age of the Reindeer' in the south.

It would appear as if the very same regions formerly occupied by the great hunting Crô-Magnon race from Aurignacian to Magdalenian times were now inhabited by a race or races largely employed in fishing. The country is thickly forested. The climate is still cold and extremely moist, and human life everywhere is in the grottos or entrances to the caverns.

INVASION OF FOUR NEW RACES IN CLOSING UPPER PALÆOLITHIC TIMES

How far this revolution is due to the decline of the Crô-Magnon race and how far to the invasion of one or more new races is very difficult to determine in the absence of the anatomical evidence derived from skeletal remains. Two new races had certainly found their way along the Danube as shown in the burials of Ofnet, in eastern Bavaria; one is extremely broad-headed and perhaps of central Asiatic origin, while the other is extremely long-headed and perhaps of southerly or Mediterranean origin. It is possible that these two races correspond respectively with the easterly and southerly industrial influences which are observed in the Azilian-Tardenoisian stage. The former is the first brachycephalic race to enter western Europe, for it will be recalled that all the previous races, the Crô-Magnons, the Brünns, and the Neanderthals, are dolichocephalic. The long-headed race found at Ofnet is very clearly distinguished from the disharmonic long-headed Crô-Magnon race by the narrowness of the face; in other words, it is an _harmonic_ type of head and face, which may have been Mediterranean in origin, like the so-called 'Mediterranean race' of Sergi.

This fresh invasion of western Europe by two races arriving by one or more of the great migration routes from the vast Eurasiatic mainland to the east, races with a relatively high brain development, is certainly one of the most surprising features of the close of the Palæolithic Period, for we have long been accustomed to think that these fresh easterly and southerly invasions began only in Neolithic times.

As the Upper Palæolithic draws to an end, there is, according to Breuil, still another industrial influence making itself felt: it comes from the northeast along the shores of the Baltic.

Putting together all the fragmentary evidence which we possess, we may regard western Europe at the close of the Old Stone Age as peopled by four and possibly by five distinct races, as follows:

5. Arriving late in Palæolithic times, a race along the shores of the Baltic, known only by its Maglemose industry; possibly a Teutonic race.

4. A south Mediterranean race, known only by its Tardenoisian industry, migrating along the northern shores of Africa and spreading over Spain; with a conventional and schematic art; probably an advance wave of the true 'Mediterranean' race of Sergi; possibly identical with race 3 below. (The same as Race 4, p. 278.)

3. A long-headed race found at Ofnet, in eastern Bavaria; possibly a branch of the true 'Mediterranean' race 4 above, but not related to the Brünn. (Possibly the same as Race 4.)

2. The newly arriving Furfooz-Grenelle race, broad-headed; known along the Danube at Ofnet, in eastern Bavaria, and northward in Belgium; possibly a branch of the 'Alpine' race. (The same as Race 5, p. 278.)

1. The surviving Crô-Magnons, in a stage of industrial decline, pursuing the Azilian industry, probably inhabiting France and northern Spain.

The broad-headed Ofnet race mentioned above is apparently the same as the Furfooz-Grenelle race, and may also correspond with the existing Alpine-Celtic race of western Europe. The long-headed race of Ofnet may correspond with the existing 'Mediterranean' race of Sergi.

The presence of the Crô-Magnon race in western Europe during Azilian-Tardenoisian times is not sustained, so far as we know, by any anatomical evidence, but is suggested by the mode of burial of two skeletons found by Piette in the Azilian deposits of the station of Mas d'Azil. This burial, like that of Ofnet, is typical of Upper Palæolithic and not of Neolithic times. These skeletons lay in the 'Azilian' layer (VI) described below. As the smaller bones were missing, Piette concluded that the remains had been for some time exposed to the weather before burial, and that the larger bones had been scraped and cleaned with flint knives, and then colored red with oxide of iron before interment. According to other authorities, the traces of scraping and cleaning are doubtful; there can be no question, however, that the separation of the bones of the skeleton and the use of coloring matter constitute strong evidence that this Azilian burial was the work of members of the Crô-Magnon race.

In addition to what we have said as to the survival of the Crô-Magnon race in the preceding chapter, the opinion of Cartailhac(1) may be cited: "The race of Crô-Magnon is well determined. There is no doubt about their high stature, and Topinard is not the only one who believes that they were blonds. We have traced them through the 'Reindeer Period' into the Neolithic Epoch, where they were widely distributed and positively related either to the ancient or actual populations of modern France, being especially characteristic of our region [France] and of the western Mediterranean. While the race of Crô-Magnon predominated in the south and in the west, that of Furfooz predominated in the northeast of France and in Belgium. These brachycephals were probably brown-haired or of dark coloring."

But before observing further the characters of these four or five races, let us examine their industries.

DISCOVERY OF THE AZILIAN TYPE STATION

As remarked above, it is believed that these industries prevailed between 7,000 and 10,000 years before our era, that is, between the close of Magdalenian times and the beginning of the Neolithic or New Stone Age. This transition period corresponds with the interval in which the Azilian-Tardenoisian culture swept all over western Europe and completely replaced the Magdalenian. From Castillo in the Cantabrian Mountains of northern Spain to Ofnet on the upper Danube there is a complete replacement by this new culture. The Magdalenian culture does not linger anywhere; it is totally eliminated; the suddenness of the change both in the animal life and in the industry is nowhere more clearly indicated than at the type station of Mas d'Azil in southern France, which may now be described.

In 1887 Edouard Piette commenced his exploration of the deposits in the great cavern of Mas d'Azil. This station takes its name from the little hamlet of Mas d'Azil in the foot-hills of the Pyrenees about forty miles southwest from Toulouse. Here the River Arize winds for a quarter of a mile through a lofty natural tunnel traversed by the highway from St. Girons to Carcassonne. A rich layer of Magdalenian deposits first attracted Piette's attention, and he found here some of the finest examples of late Magdalenian art, but above these deposits he discovered a hitherto unrecognized industrial stage, to which he gave the name Azilian. The Azilian layers yielded over one thousand specimens of flattened and double-barbed harpoons made of the horns of the stag, thus widely differing from the late Magdalenian harpoons which are rounded and made of the horns of the reindeer. The entire succession of deposits, as explored by Piette, is an epitome of the prehistory of Europe from early Magdalenian times to the Age of Bronze, and should be compared with the successive deposits of Castillo (p. 164), Sirgenstein (p. 202), Ofnet (p. 476), and Schweizersbild (p. 447).

The Mas d'Azil section is as follows:

PREHISTORIC AND NEOLITHIC

IX. Iron implements, pottery of the Gauls. At the top Gallo-Roman remains, glass and glazed pottery.

VIII. Middle Neolithic and Age of Bronze; layer of pottery, polished stone implements, traces of copper and of bronze.

VII. Dawn of the Neolithic. Fauna includes the horse, urus, stag, and wild boar. Chipped and polished flints, awls and polishers in bone; harpoons rare. Beginnings of pottery.

UPPER PALÆOLITHIC

VI. AZILIAN, red archæological layer, masses of peroxide of iron. Extremely moist climate. Broad flat harpoons of stag horn perforated at the base, numerous flattened and painted pebbles (_galets_), flints of degenerate Magdalenian form, especially small rounded planers and knife flakes, awls and polishers in bone. No trace of reindeer in the fire-hearths; stag abundant, also roe-deer and brown bear; wild boar, wild cattle, beaver, a variety of birds. No trace of polished stone implements. Interred in this layer, beneath the deposits of streaked cinders and quite undisturbed, two human skeletons were found, which Piette believed had been macerated with flints and then colored red with peroxide of iron.

V. Sterile finely stratified loam layer, a flood deposit of the River Arize.

IV. LATE MAGDALENIAN culture layer; twelve double-rowed harpoons made of reindeer horn, a few fashioned from stag horn; numerous engravings and sculptures in bone. Remains of the reindeer rare in the hearths; those of the royal stag (_Cervus elaphus_) abundant.

III. A sterile flood deposit of the River Arize.

II. MIDDLE AND EARLY MAGDALENIAN culture layers, with barbed harpoons of reindeer horn; flint implements of early Magdalenian type, bone needles. Bones of the reindeer abundant.

I. Gravel deposits. Interspersed fire-hearths.

The total thickness of these culture deposits is 8.03 m., or 26 feet 4 inches. The AZILIAN type layer (VI) containing flat harpoons of stag horn and painted pebbles, intercalated between the deposits of the Reindeer Age and the Neolithic layers, is, on account of its stratigraphic position, the most interesting and instructive of all the sites representing this phase of transition; and Piette was fully justified in giving to the corresponding culture period the name of _Azilian_.(2)

The transformation of art and industry, indicated in the Azilian culture layer, is as decided as that in the animal life. We observe in this layer no trace of the animal engravings or sculptures which occur so abundantly in the late Magdalenian layer below; the use of pigments is confined to the paintings of schematic or geometric figures on the flattened pebbles. There is no suggestion of art in any of the bone implements, and the harpoons of stag horn are rudely fashioned; this type of harpoon appears to be the chief survivor of the rich variety of implements noted in the Magdalenian layer below. The stag horn harpoon, moreover, is fashioned with far less skill than the beautiful Magdalenian harpoons; like them it has two rows of barbs, but they are not cut with the same delicacy and exactness. As to the form of the new model, it is explained by the nature of the new material; the interior of the stag horn being composed of a spongy tissue, could not be utilized as could the harder and more compact interior of the reindeer horn; the craftsman, therefore, was obliged to fashion his harpoon out of the exterior of one side of the stag horn, and in consequence to make it flat.

There are no bone needles, no javelins or _sagaies_; nor are there any of the beautifully carved weapons of bone. There is also a reduction in the uses to which the split bones are put, such as the large _lissoirs_ or polishers. The bone implements appear to be derived from an impoverished late Aurignacian stage; the same is true of the flint implements, for we observe a return of the keeled scraper (_grattoir caréné_). There is also a return of certain types of graving tools and of the knife-like form of the flake; even some of the small geometric types of flints resemble those of the Aurignacian levels.

The many shells of the moisture-loving snail _Helix nemoralis_, found in the fire-hearths of Mas d'Azil are proofs of the humidity of the climate, a fact confirmed by the contemporary flood deposits of the Arize. The frequent and heavy rains drove the last few representatives of the steppe fauna away to the north. These climatic conditions favored the formation of peat-bogs, so frequent to-day in the north of France, and also the growth of vast forests, inhabited by the stag, which extended over the whole country.

The pebbles of Mas d'Azil are painted on one side with peroxide of iron, a deposit of which is found in the neighborhood of the cave. The color, mixed in shells of _Pecten_, or in hollowed pebbles or on flat stones, was applied either with the finger or with a brush. The many enigmatic designs consist chiefly of parallel bands, rows of discs or points, bands with scalloped edges, cruciform designs, ladder-like patterns (scalariform) such as are found in the 'Azilian' engravings and paintings of the caverns, and undulating lines. These graphic combinations resemble certain syllabic and alphabetic characters of the Ægean, Cypriote, Phœnician, and Greco-Latin inscriptions. However curious these resemblances may be, they are not sufficient to warrant any theory connecting the signs on the painted pebbles of the Azilians with the alphabetic characters of the oldest known systems of writing.(3) Piette attempted to explain some of the exceedingly crude designs on these pebbles as a system of notation, others as pictographs and religious symbols, and some few as genuine alphabetical signs, and suggested that the cavern of Mas d'Azil was an Upper Palæolithic school where reading, reckoning, writing, and the symbols of the sun were learned and taught. The very wide distribution of these symbolic pebbles and the painting of similar designs on the walls of the caverns certainly prove that they had some religious or economic significance, which may be revealed by subsequent research.

THE TARDENOISIAN TYPE STATION

Turning from the region of the Pyrenees in Azilian times, we observe the region lying between the Seine and the Meuse in northern France as the scene of a contemporary industry. At the station of Fère-en-Tardenois, in the Department of the Aisne, is found an especially large number of the pygmy flints;(4) these present various geometric forms, including the primitive triangular, as well as the rhomboidal, trapezoidal, and semicircular; together, they were designated by de Mortillet as _Tardenoisian_ flints, and in 1896, in monographing this microlithic flint industry, he traced them throughout France, Belgium, England, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Germany, and Russia, also along the southern Mediterranean through Algiers, Tunis, Egypt, and eastward into Syria and even India.

These geometric flints were at first attributed to a primitive invasion which was supposed to have occurred at the beginning of Neolithic times; thus the Tardenoisian industry was considered as contemporaneous with that of the Campignian, which is early Neolithic. It was further observed that the topographical location of the stations closely followed the borders of ocean inlets, or of river courses, and when the food materials found in the hearths were compared, it appeared that these flints were used principally by fishermen or tribes subsisting upon fish. From an examination of the flints, it would appear that a very large number of them were adapted for insertion in small harpoons, or that those of grooved form might even have been used as fish-hooks. Thus the picture was drawn of a population of fishermen. The Tardenoisian, therefore, was for a long time regarded as contemporaneous with the early Neolithic rather than with the close of Palæolithic times, but as exploration proceeded it was found that neither the remains of domestic animals nor any traces of pottery occur in any of these Tardenoisian deposits, which consequently have nothing in common with the true Neolithic culture.

The problem was finally solved in 1909, when the grotto of Valle near Gibaja, Santander, in northern Spain, was discovered by Breuil and Obermaier.(5) Here was a classic Azilian deposit containing all the well-known Azilian types of bone implements, such as fine harpoons, carvings in deer horn, bone javelins, polishers of deer bone, flint flakes resembling those of the late Magdalenian, also microlithic flints of typical geometric Tardenoisian form. This discovery established the fact that the lower levels of the Tardenoisian industry were not really to be distinguished from the Azilian, for here beneath layers with painted pebbles and harpoons of Azilian style were harpoons with single and double rows of barbs of Magdalenian pattern, but cut in stag horn instead of reindeer horn.

The mammalian life in this true Azilian-Tardenoisian layer includes the chamois, roe-deer, wild boar, and urus, or wild cattle. In a layer just below, which represents the close of the Magdalenian industrial period, there are found, although rarely, remains of the reindeer, an animal hitherto unknown in this part of Spain, also the wild boar, the bison, the ibex, and the lynx. After this discovery it could no longer be questioned that the Azilian and Tardenoisian were contemporary.

As to the relation of these two industries, Breuil remarks(6) that the prolongation of the Tardenoisian types of flints is observed in Italy and in Belgium, but neither the term 'Tardenoisian' nor the term 'Azilian' is sufficiently comprehensive to embrace the totality of these little industries, which will finally be distinguished clearly from each other. Of the two the Azilian represents the prolongation of an ancient period of industry, the progress of which was apparently from south to north, as we can trace the distribution of the characteristic flat harpoons of deer horn from the Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees, through southern and central France, to Belgium, England, and the western coast of Scotland. The later industrial phase, the Tardenoisian, with its geometric trapeziform flints, originally appears along the southern Mediterranean in Tunis and to the eastward in the Crimea, while in France it represents a final phase of the Palæolithic, closely approaching the period of the earliest Neolithic or pre-Campignian hearths common along the Danube and observed in the vicinity of Liége. Thus the most comprehensive term by which to designate the _ensemble_ of these implements, in Europe at least, would be Azilian-Tardenoisian.

ENVIRONMENT AND MAMMALIAN LIFE

It appears that the chief geographic change during this period was a subsidence of the northern coasts of Europe and an advance of the sea causing the circulation of warm oceanic currents and a more humid climate favorable to reforestation.

To the north, in Belgium, the tundra fauna lingered during the extension of the early Tardenoisian industry, for here we still find remains of the reindeer, the arctic fox, and the arctic hare mingled in the fire-hearths with flints of Tardenoisian type. This, observes Obermaier, constitutes proof that the Tardenoisian, with the Azilian, must be placed at the very close of Postglacial time and with the final stage of Upper Palæolithic industry.

To the south, in the region of Dordogne and the Pyrenees, the tundra fauna had entirely disappeared, as well as that of the steppes and of the alpine heights; the prevailing animal in the forests is the royal stag, adapted to forests of temperate type and associated with the Eurasiatic forest and meadow fauna which now dominated western Europe.

The only survivor of the great African-Asiatic fauna is the lion, which appears in the late Palæolithic stations in the region of the Pyrenees; the arctic wolverene also gives the fauna a Postglacial aspect, for, like the lion, it is never found in central or western Europe after the close of Upper Palæolithic times. Other enemies of the herbivorous fauna were the wolf and the brown bear.

Besides the red deer, or stag, the forests at this time were filled with roe-deer. To the south in the Pyrenees the moose still survived, and to the north there were still found herds of reindeer which survived in central Europe as late as the twelfth century. Wild boars were numerous, and in the streams were found the beaver and the otter. In the forest borders and in the meadows hares and rabbits were abundant. Through the forests and meadows of southern France and along the borders of the Danube ranged the wild cattle (_Bos primigenius_). It would appear from our limited knowledge of the life of Azilian-Tardenoisian times that bison were found chiefly in the northern parts of Europe. There is little direct evidence in regard to the wild horse, the remains of which do not occur in the hearths of Azilian times.

Our knowledge of the life of the Spanish peninsula at a period closely succeeding this is indirectly derived from the animal frescos in certain caverns of northern Spain, which were formerly attributed to the Upper Palæolithic but are now referred rather to the early Neolithic. Here are found representations of the ibex, the stag, the fallow deer, the wild cattle, and also of the wild horses. This would indicate that wild horses were still roaming all over western Europe at the close of Upper Palæolithic times. The presence of the moose in late Palæolithic times at Alpera, on the high plateaus of Spain, has been determined; this animal has also been found in the Pyrenees during the Azilian stage.(7)

The great contrast between the mammalian life of Magdalenian and that of Azilian-Tardenoisian times is witnessed in the stations along the upper Danube, as described by Koken.(8) In Höhlefels, Schmiechenfels, and Propstfels, associated with implements of the _late_ Magdalenian industry, are found ten types of animals belonging to the forests and four characteristic of the forests and meadows, or fourteen species altogether. With these are mingled two alpine forms, the ibex and the alpine shrew; also two types of mammals belonging to the steppes, and no less than six mammals and birds from the tundras, namely, the reindeer, the arctic fox, the ermine, the arctic hare, the banded lemming, and the arctic ptarmigan.

In wide contrast to this assemblage of late Magdalenian life on the upper Danube, there appear in Azilian times along the shores of the middle Danube in the stations of Ofnet and of Istein the following characteristic forest forms: _Sus scrofa ferus_ (wild boar), _Cervus elaphus_ (stag), _Capreolus capreolus_ (roe-deer), _Bos_ (?) _primigenius_ (urus), _Lepus_ (rabbit or hare), _Ursus arctos_ (brown bear), _Felis leo_ (lion), _Gulo luscus_ (common wolverene), _Lynchus lynx_ (lynx), _Vulpes_ (fox), _Mustela martes_ (marten), _Castor fiber_ (European beaver), _Mus_ (field-mouse), _Turdus_ (thrush). It thus appears that the alpine, the steppe, and the tundra faunæ had entirely disappeared from this region.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN INDUSTRY

This industry represents the last stage of the Old Stone Age. The decline in the art of fashioning flints, begun in Magdalenian times, appears to continue in the Azilian-Tardenoisian. As to the tiny symmetrical flints which are characteristic of this period, among the microliths of almost all the late Magdalenian stations pre-Tardenoisian forms are found which may be regarded as prototypes of the geometric Tardenoisian flints;(9) this represents a new fashion established in flint-making under influences coming from the south.

There was also a natural or local Azilian evolution from the Magdalenian types and technique. In general the flint implements which had so long prevailed in western Europe become smaller in diameter and more carelessly retouched, showing marked deterioration even from the late Magdalenian stages. For the preparation of hides and the fashioning of bone we discover unsymmetrical planing tools (_grattoirs_), also small, well-formed oval scrapers (_racloirs_), and microlithic scrapers. Borers (_perçoirs_) with oblique ends and gravers (_burins_) made of small flakes are the types of implements which most frequently occur, but the great variety of borers, so characteristic of the Aurignacian and the Magdalenian industries, had entirely disappeared in Azilian times.

The marks of industrial degeneration are also conspicuous in the bone implements, which show a very great deterioration in number and quality as compared with the Magdalenian, and which are principally confined to three types--the harpoons, the awls (_poinçons_), and the smoothers (_lissoirs_), together with very small bone borers (_perçoirs_). The distinctive feature of the Azilian bone industry is the flat harpoon of stag horn; it is known that the use of stags' antlers for fashioning harpoons began in the late Magdalenian, when most of them were still being fashioned from reindeer horn. These flat Azilian harpoons succeed the type of the double-rowed, cylindrical harpoons of the late Magdalenian, and are found mainly where the rivers, lakes, or pools offered favorable conditions for fishing. Thus the Azilian bone-harpoon industry, like the Tardenoisian microlithic flint industry, was largely pursued by fisherfolk.

We may imagine that the gradual disappearance of the reindeer, an animal much more easily pursued and killed than the stag, was one of the causes of the substitution of the various arts of fishing for those of hunting.

It is to the excessively small or microlithic flints that the name Tardenoisian especially applies, and it is the vast multiplication of these microliths and their wide distribution over the whole area of the Mediterranean and of western Europe which constitutes the most distinctive feature of this industrial stage.(10) The triangular flint (Fig. 249) is certainly the most ancient Tardenoisian type. It occurs in the Azilian stations of the Cantabrian Mountains and of the Pyrenees, accompanied by the painted pebbles and with other flints of Azilian type, but without the graving-tools; to the east it is found in the stations of Savoy; and along the Danube it occurs at Ofnet, associated with remains of the lion and the moose, also with ornamental necklaces composed of the perforated teeth of the deer, identical with those found in the type station of Mas d'Azil in the Pyrenees. To the north this typical early Azilian culture extends to Istein, in Baden, where it includes the microlithic flint flakes, the gravers, and the little round scrapers associated here also with the stag and the prehistoric forest and meadow fauna of western Europe. Exactly the same stage of industrial development occurs in the grotto of Höhlefels, near Nuremberg, and in the shelter station of Sous Sac, Ain. We invariably find proofs of the variety of these pygmy flints as well as of their continuity from one station to another. All these facts compel us to assign a very long period of time to the spread of these industrial types.

The question which arises as to the sources of this special Tardenoisian industry again finds archæologists divided. Schmidt inclines to the autochthonous theory and regards the microlithic flint industry as an outgrowth of tendencies already well developed in the Magdalenian. Breuil, on the other hand,(11) dwells strongly on the evidence for circum-Mediterranean sources. In putting the questions, Who were the Azilians? Whence did they come? What were their ancestors? he is disposed to give the answer already quoted, that, whichever industry is examined, we are always obliged to look toward the south, toward some point along the Mediterranean, for the origin of these microlithic flints. In Italy, which he believes to have remained in an Aurignacian industrial stage throughout all the long period of Magdalenian time, he finds at Mentone a layer overlying the Aurignacian and containing small flints recalling the geometric forms of the Azilian, as well as a multitude of the small round scrapers (_racloirs_) characteristic of Azilian times. The upper layers at Mentone on the Riviera are paralleled by those observed near Otranto, in Sicily. It is certain, he continues, that all around the Mediterranean there was a number of distinct centres where microlithic implements of geometric form appeared, and where the accompanying industries, in different stages of development, were related to an Upper Palæolithic culture consisting of a continuous Aurignacian type.

The labors of de Morgan, Capitan, and others have thrown great light on the Palæolithic of Tunis, where a flint culture was developed only slightly different from that of the Azilian of Valle, Santander, of the Mas d'Azil, Ariège, and of Bobache, Drôme. A resemblance is also found in Portugal; and southern Spain, despite its poverty of typical implements, shows a similar evolution. Near Salamanca, northwest of Madrid, Spain, the grottos contain schematic figures and colored pebbles resembling the Azilian. In Portugal the hearths of Mugem and Cabeço da Arruda are distinguished by their triangular microliths and are undoubtedly Pre-Neolithic, because there is neither pottery nor any trace of domesticated animals, excepting, possibly, the dog.

To the north of Europe the discoveries in Belgium have especial importance, for typical Azilian implements, including small round scrapers, lateral gravers, elongated triangular microliths, and knife flakes are found associated with the remains of the reindeer in the grotto of Remouchamp and at Zonhoven. It appears in Belgium, as in Italy, that the use of the Tardenoisian microlithic flint types is prolonged into a later time than that of the typical Azilian flint implements--the scrapers, gravers, borers, and knife flakes--which, as we have seen, appear at the end of the true Magdalenian.

On the other side of the English Channel we again find these flints always unmingled with pottery and usually distributed along the sea or river shores. The best-known stations are those of Hastings, directly across the Channel opposite Boulogne, and of Seven Oaks, near London; in Settle, Yorkshire, is the Victoria Cave station. To the north, in Scotland, four Azilian stations have been discovered around Oban, on the western coast near the head of the Firth of Lorne, while Azilian harpoons have also been found on the Isle of Oronsay, at its entrance.

Thus the spread of the very small Tardenoisian flint implements in the final stages of the Palæolithic precedes the southern advent of the Neolithic.

In Germany only six Azilian-Tardenoisian stations have thus far been discovered: two to the east of Düsseldorf, one in the neighborhood of Weimar, two on the headwaters of the Rhine, near Basle, and, by far the most important, the large and small grottos of Ofnet, on a small tributary of the Danube northwest of Munich. This last is exceptionally important because it is the only station where skeletons have been found buried with Azilian-Tardenoisian flints, thereby enabling us positively to determine the contemporary human races.

BURIALS IN AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN TIMES

The strange interment which gives Ofnet its distinction belongs to the period of Azilian-Tardenoisian industry.(12) This conclusion is not weakened by the absence of Azilian harpoons or painted pebbles, because at this time the cave of Ofnet served its frequenters only as a place of burial; there are no hearths or flint workshops to indicate continued residence, as during earlier Upper Palæolithic times.

This great ceremonial burial seems to afford the only positive evidence to be found in all western Europe of the kind of people who were pursuing the Azilian industry. The larger Ofnet grotto opens toward the southwest and has a length of 39 feet and a width of 36 feet. It was first entered in early Aurignacian times and shows successive layers of Aurignacian, early Solutrean, and late Magdalenian cultures, above which lies a thick deposit of the Azilian-Tardenoisian, in which is found the most remarkable interment of all Palæolithic times.

This is a ceremonial burial of thirty-three skulls of people belonging to two distinct races: respectively, brachycephalic and dolichocephalic, and certainly not related in any way to the Crô-Magnon race. In one group twenty-seven skulls were found embedded in ochre and arranged in a sort of nest, with the faces all looking westward. As the skulls in the centre were more closely pressed together and crushed than those on the outside, it seems probable that these skulls were added one by one from time to time, those on the outside being the most recent additions. About a yard distant a similar nest was found, containing six more skulls embedded and arranged in exactly the same manner. The interment probably took place shortly after death and certainly before the separate bones had been disintegrated by decomposition, for not only the lower jaw but a number of the neck vertebra were found with each skull. The heads had been severed from the necks by a sharp flint, the marks of which are plainly visible on some of the vertebræ.

It is noteworthy that most of these skulls are those of women and young children, there being only four adult male skulls. On this account some advance the theory of cannibalism; others that, being taken captive by a tribe of enemies, these unfortunate people were offered in sacrifice, in which case decapitation was the means of death. But, then, how explain the abundant ornaments of stag teeth and snail shells (_Helix nemoralis_) with which the skulls of the women and little children were decorated, and the treasured implements of flint with which all save one of the men and a few of the women and children were provided?

There are precedents for all these singular features of the Ofnet interment in other Upper Palæolithic burials, namely, the embedding in ochre, the offerings of ornaments of teeth and of shells, the separate interment of the skull--all these were customs more or less characteristic of the Upper Palæolithic, but never observed in Neolithic times.

It will be recalled that the custom of burying the entire body, as well as that of embedding the body in ochre, is first observed among the late Neanderthals and obtained throughout the entire Upper Palæolithic from the Aurignacian burials of Grimaldi to the Azilian, of Mas d'Azil. No other case, however, is known of the westward turning of the face: in most of the Upper Palæolithic burials the face of the departed looks toward the opening of the grotto; but, although the grotto of Ofnet opens toward the southwest, the skulls, without exception, were facing exactly to the west and looking toward the wall rather than toward the entrance of the cavern.

THE NEW BROAD-HEADED AND NARROW-HEADED RACES OF OFNET

The burials at Ofnet are the first observed in western Europe which present a mingling of races. This in itself is a fact of great interest; it is a prelude to what characterizes all the populations of western Europe at the present time, namely, the presence of races widely separated in origin and in anatomical structure, but closely united by similar customs, industries, and beliefs.

A second fact of even greater importance is the proof of the arrival in western Europe toward the close of Palæolithic times of two entirely new human stocks; one broad-headed, resembling the modern Alpine or Celtic type; the other narrow-headed, resembling the modern 'Mediterranean' type of Sergi. Beside these pure types there are several blended forms which are intermediate or mesaticephalic.

Of the eight brachycephalic heads, six are those of children; the two adult brachycephalic crania belong to young women and are, therefore, not quite so characteristic as male skulls would be, for in general racial type is more strongly marked in men than in women; the remaining skulls are either of a blended form or purely dolichocephalic.

The relationship of the broad-headed race to other prehistoric and existing broad-headed races of western Europe is also a matter of very great interest. The Ofnet brachycephals are regarded by Schliz(13) as closely similar to the type skull of the so-called Grenelle race, which, in turn, is closely similar to the Furfooz type. Thus the cephalic index of one (Fig. 255) of these broad, flattened skulls of Ofnet is 83.33 per cent; the face is relatively narrow, the zygomatic index being low--76.34 per cent; the brain capacity of the female skulls does not exceed 1,320 c.cm. The skull is further described as small, smooth, and delicately modelled, with a correspondingly feeble dentition, the teeth being small; the processes of muscular attachment are slightly developed, all of which characters indicate that the skull belonged to a woman about twenty-five years of age. The forehead is low, broad, and prominent. It is altogether typically parallel to the 'skull of Grenelle,' as well as to the female 'skull of Auvernier' described by Kollmann. The peculiarity of this broad-headed race, like that of Grenelle and of Furfooz, is that, while the forehead is of only moderate breadth, the posterior part of the skull is extremely broad. The broad-headed people of Ofnet are thus definitely considered by Schliz(14) as members of the Furfooz-Grenelle race.

The narrow-headed race of the Ofnet burials is distinct in every respect and presents resemblances to the branch of the 'Mediterranean' race found in the foreground of the Alpine regions to-day, in which the head is of a pear-shaped type. The best preserved of these dolichocephalic skulls (Fig. 255) presents an index of 70.50 per cent, with a brain capacity in the male of 1,500 c.cm., while the smallest brain capacity is that found in one of the female skulls with 1,100 c.cm. Among the five adult purely dolichocephalic skulls the face is not in the least of the broad or disharmonic Crô-Magnon type, but is in proportion with the cranium, and is thus truly _harmonic_. The resemblance of this narrow-headed Ofnet skull to that of the Brünn race, which we have described as occurring in Moravia in Solutrean times, is only partial, and Schliz concludes that among the narrow-headed people of Ofnet we have a form of dolichocephaly which is not identical with any of the known early dolichocephalic forms of western Europe, but which pursues an independent line of development similar to the narrow-headed races in the borders of the Alpine region of the present day. Thus this head type, of a uniform elliptic contour, seems to have become a stable racial element of the Alpine population, since we meet it again in later prehistoric times in the region of the southern and western foreground of the Alps. Among the children's skulls, two are of the narrow-headed, pear-shaped type similar to the Alpine dolichocephals of to-day, that is, with a narrow forehead and very broad posterior portions of the skull.

CENTRAL ORIGIN OF THE BROAD-HEADED (ALPINE?) RACES

The affinity of the broad-headed Azilian-Tardenoisian tribes of the Danube to those found in the Upper Palæolithic of northwestern Europe seems to be clearly established. The latter are sometimes known as the Grenelle race and sometimes as the Furfooz race. Boule(15) observes in regard to the skeletal remains of Grenelle which were found in the alluvium near Paris, in 1870, that it is quite impossible now, forty years after their discovery, to demonstrate their geologic antiquity. This is not the case with the Furfooz broad-heads, the age of which we regard as well established, but since the head type appears to be the same in both cases, we may speak of this race as the Furfooz-Grenelle.

In a cave near Furfooz, in the valley of the Lesse, Belgium, sixteen skeletons were discovered by Dupont in 1867. With the bones were found implements of reindeer horn and remains of the late Pleistocene fauna of northern Europe.(16) The reindeer and the tundra fauna of Belgium were contemporaneous with the early Tardenoisian culture and with the stag and forest fauna of southern France, so that the skeletons of Furfooz may safely be referred to Azilian-Tardenoisian times.

Only two of the Furfooz skulls were preserved in good shape; they are of brachycephalic or sub-brachycephalic form, and, following the suggestion of de Quatrefages and Hamy, these skulls have been spoken of as belonging to the 'brachycephalic Furfooz race.' The men of this race may certainly be regarded as belonging to Upper Palæolithic times, whereas the brachycephalic race found at Grenelle, near Paris, is probably Neolithic. This by no means prevents the Furfooz and the Grenelle types belonging to the same general brachycephalic race; it is altogether probable that they do, and that with them may be included the Ofnet broad-heads.

There are several opinions regarding the geographic centres from which these broad-heads entered Europe; it is generally believed that they came from the high plateaus of central Asia. By Giuffrida-Ruggeri the Furfooz race is identified with the existing broad-headed Alpine race (_Homo sapiens alpinus_), and is mistakenly adduced as proof that the Alpine race originated in Europe and is not in any way related to the Mongolian races of central Asia. A more conservative view(17) is that the recent European broad-headed types commonly included under the Alpine race cannot yet be traced back to the Furfooz-Grenelle ancestors, because their connection is too problematical. Schliz, on the other hand, considers that the Furfooz-Grenelle race survived in northwestern Europe and corresponds with that which became the builders of the megalithic dolmens of Neolithic times, the latter being but slightly modified descendants of the original Furfooz race; he believes, moreover, that these broad-headed peoples first occupied central Europe and then extended to western Europe, where they correspond to the Alpine race, at least in part; that they also migrated to the north and were the basis of the broad-headed races now found in Holland and Denmark.

SOUTHERN ORIGIN OF THE NARROW-HEADED (MEDITERRANEAN?) RACES

While it seems probable that the broad-heads represent a central migration from Eurasia, evidence of an industrial and cultural character indicates that the narrow-heads came from the south; this is seen both in the south Mediterranean origin of the Tardenoisian flint industry and in the new schematic influences on the decadent art of Upper Palæolithic times.

It seems, observes Breuil, as if the schematic influences in art during Upper Palæolithic times always extend from the south toward the north; they predominate entirely in the painted rocks of Andalusia, in the Pyrenees, and in Dordogne. In the grotto of Marsoulas, Haute-Garonne, the Azilian _motifs_ are clearly superposed upon the Magdalenian polychromes. This purely schematic phase, which abruptly follows the figure art of middle Magdalenian times, first made itself felt in the late Magdalenian. There was a sudden loss of realism which does not indicate affiliation but rather the infiltration of strange elements from the south; the precursors of the destructive invasion of the Azilian-Tardenoisian tribes who were driven from their Mediterranean homes by the westward advance of the conquering Neolithic races. We imagine(18) that in southern Spain there dwelt in Upper Palæolithic times a population differing from the Magdalenians of France and of the Cantabrian Mountains in their lower artistic tastes. It would therefore appear that the schematic art had its home toward the south of the peninsula of Spain about the time of the invasion of the Azilian culture in France.

NORTHERN ORIGIN OF THE BALTIC (TEUTONIC?) RACES

For the first time the retreat of the Scandinavian ice-fields and the less severe climate permitted a northern migration route along the shores of the Baltic. This is the first known migration of any tribes along this route, which throughout all glacial times had been blocked by the vicinity of the Scandinavian and Baltic ice-fields, but which was now opened by the approach of the more genial climate which succeeded the long Postglacial Stage. Whether this Baltic invasion was the advance wave of a northern long-headed Teutonic race is wholly a matter of conjecture.

"Other peoples," observes Breuil,(19) "known at present only from their industries, were advancing toward the close of the Upper Palæolithic along the northern and southern shores of the Baltic and persisted for an appreciable time before the arrival of the tribes introducing the early Neolithic Campignian culture which accumulated in the kitchen-middens along the same shores. Like the southern races of Azilian-Tardenoisian times, these northerly tribes were truly Pre-Neolithic, ignorant both of agriculture and of pottery; they brought with them no domesticated animals excepting the dog, which is known at Mugem, at Tourasse, and at Oban, in northwestern Scotland. In the use of bone harpoons of elegant form and in the taste displayed in fine decorations engraved upon bone, these tribes suggest the culture of the Magdalenians, but a close examination shows that it could not have been derived from the Magdalenian type. The community of style with the painted and engraved figures found in western Siberia and in the central Ural region and north of the Altai Mountains denotes rather an Asiatic and Siberian origin.

"The decorative designs of these Baltic peoples were very different from those of the Crô-Magnons in Magdalenian times, and are not schematic; the conception of the animal figures, although naturalistic, is as crude as that of the early Aurignacian figures, and is far inferior to that of the Magdalenian stage." "It is probable," continues Breuil, "that in these northerly regions the closing cultures of the Upper Palæolithic developed along more or less parallel lines with those observed in the south in giving rise to ethnographic elements which travelled along the littoral regions of the northern seas."

This race and culture is described by Obermaier(20) as follows:

When primitive man took possession of Denmark the sea-coast was so remote that he could also reach southern Scandinavia. The station of Maglemose in the 'Great Moor,' discovered and described by F. L. Sarauw, of Copenhagen, in 1900, is near the harbor of Mullerup on the western coast of Zealand and not far from the shore of an ancient freshwater lake formation. These people were lake-dwellers, living perhaps on rafts but not on dwellings supported by piles. From these rafts it is supposed the implements dropped into the lake. The 881 flint implements found here include scrapers, borers, cleavers, and knives, as well as microlithic flints. They show no trace of the Neolithic art of polishing, merely suggesting certain chipped styles observed in the 'kjöddenmöddings.' (See Figs. 263, 264, and 265.) The influence of the Palæolithic is much stronger, especially in the case of the microlithic Tardenoisian types. In the industrial culture of Maglemose, however, far more important than stone are implements of horn and bone. These the Maglemose folk obtained from the wild ox, moose, stag, and roe-deer, fashioning them into tools of various types, some of which are shown in Fig. 261. Many of these tools are ornamented with conventional designs or very crude animal outlines on one or both surfaces.

The forests of this time consisted of the characteristic northern flora including numerous evergreens, the birch, aspen, hazel, and elm, but without any trace of the oak. There is absolutely no trace of pottery in the Maglemose deposits. Of great interest is the fact that skeletal remains of the domestic dog are found here.

The Maglemose culture of the Baltic region is regarded as contemporary with the Azilian and Tardenoisian in the south. It contains types, not of flint but of bone, which are prophetic of the Neolithic. Traces of this culture have been found throughout northern Germany, in Denmark, and in southern Sweden, as well as to the east and in the Baltic provinces. Although no human remains have as yet been discovered, it is highly probable that these people belonged to the northern Teutonic races.

CONCLUSION AS TO THE RELATIONSHIPS OF THE PALÆOLITHIC RACES

Thus in southern, central, and northern Europe the close of Upper Palæolithic times is marked by the invasion of new Eurasiatic races, all in a Pre-Neolithic stage of industry and art. It is not improbable that these races were advance waves from the same geographic regions as the Neolithic tribes which followed them.

From the earliest Palæolithic to Neolithic times it does not appear that western Europe was ever a centre of human evolution in the sense that it gave rise to a single new species of man. The main racial evolution and the earlier and later branches of the human family were established in the east and successively found their way westward; nor is there at present any ground for believing that any very prolonged evolution or transformation of human types occurred in western Europe.

We should regard as wholly unproved the notion that either of these Palæolithic races of western Europe gave rise to others which succeeded them in geologic time; the only sequence of this sort to which some degree of probability may be attached is that the Heidelberg race was ancestral to the Neanderthal race.

In most instances, such races as the Piltdown, the Crô-Magnon, the Brünn, the Furfooz-Grenelle, and the Mediterranean arrived fully formed, with all their mental and physical attributes and tendencies very distinctly developed. There is some evidence, but not of a very conclusive kind, that the modification of certain of these races in western Europe was partly in the nature of a decline; this was apparently the case both with the Neanderthals and with the Crô-Magnons.

We may therefore imagine that the family tree or lines of descent of the races of the Old Stone Age consisted of a number of entirely separate branches, which had been completely formed in the great Eurasiatic continent, a land mass infinitely larger and more capable of producing a variety of races than the diminutive peninsular area of western Europe.

A review of these races in descending order, in respect to stature, the cephalic index, and brain capacity, is presented in the following table:

+------------------------------------------------------------------- | |Frontal| Height|Cephalic| Brain | Height | | | Angle | of | Index |Capacity | | | | | Skull | | | | |---------------------|-------|-------|--------|---------|---------| |RECENT. | | | | c.cm. |ft. in. | | (_H. sapiens_). | | | | | | | European | | | | | | | (average). | 90 | 59 | ... |1400-1500| 5 7 | | | | | | | | |UPPER PALÆOLITHIC. | | | | | | | Ofnet Race | | | | | | | (brachycephalic) | ... | ... | 86.21 | 1400 | ... | | Ofnet Race | | | | | | | (dolichocephalic)| ... | ... | 70.50 | 1500 | ... | | Crô-Magnon Race | | | | | | | (old man of | | | | | | | Crô-Magnon type) | ... | ... | 73.76 | 1590 | 6 | | Grimaldi |} | {|?63- |1775-1880|5 10-1/2-| | (Crô-Magnons) |} ... | ... {|?76.27 | ... | 6 4-1/2| | Chancelade | ... | ... | 72.02 | 1700 | 4 11 | | Aurignac | ... | ... | 65.7 | ... | 5 3 | | Grimaldi Race. | | | | | | | Grimaldi type | | | | | | | (negroid) | ... | ... | 69.27 | 1580 | 5 1 | | Brünn Race. | | | | | | | Brünn I | 75 | 51.22 | 65.7 or| 1350 | ... | | | | | 68.2 | | | |LOWER PALÆOLITHIC. | | | | | | | Neanderthal Race | | | | | | | (_H. | | | | | | | Neanderthalensis_).| | | | | | | La Chapelle | 65 | 40.5 | 75 | 1626 | 5 3 | | Spy II | 67 | 44.3 | 75.7 |? 1723 | 5 3 | | Spy I | 57.5 | 40.9 | 70 |? 1562 | 5 4 | | La Ferrassie I | ... | ... | ... | ... | 5 5 | | La Ferrassie II | ... | ... | ... | ... | 4 10-1/2| | La Quina | ... | ... | ... | 1367 | ... | | | | | |(approx.)| | | Krapina D | 66 | 42.2 |?83.7 | ... | ... | | Neanderthal | 62 | 40.4 | 73.9 | 1408 | 5 4 | | Gibraltar | 66 or| 40 | 77.9 | 1250 or| ... | | | 73-74| | | 1296 | | | Pre-Neanderthaloids| | | | | | | Piltdown Race. | | | | | | | Piltdown | ... | ... |?78 or |? 1300 | ... | | | | |?79 |? 1500 | | | Trinil Race | | | | | | | (_Pithecanthropus_)| 52.5 | 34.2 | 73.4 or| 850-1000| 5 7 | | | | | 70 | 900 | | |ANTHROPOID APES. | | | | | | | Apes (maximum) | 56 | 37.7 | ... | 600 | ... | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +-------------------------------------------------------------------

------------+ |Comparative| | Length of | |Arm and Leg| |-----------| | | | | | | | 69.73% | | | | | | | | ... | | | | ... | | | | | | ... | |66.05%-69% | | | | ... | | ... | | | | | | 63.12% | | | | ... | | | | | | | | | | | | ... | | ... | | ... | |? 68% | | 68% | | ... | | | | ... | | ... | | ... | | | | | | | | ... | | | | | | ... | | | | | | 104% | |(chimpanzee| | minimum.)| ------------+

The chief authorities for these measurements are Schwalbe, Dubois, Keith, Smith, Woodward, Boule, Sollas, Sera, Klaatsch, Fraipont, Makowsky, Verneau, Testut, and Broca.

The migration routes of invasion of the successive Lower Palæolithic races--the Piltdown, the Heidelberg, and the Neanderthal--are entirely unknown; we can only infer from the wide distribution of the Chellean and Acheulean cultures to the south, along the northern African coast, as well as to the east, that these races may have had a southerly or circum-Mediterranean origin. This does not mean that either of these Lower Palæolithic races were of negroid or Ethiopian affinity, because the Neanderthals show absolutely no negroid characters. In fact, throughout all Palæolithic time the solitary instance of the two Grimaldi skeletons furnishes the sole anatomical evidence we possess of the entrance of a negroid people into Europe, which contrasts widely with the overwhelming evidence of the dominance in western Europe first of the non-negroid Neanderthals, and then of the Crô-Magnons who probably belonged to the Caucasian stock.

The evidence as to the sources and migrations of the Upper Palæolithic races is also indirect. The theory of the Crô-Magnons entering Europe by the southerly or Mediterranean route we have seen to rest upon purely cultural or industrial grounds, namely, the spread of the Aurignacian industry around the Mediterranean shores. On the other hand, the succeeding culture, the Solutrean, and the succeeding race to enter Europe, the Brünn, both appear to be of central or of direct easterly origin. It is only toward the close of the Upper Palæolithic that another southerly or Mediterranean invasion occurs, bringing in the microlithic Tardenoisian culture, which, although anatomical evidence is wanting, would appear to be an advance wave of the great invasion of the true 'Mediterranean' race. During the Upper Palæolithic Epoch another invasion apparently occurs from the east along the central migration route, namely, that of the broad-headed Furfooz-Grenelle races.

Thus in surveying the whole period of the Old Stone Age we find that there is some evidence for the theory of an alternation of southerly, of easterly, and finally of northeasterly invasions of races bringing in new industries and ideas.

TRANSITION TO THE NEOLITHIC. THE CAMPIGNIAN. THE ROBENHAUSIAN

Apart from the special and somewhat debated question of the place of the Campignian culture in the prehistory of Europe we may close our survey of the Upper Palæolithic by pointing out some of its contrasts with the Neolithic.

The arrival of the Neolithic cultures and industries in western Europe marks one of the most profound changes in all prehistory and introduces us to a new period which must be treated in an entirely different historic spirit. This new era began between 7,000 to 10,000 years ago, or with the close of the Daun stage, the last geologic feature of Postglacial times.

There are two theories regarding the close of Upper Palæolithic and the beginning of Neolithic times. The older theory, which still has some adherents, is that the Upper Palæolithic races and industries suddenly gave way before the arrival of new and superior races bringing in the Neolithic culture. The newer theory is that there are evidences of gradual transfusions from the Upper Palæolithic into the Neolithic cultures and that these are found in some of the oldest Neolithic sites.

In 1898 there appeared an article(21) by Philippe Salmon, d'Ault du Mesnil, and Capitan, entitled, "Le Campignien," defending the theory of an early and transitional Neolithic stage, the _Campignian_.(22) The type station of this early culture was pointed out by Salmon in 1886; it lies a little more than a mile northwest of the village of Blangy, on the River Bresle, on a site well placed for natural defense. The remains of the hut-dwellings of this camp and of various industrial objects appear to indicate that this station belongs to the earliest phase of the Neolithic Period. These Campignians owe little to the culture or industry of the races which previously occupied this region of western Europe; they are entire strangers, purely Neolithic in type.

While this is the age of polished, as distinguished from chipped, stone, the axe (_hache_) of polished stone is still very rare in the Campignian. There prevail flaked flint types common to all the previous stages of the Stone Age, such as the knives (_couteaux_), planers (_grattoirs_), and spear or dart heads (_pointes de sagaie_), but we notice the appearance of two entirely new flint implements: first, the triangular knife or stone hatchet (_tranchet_), of the type (Fig. 264) common in the Danish kitchen-middens; this knife has a broad, sharp cutting edge flaked on one side; second (Fig. 265), there is a sort of elongated axe or pick (_pic_) with chipped sides and an end more or less conical in shape.(23) These people also made use of large flakes of flint. If we regard the Campignian as a prolonged industrial stage in northern Europe, it certainly precedes the appearance of abundant axe heads of polished flint. In France it seems to appear occasionally as a local phase of the Neolithic.

The prevailing opinion at present is that the Campignian distinctly precedes the typical Neolithic of the Swiss lake-dwellings, a stage known as the _Robenhausian_. Thus the Neolithic culture becomes fully established in the period of the Swiss Lake Dwellings, remains of which are found at Moosseedorf, Wauwyl, Concise on Lake Neufchâtel, and Robenhausen on Lake Pfaeffikon. The latter is the _Robenhausian_ type station.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE NEOLITHIC EPOCH

The first of these is the presence of implements of polished stone which find their way gradually into western Europe. The neoliths at first are greatly outnumbered by chipped and flaked implements, and some of the latter show a survival of the familiar types of the Old Stone Age, while others belong to entirely distinct types which had an independent development in the far East.

The chief economic change is seen in the rudimentary knowledge of agriculture and in the use of a variety of plants and seeds, accompanied by the gradual appearance of implements for the preparation of the soil and for harvesting the crops. This new source of food supply leads to the establishment of permanent stations and camps and more or less to the abandonment of nomadic modes of life. Near the ancient camp sites and villages, therefore, are found implements for the preparation of skins and hides, because the chase was still maintained for purposes of clothing as well as for food.

Still more distinctive of the Neolithic is the introduction of pottery, which is at first used in the preparation of food. In the hearths or kitchen-middens and in the refuse heaps of the camps we no longer find evidence of the splitting of the jaws of mammals and of the long and short bones of the limbs, or even of the larger foot bones, in search of marrow, which is such a universal feature of the Upper Palæolithic deposits.

The artistic impulse of the north is very crude and naturalistic. In the Spanish peninsula, accompanying and following the schematic period described in the early part of this chapter, there was a long stage of development in which men were painting on rocks, mostly in the form of silhouettes, naturalistic figures of animals and of people.(24)

The presence of the moose in these drawings concurs with that of the two bison represented in the cavern of Cogul and would tend to indicate that these paintings belong to Upper Palæolithic times, although it is now considered that they are of early Neolithic age. The character of these animal designs is totally different from that of the Magdalenian period in the north and is analogous rather to that of the Bushmen of South Africa. The authors of these frescos represent not only the ibex, stag, and wild cattle but also the horse, moose, fallow deer, wolf, and occasionally the birds. There are many features in this art which show its absolute independence of origin from that of the Magdalenian of the north, among them the frequent presence of composition and the almost invariable presence of human figures.

The frescos in the Spanish caverns of Alpera and of Cogul recall those of southern France but are almost always grouped in series of the chase, of encampment, and perhaps of war. This frequency of human figures, the representations of the bow and arrow, and the presence of a small animal which may be recognized as the domesticated dog are indications of an entirely distinct race coming from the south and bringing in a new spirit in art which has no relation whatever to that of the Magdalenian.

NEOLITHIC MAMMALIAN LIFE

Even in the oldest Neolithic deposits no trace of the horse as an object of food appears. The domestication of this animal was introduced from the east, and thus it ceased to be an object of the chase. The newly arriving tribes were undoubtedly attracted by the abundance of horses, both of the forest and Celtic types, which had survived from Upper Palæolithic times. A very distinctive feature of the modern horses, however, should be mentioned, that is, the presence of a forelock covering the face, no trace of which is indicated in any of the Upper Palæolithic carvings or engravings.

The wild animal life of western Europe at this time is a direct survival of the great Eurasiatic forest and meadow fauna which we have traced from the earliest Palæolithic times. It includes the bison, the long-horned urus, the stag, the roe-deer, the moose, the wild boar, the forest horse, the Celtic horse, the beaver, the hare, and the squirrel. The fallow deer (_Cervus dama_) also appears more abundantly. Among the carnivora are the brown bear, the badger, the marten, the otter, the wolf, the fox, the wildcat, and the wolverene. The lion has disappeared entirely from western Europe. The reindeer survives only in the north.

As observed above, two of these wild animals were early chosen by the invaders for domestication, namely, the plateau or Celtic horse and the forest horse. The former type is found in the Neolithic deposits of Essex, England. The wild urus (_Bos primigenius_) was hunted but was not domesticated.

Two new varieties of domestic cattle appear, neither of which has been previously observed in western Europe. The first of these is the 'Celtic shorthorn' (_Bos longifrons_), the probable ancestor of the small breeds of British short-horned and hornless cattle. The second is the 'longhorn' (_Bos taurus_), which shows some points of resemblance to the 'urus' (_Bos primigenius_) but is not directly related to it. Direct wild ancestors of this latter animal are said to occur in the Pleistocene of Italy. A new type of pig also appears, the so-called turf pig (_Sus scrofa palustris_).

The Neolithic invaders, or men of the New Stone Age, thus brought with them, or domesticated from among the animals which they found in the forests of western Europe, a great variety of the same types of animals as those domesticated to-day, namely, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and dogs.

THE PREHISTORIC AND HISTORIC RACES OF EUROPE

Before the close of Neolithic times all the direct ancestors of the modern races of Europe had not only established themselves, but had begun to separate into those larger and smaller colonies which now mark out the great anthropological divisions of western Europe. It is therefore interesting to glance at the cranial distinctions of the men who successively entered western Europe in Upper Palæolithic and Neolithic times. The upper part of the table corresponds with that of Ripley.(25)

MODERN, NEOLITHIC, AND UPPER PALÆOLITHIC EUROPEAN RACES OF THE EXISTING SPECIES OF MAN (_HOMO SAPIENS_)

+-------------------------------------------------------------- | | | | | | | | | | Type | Head | Face | Hair | Eyes |Stature | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |----|-------------|-------|-------|---------|-------|--------| | VI.|TEUTONIC |Long, |High, |Very |Blue. |Tall. | | |(? Baltic). |narrow.|narrow.|light. | | | |----|-------------|-------|-------|---------|-------|--------| | V.|MEDITERRANEAN|Long, |High, |Dark |Dark. |Medium, | | |(? Ofnet). |narrow.|narrow.|brown or | |slender.| | | | | |black. | | | |----|-------------|-------|-------|---------|-------|--------| | IV.|ALPINE, |Round. |Broad. |Light |Hazel- |Medium, | | |CELTIC | | |chestnut.|gray. |stocky. | | |(? Ofnet). | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |----|-------------|-------|-------|---------|-------|--------| |III.|FURFOOZ- |Broad. |Medium.| | | | | |GRENELLE | | | ? | ? | ? | | |(? Ofnet) | | | | | | |----|-------------|-------|-------|---------|-------|--------| | II.|BRÜNN- |Long. |Low, | | | | | |PŘEDMOST | |medium.| ? | ? | ? | | |(Moravia). | | | | | | |----|-------------|-------|-------|---------|-------|--------| | I.|CRÔ-MAGNON. |Long. |Low and| ? | ? |Tall to | | | | |broad. | | |medium. | +-------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------+ | |Cephalic| | Nose | Index | | |Average | | |per cent| |---------|--------| |Narrow, | 75 | |aquiline.| | |---------|--------| |Rather | | |broad. | 75 | | | | |---------|--------| |Variable;| 87 | |rather | | |broad; | | |heavy | | | | | |---------|--------| | | | | ? | 79-85 | | | | |---------|--------| | | 68.2 or| | ? | 65.7 | | | | |---------|--------| |Narrow, | ? 63- | |aquiline.| ? 76.27| -------------------+

It would appear that five out of these six great racial types had entered Europe before the close of Upper Palæolithic times, namely, I to V in the above table.

How about the sixth type; the narrow-headed, light-haired people of the north, the modern Teutonic type? This question cannot be answered at present. We have, however, high authority for the invasion of a new northern race, which may have been of the Teutonic type, as occurring before the close of Palæolithic times. These were the people described above, migrating along the shores of the Baltic with a new northern Maglemose culture and crude naturalistic art.

CONCLUSIONS AS TO THE OLD STONE AGE

The above outline of the beginnings of the Neolithic Age shows that the Palæolithic represents a complete cycle of human development; we have traced its rise, its perfection, its decline. During this dawning period of the long prehistory of Europe the dominant features are the very great antiquity of the spirit of man and the fundamental similarity between the great steps of prehistory and of history.

The rise of the spirit of man through the Old Stone Age cannot be traced continuously in a single race because the races were changing; as at the present time, one race replaced another, or two races dwelt side by side. The sudden appearance in Europe at least 25,000 years ago of a human race with a high order of brain power and ability was not a leap forward but the effect of a long process of evolution elsewhere. When the prehistoric archæology of eastern Europe and of Asia has been investigated we may obtain some light on this antecedent development.

During this age the rudiments of all the modern economic powers of man were developed: the guidance of the hand by the mind, manifested in his creative industry; his inventive faculty; the currency or spread of his inventions; the adaptation of means to ends in utensils, in weapons, and in clothing. The same is true of the æsthetic powers, of close observation, of the sense of form, of proportion, of symmetry, the appreciation of beauty of animal form and the beauty of line, color, and form in modelling and sculpture. Finally, the schematic representation and notation of ideas so far as we can perceive was alphabetic rather than pictographic. Of the musical sense we have at present no evidence. The religious sense, the appreciation of some power or powers behind the great phenomena of nature, is evidenced in the reverence for the dead, in burials apparently related to notions of a future existence of the dead, and especially in the mysteries of the art of the caverns.

All these steps indicate the possession of certain _generic_ faculties of mind similar to our own. That this mind of the Upper Palæolithic races was of a kind capable of a high degree of education we entertain no doubt whatever because of the very advanced order of brain which is developed in the higher members of these ancient races; in fact, it may be fairly assumed from experiences in the education of existing races of much lower brain capacity, such as the Eskimo or Fuegian. The emergence of such a mind from the mode of life of the Old Stone Age is one of the greatest mysteries of psychology and of history.

The rise and fall of cultures and of industries, which is at this very day the outstanding feature of the history of western Europe, was fully typified in the very ancient contests with stone weapons which were waged along the borders of the Somme, the Marne, the Seine, and the Danube. No doubt, each invasion, each conquest, each substitution of an industry or a culture had within it the impelling contest of the spirit and will of man, the intelligence directing various industrial and warlike implements, the superiority either of force or of mind.

(=1=) Cartailhac, 1903.1, pp. 330, 331.

(=2=) Déchelette, 1908.1, vol. I, pp. 314-320.

(=3=) _Op. cit._, p. 320.

(=4=) _Op. cit._, pp. 505-510.

(=5=) Breuil, 1912.6, pp. 2-6.

(=6=) _Ibid._, 1912.7, pp. 232, 233.

(=7=) _Ibid._, 1912.6, p. 20.

(=8=) Koken, 1912.1, pp. 172, 173, 176-178, 180, 181, 201.

(=9=) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 40.

(=10=) Breuil, 1912.7, p. 225.

(=11=) _Op. cit._, p. 233.

(=12=) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 41.

(=13=) Schliz, 1912.1, pp. 242-244.

(=14=) _Op. cit._, p. 252.

(=15=) Boule, 1913.1, p. 210.

(=16=) Dupont, 1871.1.

(=17=) Fischer, 1913.1, p. 356.

(=18=) Breuil, 1912.5.

(=19=) _Ibid._, 1912.7, pp. 235, 236.

(=20=) Obermaier, 1912.1, pp. 467-469.

(=21=) Salmon, 1898.1.

(=22=) Munro, 1912.1, pp. 275-277.

(=23=) Déchelette, 1908.1, vol. I, p. 326.

(=24=) Breuil, 1912.5, p. 560.

(=25=) Ripley, 1899.1, p. 121.

APPENDIX

NOTE I

LUCRETIUS AND BOSSUET ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN

Lucretius's conception[BC] of the gradual development of human culture undoubtedly came from Greek sources beginning with Empedocles. His indebtedness is beautifully expressed in the opening lines of Book III of his _De Rerum Natura_:

"O Glory of the Greeks! who first didst chase The mind's dread darkness with celestial day, The worth illustrating of human life-- Thee, glad, I follow--with firm foot resolved To tread the path imprinted by thy steps; Not urged by competition, but, alone, Studious thy toils to copy; for, in powers, How can the swallow with the swan contend? Or the young kid, all tremulous of limb, Strive with the strength, the fleetness of the horse; Thou, sire of science! with paternal truths Thy sons enrichest: from thy peerless page, Illustrious chief! as from the flowery field Th' industrious bee culls honey, we alike Cull many a golden precept--golden each-- And each most worthy everlasting life. For as the doctrines of thy godlike mind Prove into birth how nature first uprose, All terrors vanish; the blue walls of heaven Fly instant--and the boundless void throughout Teems with created things."

The same conception[BD] of the early periods in the development of humanity is found in the _Histoire universelle_ of Bossuet, in a curious passage undoubtedly suggested by Lucretius:

"Tout commence: it n'y a point d'histoire ancienne où il ne paraisse, non seulement dans ces premiers temps, mais encore longtemps après, des vestiges manifestes de la nouveauté du monde. On voit les lois s'établir, les mœurs se polir, et les empires se former: le genre humain sort peu à peu de l'ignorance; l'expérience l'instruit, et les arts sont inventés ou perfectionnés. A mesure que les hommes se multiplient, la terre se peuple de proche en proche: on passe les montagnes et les précipices; on traverse les fleuves et enfin les mers, et on établit de nouvelles habitations. La terre, qui n'était au commencement qu'une forêt immense, prend une autre forme; les bois abattus font place aux champs, aux pâturages, aux hameaux, aux bourgades, et enfin aux villes. On s'instruit à prendre certains animaux, à apprivoiser les autres, et à les accoutumer au service. On eut d'abord à combattre les bêtes farouches: les premiers héros se signalèrent dans ces guerres; elles firent inventer les armes, que les hommes tournèrent après contre leurs semblables. Nemrod, le premier guerrier et le premier conquérant, est appelé dans l'écriture un fort chasseur. Avec les animaux, l'homme sut encore adoucir les fruits et les plantes; il plia jusqu'aux métaux à son usage, et peu à peu il y fit servir toute la nature."

NOTE II

HORACE ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN

Horace[BE] also adopted the Greek conception of the natural evolution of human culture:

"Your men of words, who rate all crimes alike, Collapse and founder, when on fact they strike: Sense, custom, all, cry out against the thing, And high expedience, right's perennial spring. When men first crept from out earth's womb, like worms, Dumb speechless creatures, with scarce human forms, With nails or doubled fists they used to fight For acorns or for sleeping-holes at night; Clubs followed next; at last to arms they came, Which growing practice taught them how to frame, Till words and names were found, wherewith to mould The sounds they uttered, and their thoughts unfold; Thenceforth they left off fighting, and began To build them cities, guarding man from man, And set up laws as barriers against strife That threatened person, property, or wife. 'Twas fear of wrong gave birth to right, you'll find, If you but search the records of mankind. Nature knows good and evil, joy and grief, But just and unjust are beyond her brief: Nor can philosophy, though finely spun, By stress of logic prove the two things one, To strip your neighbor's garden of a flower And rob a shrine at midnight's solemn hour."

NOTE III

ÆSCHYLUS ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN

Æschylus, in _Prometheus Bound_,[BF] presents one of the earliest known as well as one of the noblest conceptions of the natural development of the human faculties:

"And let me tell you--not as taunting men, But teaching you the intention of my gifts, How, first beholding, they beheld in vain, And hearing, heard not, but, like shapes in dreams, Mixed all things wildly down the tedious time, Nor knew to build a house against the sun With wicketed sides, nor any woodwork knew, But lived, like silly ants, beneath the ground In hollow caves unsunned. There came to them No steadfast sign of winter, nor of spring Flower-perfumed, nor of summer full of fruit, But blindly and lawlessly they did all things, Until I taught them how the stars do rise And set in mystery, and devised for them Number, the inducer of philosophies, The synthesis of Letters, and, beside, The artificer of all things, Memory That sweet Muse-mother."

NOTE IV

'UROCHS,' OR 'AUEROCHS,' AND 'WISENT'

Kobelt[BG] discusses the habits of the wild cattle and of the bison as follows:

"One is inclined to consider the ancient wild cattle of Europe, the Urochs, or Auerochs, as the inhabitants of boggy forests. The Auerochs survived to the seventeenth century in the forests of Poland and then became extinct. It is described as of a black color with a light stripe along the back.

"The bison, or Wisent, is generally regarded as the inhabitant of the open steppe, or at least of dryer, opener woods; it differs so little from the American bison that both can be considered only as races of one species, the _Bison priscus_ of Pleistocene times, which spread over the temperate zone of both hemispheres. The American bison has always avoided the woods and roamed the prairies in countless herds. But all reliable historic records describe the Wisent as a forest animal, and its few remaining survivors are entirely limited to the forests. Apparently it was never so widely and generally distributed as the Auerochs and reached western Europe later, for it is not found in the north, and never in conjunction with the mammoth and rhinoceros. Remains of the bison have also been found in Asia Minor. In Lithuania the bison lives together in herds, resenting the approach of all strangers. In the Caucasus it lives wild in certain high valleys and here it is a true mountain animal, its favorite haunts being the forests of beech, hornbeam, and evergreens from 4,000 to 8,000 feet above sea-level. Only in winter does it descend to lower levels. It is uncertain whether the Wisent does not also occur in Siberia. Kohn and Andree assert positively that it is found in large numbers in the wooded mountains of Sajan, in Siberia (1895)."

According to Kobelt, much confusion in the nomenclature of these animals has resulted from the fact that, after the extinction of the 'Urochs,' or 'Auerochs,' in the seventeenth century, the term 'Auerochs' was frequently used by writers as synonymous with 'Wisent,' or bison, an entirely different animal.

NOTE V

THE CRÔ-MAGNONS OF THE CANARY ISLANDS[BH]

"In the museums of the Grand Canary, Teneriffe, and Palma a considerable number of prehistoric vessels are preserved. Anthropologists are agreed that the natives of the archipelago at the time of its conquest, in the fifteenth century, were a composite people made up of at least three stocks: a Crô-Magnon type, a Hamitic or Berber type, and a brachycephalic type. These natives were in a Neolithic stage of civilization. Their arms were slings, clubs, and spears. Most of the people went naked, except for a girdle round the loins, and there was no intercommunication between the islands. Their stone implements were of obsidian or of basalt. Only four polished axes are known from the Grand Canary and one from Gomera. The axes are of chloromelanite, and of a type contemporary with megalithic structures in France. The first colonists probably brought the knowledge of making pottery with them, but each island developed an individuality of its own. Even the painted ware of the Grand Canary appears to be of local origin and not due to external influence. Although undoubted Lybian inscriptions in the Grand Canary and lava querns of Iron Age type prove that the archipelago was visited before its conquest by the Spaniards without affecting the general civilization of its inhabitants."

GUANCHE CHARACTERISTICS RESEMBLING CRÔ-MAGNON[BI]

The following excerpts are quoted from the account given by the distinguished anthropologist, Dr. René Verneau, of his observations during a five years' residence in the Canary Islands.

Page 22.

"Without doubt the race that has played the most important rôle in the Canaries is the Guanche. They were settled in all the islands, and in Teneriffe they preserved their distinctive characteristics and customs until the conquest by Spain in the fifteenth century.

"The Guanches, who at that time were described as giants, were of great stature. The minimum measure of the men was 1.70 m. (5 ft. 7 in.).

"I myself met a number of men in the various islands who measured over 1.80 m. (5 ft. 11 in.). Some attained a height of 2 m. (6 ft. 6-1/2 in.). At Fortaventure the _average_ height of the men was 1.84 m. (6 ft. 3/10 in.), perhaps the greatest known in any people.

"It is a curious fact that the women who gave birth to such men were comparatively small--I observed a difference of about 20 cm. (8 in.) in the heights of the two sexes.

"Their skin was light colored--if we may believe the poet Viana--and sometimes even absolutely white. Dacil, the daughter of the last Guanche chief of Teneriffe, the valiant Bencomo, who struggled so heroically for the independence of his country, had a very white complexion and her face was quite freckled. The hair of the true Guanche should be blond or light chestnut, and the eyes blue.

"The most striking characteristic of the Guanche race was the shape of the head and the features of the face. The long skull gave shape to a beautiful forehead, well developed in every way. Behind, above the occipital, one notices a large plane contrasting strongly with the marked prominence of the occipital itself. In addition, the parietal eminences, placed very high and very distinct from each other, combined to give the head a _pentagonal form_."

Page 29.

"The Guanche chiefs were much respected. At Teneriffe the coronation of the chief took place in an enclosure surrounded with stones (the Togaror), in the presence of nobles and people. One of his nearest kinsmen brought him the insignia of power. According to Viera y Clavijo, this was the humerus of one of his ancestors, carefully preserved in a case of leather; according to Viana, it was the skull of one of his predecessors.

"The chief (Menceg) placed the relic on his head, pronouncing the sacramental formula: 'I swear upon the bone of him who has borne this royal crown, that I will imitate his acts and work for the happiness of my subjects.' Each noble, in turn, then received the bone from the hands of the chief, placed it upon his shoulder and swore fidelity to his sovereign.... These chiefs led a very simple life: their food was like that of the people, their apparel but little more elaborate, and their dwellings--like those of their subjects--consisted of _caves_, only theirs were a little larger than those of the common people. They did not disdain to inspect their flocks or their harvests in person, and were, indeed, no richer than the average mortal."

Page 31.

"Above all, the ancient Canarians sought to develop strength and agility in their children. From an early age the boys devoted themselves to games of skill in order to fit them to become redoubtable warriors. The men delighted in all bodily exercises and, above all, in wrestling. At Gran Canaria (Grande Canarie) they often held veritable tourneys, which were attended by an immense number of people. These could not take place without the consent of the nobles and of the high priest.

"Permission obtained, the combatants presented themselves at the place of meeting. This was a circular or rectangular enclosure, surrounded by a very low wall, allowing free view of the details of the combat. Each warrior took his place upon a stone of about 40 cm. diameter (15-1/2 in.). His offensive weapons consisted of three stones, a club, and several knives of obsidian: his defensive weapon was a simple lance. The skill of defense consisted in evading the stones by movements of the body, or parrying the blows with the lance, without moving from the stone on which stand had been taken. These combats often resulted fatally for one of the combatants."

Page 34.

"The Guanche understood the use of the sword, and although it was of wood (pine), it could cut, they say, as if it were of steel.

"To parry blows, they used a lance, as mentioned above, but they also had shields made of a round of the dragon-tree (_Dracæna draco_).

"The Guanches were essentially shepherds. While their flocks pastured they played the flute, singing songs of love or of the prowess of their ancestors. Those songs which have come down to us show them to have been by no means devoid of poetic inspiration.

"When the care of their stock permitted, they employed their leisure in fishing. For this they employed various means--sometimes nets, sometimes fish-hooks, sometimes a simple stick."

Page 47.

"The Guanches were above all troglodytes--that is to say, they lived in caves. There is no lack of large, well-sheltered caves in the Canary Islands. The slopes of the mountains and the walls of their ravines are honeycombed with them. The islanders may have their choice.

"The caves are almost never further excavated. They are used just as they are.

"Here is a description of one of these caves, the _Grotto of Goldar_:

"The interior is almost square--5 m. (16 ft. 4 in.) along the left side, 5.50 m. (18 ft.) along the right. The width at the back is 4.80 m. (15 ft. 6 in.). A second cave, much smaller, opens from the right wall. All these walls are _decorated with paintings_. The ceiling is covered with a uniform coat of red ochre, while the walls are decorated with various geometric designs in red, black, gray, or white. High up runs a sort of cornice painted red, and on this background, in white, are groups of two concentric circles, whose centre is also indicated by a white spot. On the rear wall the cornice is interrupted by triangles and stripes of red."

Page 61.

"The Guanches never polished their stone weapons."

Page 168.

"Inhabited caves are very numerous at Fortaventure. The population in certain parts--Mascona, for example--must be quite numerous to judge by the number of these caves. At a little distance, in the place known as Hoya de Corralejo, one may still see the _Togaror_, or tribal meeting place. It is an almost circular enclosure about 40 m. (131 ft. 2 in.) in diameter, surrounded by a low wall of stones. Six huts, from 2.50 to 4 m. (8 ft. 2-1/2 in.--13 ft. 1-1/2 in.) in diameter, designed no doubt for the sacred animals, stood near the Togaror."

Page 245.

"A great number of Canarians still live in caves. Near Caldera de Bandama (Gran Canaria) there is a whole village of cave dwellers."

Page 264.

At Teneriffe Dr. Verneau received hospitality in a cabin worthy of the Palæolithic Age.

"I had no need to make any great effort to imagine myself with a descendant of those brave shepherds of earlier times. My host was an example of the type--even though the costume was lacking--and his dwelling completed the illusion. The walls, which gave free access to the wind, supported a roof composed of unstripped tree trunks covered with branches. Stones piled on top prevented the wind from tearing it off.

"Hung up on poles to dry were goatskins, destined to serve as sacks for the gofio (a kind of millet), bottles for water, and shoes for the family. A reed partition shut off a small corner where the children lay stretched out pell mell on skins of animals. For furniture, a chest, a _hollowed-out stone_ which _served as a lamp_, shells which served the same purpose, a water jar, three stones forming a hearth in one corner, and that was all."

(And this host was the most important personage in the place.)

Page 289.

Another time, also at Teneriffe, Dr. Verneau had a similar experience.

"An old shepherd invited me to his house and offered me some milk. What was my surprise on seeing the furnishing of his hut! In one corner was a bed of fern, near by a Guanche mill and a large jar, in all points similar to those used by the ancient islanders. A reed flute, a wooden bowl and a goatskin sack full of gofio completed the appointments of his home. I could scarcely believe my eyes on examining the jar and the mill. Seeing my astonishment, the old man explained that he had found them in a cave where 'the Guanches' lived, and that he had used them for many years. I could not persuade him to part with these curiosities. To my offers of money he answered that he needed none for the short time he had still to live."

NOTE VI

THE LENGTH OF POSTGLACIAL TIME AND THE ANTIQUITY OF THE AURIGNACIAN CULTURE

The most recent discussion on the length of Postglacial time was that held at the Twelfth International Congress of Geology, in Ottawa, in 1913 (_Congrès Géologique International, Compte-rendu de la XII Session_, Canada, 1913, pp. 426-537). The notes abstracted by Dr. Chester A. Reeds from the various papers are as follows:

"American estimates of Postglacial time have been made chiefly from the recession of waterfalls since the final retreat of the great ice-fields in North America. The retreat of the Falls of St. Anthony, Minnesota, has been estimated by Winchell at 8,000 years and by Sardeson at 30,000 years. The retreat of the Falls of Niagara has been estimated as requiring from 7,000 to 40,000 years; it has proved a very uncertain chronometer, because of the great variation in the volume of water at different stages in its history. The recession of Scarboro Heights and other changes due to wave action on Lake Ontario have been estimated by Coleman as requiring from 24,000 to 27,000 years. Fairchild has estimated that 30,000 years have elapsed since the ice left the Lake Ontario region of New York.

"In Europe the most accurate chronology is that of Baron de Geer on the terminal moraines and related marine clays of northern Sweden. For the retreat of the ice northward over a distance of 370 miles in Sweden 5,000 years were allowed; for the time since the disappearance of the ice in Sweden, 7,000 years; for the retreat of the ice from Germany across the Baltic, 12,000 years; giving a total of 24,000 years as compared with a total of between 30,000 and 50,000 years allowed by Penck for the retreat of the ice-fields of the Alps."

NOTE VII

THE MOST RECENT DISCOVERIES OF ANTHROPOID APES AND SUPPOSED ANCESTORS OF MAN IN INDIA

It is possible that within the next decade one or more of the Tertiary ancestors of man may be discovered in northern India among the foot-hills known as the Siwaliks. Such discoveries have been heralded, but none have thus far been actually made. Yet Asia will probably prove to be the centre of the human race. We have now discovered in southern Asia primitive representatives or relatives of the four existing types of anthropoid apes, namely, the gibbon, the orang, the chimpanzee, and the gorilla, and since the extinct Indian apes are related to those of Africa and of Europe, it appears probable that southern Asia is near the centre of the evolution of the higher primates and that we may look there for the ancestors not only of prehuman stages like the Trinil race but of the higher and truly human types.

As early as 1886 several kinds of extinct Old World primates, including two anthropoid apes related to the orang and to the chimpanzee, were reported from the Siwalik hills in northern India, and recently Dr. Pilgrim, of the Geological Survey, has described three new species of Siwalik apes resembling _Dryopithecus_ of the Upper Miocene of Europe, also an anthropoid which he has named _Sivapithecus_ and regards as actually related to the direct ancestors of man, a conclusion which may or may not prove to be correct. Another extinct Indian ape, _Palæopithecus_, is of very generalized type and is related to all the anthropoid apes.

NOTE VIII

ANTHROPOID APES DISCOVERED BY CARTHAGINIAN NAVIGATORS[BJ]

The _Periplus of Hanno_ purports to be a Greek translation of a Carthaginian inscription on a tablet in the "temple of Chronos" (Moloch) at Carthage, dedicated by Hanno, a Carthaginian navigator, in commemoration of a voyage which he made southward from the Strait of Gibraltar along the western coast of Africa as far as the inlet now known as Sherboro Sound, the next opening beyond Sierra Leone.

Hanno is a very common Carthaginian name, but recent writers think it not improbable that this Hanno was either the father or the son of that Hamilcar who led the great Carthaginian expedition to Sicily in 480 B. C. In the former case the _Periplus_ might be assigned to a date about 520 B. C.; in the latter, some fifty years later.

The narrative was certainly extant at an early period, for it is cited in the work on _Marvellous Narratives_ ascribed to Aristotle, which belongs to the third century B. C., and Pliny also expressly refers to it. The authenticity of the work is now generally conceded.

According to the narrative the farthest limit of Hanno's voyage, which was undertaken for purposes of colonization, brought him and his companions to an island containing a lake with another island in it which was full of wild men and women with hairy bodies, called by the interpreters gorillas. The Carthaginians were unable to catch any of the men but they caught three of the women, whom they killed, and brought their skins back with them to Carthage. "Pliny, indeed, adds that the skins in question were dedicated by Hanno in the temple of Juno at Carthage, and continued to be visible there till the destruction of the city. There can be no difficulty in supposing these 'wild men and women' to have been really large apes of the family of the chimpanzee, or pongo, several species of which are in fact found wild in western Africa, and some of them, as is now well known, attain a stature fully equal to that of man."

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B

=Bächler, E.=

1912.1 Das Wildkirchli, die älteste prähistorische Kulturstation der Schweiz und ihre Beziehungen zu den altsteinzeitlichen Niederlassungen des Menschen in Europa. _Schr. Ver. für Geschichte des Bodensees_, Heft XLI.

=Bardon, L.=

1909.1 Découverte d'un squelette humain moustérien a la Bouffia de La Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corrèze). (With Bouyssonie.) See Bouyssonie, A., 1909.1.

=Bayer, J.=

1912.1 Das geologisch-archäologische Verhältnis im Eiszeitalter. _Zeitschr. für Ethnol._, 44 Jahrgang, Heft 1, 1912, pp. 1-22.

=Bégouen, Le Comte.=

1912.1 Les statues d'argile préhistoriques de la caverne du Tuc d'Audoubert (Ariège). _C. R. Acad. Inscrip. et Belles-Lettres_, 1912, pp. 532-538.

1912.2 Une nouvelle grotte à gravures dans l'Ariège, la caverne du Tuc d'Audoubert. _Congr. Internat. d'Anthropol. et d'Archéol. préhist., XIV{e} Sess._, Genève, 1912, pp. 489-497.

=Berry, R. J. A.=

1914.1 The Place in Nature of the Tasmanian Aboriginal as Deduced from a Study of his Calvaria.--Part II, His Relation to the Australian Aboriginal. (With A. W. D. Robertson.) _Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh_, vol. XXXIV, part II, 1914, pp. 144-189.

=Blackenhorn, M.=

1911.1 Die Pithecanthropus-Schichten aus Java. (With Selenka, L.) See Selenka, L., 1911.1.

=Bonarelli, G.=

1909.1 _Palæanthropus_ (n. g.) _heidelbergensis_ (Schoet.). _Perugia Riv. ital. Palaeont._, vol. 15, 1909, pp. 26-31.

=Bonnet, R.=

1914.1 Diluviale Menschenfunde in Obercassel bei Bonn. (With Verworn and Steinmann.) III, Die Skelete. See Verworn, M., 1914.1.

=Boucher [de Crèvecœur] de Perthes, J.=

1846.1 Antiquités celtiques et antédiluviennes: Mémoire sur l'industrie primitive ou des arts à leur origine. Tome I, 1846. Tome II, 1857. Tome III, 1864. Paris, 8vo.

=Boule, M.=

1888.1 Essai de paléontologie stratigraphique de l'homme. _Rev. d'Anthropol._, 1888, sér. 3, tome III, pp. 129-144, 272-297, 385-411, 647-680.

1899.1 Sur l'existence d'une faune d'animaux arctiques dans la Charente à l'époque quaternaire. (With Chauvet, G.) _C. R. Acad. Sci._, Paris, tome 128, pp. 1188-1190.

1905.1 L'origine des éolithes. _L'Anthropol._, tome XVI, 1905, pp. 1-11.

1906.1 Les Grottes de Grimaldi (Baoussé-Roussé). Tome I, fasc. II--Géologie et Paléontologie. Publiées sous les auspices de S. A. S. Albert I{er}, Prince de Monaco. Monaco, 4to.

1908.1 L'homme fossile de La Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corrèze). _C. R. Acad. Sci._, Paris, 1908, tome 147, pp. 1349-1352.

1908.2 L'homme fossile de La Chapelle-aux-Saints. _L'Anthropol._, tome XIX, 1908, pp. 519-525.

1909.1 L'homme fossile de La Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corrèze). _L'Anthropol._, tome XX, 1909, pp. 257-271.

1910.1 L'encéphale de l'homme fossile de La Chapelle-aux-Saints. (With R. Anthony.) _C. R. Acad. Sci._, Paris, tome 150, 1910, pp. 1458-1461.

1910.2 Les Grottes de Grimaldi (Baoussé-Roussé). Tome I, fasc. III--Géologie et Paléontologie (suite). Monaco, 1910.

1911.1 L'encéphale de l'homme fossile de La Chapelle-aux-Saints. (With R. Anthony.) _L'Anthropol._, tome XXII, 1911, pp. 129-196.

1912.1 La taille et les proportions du corps de l'_Homo neanderthalensis_. _C. R. Inst. franc. Anthrop._, 1912, pp. 57-60.

1913.1 L'homme fossile de La Chapelle-aux-Saints. _Ext. Ann. Pal._, tome VI, 1911, pp. 111-172 [1-64], Pl. XVII-XX [Pl. I-IV]; tome VII, 1912, pp. 21-192 [65-208], Pl. IV-XIX [Pl. V-XVI]; tome VIII, 1913, pp. 1-70 [209-278], Paris, 4to.

=Bourgeois, l'Abbé.=

1867.1 Découverte d'instruments en silex dans le dépôt à _Elephas meridionalis_ de Saint-Prest, aux environs de Chartres. _C. R. Acad. Sci._, Paris, tome 64, pp. 47, 48.

=Bourrinet.=

1906.1 L'Abri Mège, une station magdalénienne à Teyjat (Dordogne). (With Capitan, Breuil, and Peyrony.) See Capitan, 1906.1.

1908.1 La grotte de la Mairie à Teyjat (Dordogne). Fouilles d'un gisement magdalénien. (With Capitan, Breuil, and Peyrony.) See Capitan, 1908.1.

1912.1 Les gravures sur cascade stalagmitique de la grotte de la Mairie à Teyjat (Dordogne). (With Capitan, L., Breuil, and Peyrony.) See Capitan, L., 1912.1.

=Bouyssonie, les Abbés A. et J.=

1909.1 Découverte d'un squelette humain moustérien à la Bouffia de La Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corrèze). (With Bardon.) _L'Anthropol._, tome XIX, 1909, pp. 513-518.

=Breuil, l'Abbé H.=

1906.1 L'Abri Mège, une station magdalénienne à Teyjat (Dordogne). (With Capitan, Bourrinet, and Peyrony.) See Capitan, L., 1906.1.

1906.2 La caverne d'Altamira à Santillane près Santander (Espagne). (With Cartailhac.) See Cartailhac, E., 1906.1.

1908.1 La grotte de la Mairie à Teyjat (Dordogne). Fouilles d'un gisement magdalénien. (With Capitan, Bourrinet, and Peyrony.) See Capitan, 1908.1.

1908.2 Les peintures et gravures murales des cavernes pyrénéennes. (With Cartailhac.) See Cartailhac, E., 1908.1.

1909.1 L'Aurignacien présolutréen. Épilogue d'une controverse. _Rev. préhist._, année 4, 1909, pp. 5-46.

1909.2 Crânes paléolithiques façonnés en coupes. (With Obermaier, H.) _L'Anthropol._, tome XX, 1909, pp. 523-530.

1909.3 L'évolution de l'art quaternaire et les travaux d'Édouard Piette. _Rev. Archéol._, sér. 4, tome XIII, pp. 378-411.

1910.1 La caverne de Font-de-Gaume aux Eyzies (Dordogne). (With Capitan and Peyrony.) See Capitan, L., 1910.1.

1910.2 Les peintures et gravures murales des cavernes pyrénéennes. IV--Gargas, Cne. d'Aventignan (Hautes-Pyrénées). (With Cartailhac.) See Cartailhac, E., 1910.1.

1911.1 L'abri sculpté de Cap-Blanc à Laussel (Dordogne). (With Lalanne.) _L'Anthropol._, tome XXII, 1911, pp. 385-408.

1912.1 L'âge des cavernes et roches ornées de France et d'Espagne. _Rev. Archéol._, tome XIX, 1912, pp. 193-234.

1912.2 Les cavernes de la région cantabrique (Espagne). (With Alcalde del Rio, and R. P. K. Sierra.) See Alcalde del Rio, 1912.1.

1912.3 Les gravures sur cascade stalagmitique de la grotte de la Mairie à Teyjat (Dordogne). (With Capitan, L., Peyrony, and Bourrinet.) See Capitan, L., 1912.1.

1912.4 La statuette de mammouth de Předmost. (With Mas̆ka and Obermaier.) See Mas̆ka, 1912.1.

1912.5 Les peintures rupestres d'Espagne. (With Serrano Gomez and Cabre Aguilo.) IV--Les Abris del Bosque à Alpéra (Albacete). _L'Anthropol._, tome XXIII, 1912, pp. 529-562.

1912.6 Les premiers travaux de l'Institut de Paléontologie humaine. (With Obermaier.) _L'Anthropol._, tome XXIII, 1912, pp. 1-27.

1912.7 Les subdivisions du paléolithique supérieur et leur signification. _Congr. Intern. d'Anthrop. d'Archéol. préhist., C. R., XIV{e} Sess._, Genève, 1912, pp. 165-238.

1913.1 Travaux executés en 1912. (With Obermaier.) Travaux de I'Institut de Paléontologie humaine. _L'Anthropol._, tome XXIV, 1913, pp. 1-16.

1913.2 La Pasiega à Puente-Viesgo (Santander, Espagne). (With Obermaier and Alcalde del Rio.) Peintures et gravures murales des cavernes paléolithiques. Institut de Paléontologie humaine. Monaco, 4to, 1913.

=Broca, P.=

1868.1 Sur les crânes et ossements des Eyzies. _Bull. Soc. d'Anthropol._, Paris, sér. 2, tome III, pp. 350-392.

1875.1 Instructions craniologiques et craniométriques de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris. _Ext. Mém. Soc. d'Anthropol._, tome II, sér. 2, 203 pp., 6 Pls., Paris, Masson et Cie., 8vo., 1875.

=Brückner, E.=

1909.1 Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter. See Penck, A., 1909.1.

=Büchner, L. W. G.=

1914.1 A Study of the Curvatures of the Tasmanian Aboriginal Cranium. Communicated by Professor R. J. A. Berry. _Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh_, vol. XXXIV, part II, 1914, pp. 128-143.

=Buckland, W.=

1823.1 Reliquiæ Diluvianæ; or, Observations on the Organic Remains contained in Caves, Fissures, and Diluvial Gravel, and on Other Geological Phenomena, attesting the action of an Universal Deluge. London, 4to, 1823.

=Butler, S.=

1911.1 Evolution, Old and New; or, the Theories of Buffon, Dr. Erasmus Darwin, and Lamarck, as compared with that of Charles Darwin. With a Preface by R. A. Streatfield (dated October, 1911), New York (Dutton), 8vo.

C

=Cabre Aguilo, J.=

1912.1 Les peintures rupestres d'Espagne. (With Breuil and Serrano Gomez.) See Breuil, H., 1912.5.

=Capitan, L.=

1898.1 L'Age de la Pierre. (With Salmon, P., and d'Ault du Mesnil.) See Salmon, P., 1898.1.

1906.1 L'Abri Mège, une station magdalénienne à Teyjat (Dordogne). (With Breuil and Peyrony.) _Rev. de l'Ecole d'Anthropol._, année VI, 1906, pp. 196-212.

1908.1 La grotte de la Mairie à Teyjat (Dordogne). (With Breuil, Bourrinet and Peyrony.) Fouilles d'un gisement magdalénien. _Rev. de l'Ecole d'Anthropol._, année XVIII, 1908, pp. 153-173.

1910.1 La caverne de Font-de-Gaume aux Eyzies (Dordogne). (With Breuil and Peyrony.) Peintures et gravures murales des cavernes paléolithiques publiées sous les auspices de S. A. S. le Prince Albert I{er} de Monaco. Monaco, 4to, 1910.

1912.1 Les gravures sur cascade stalagmitique de la grotte de la Mairie à Teyjat (Dordogne). (With Breuil, Peyrony, and Bourrinet.) _Congr. Intern. d'Anthropol. et d'Archéol. préhist., C. R., XIV{e} Sess._, Genève, pp. 498-514.

1912.2 Station préhistorique de la Ferrassie, Commune de Savignac-du-Bugue (Dordogne). (With Peyrony.) _Rev. Anthropol._, année XXI, no. 1, 1912, pp. 29-50.

=Cartailhac, E.=

1903.1 La France préhistorique d'après les sépultures et les monuments. Deuxième édition, avec 162 gravures dans le text. Paris, 8vo, 1903.

1906.1 La caverne d'Altamira à Santillane près Santander (Espagne). (With Breuil.) Peintures et gravures murales des cavernes paléolithiques publiées sous les auspices de S. A. S. Prince Albert I{er} de Monaco. Monaco, 4to, 1906.

1908.1 Les peintures et gravures murales des cavernes pyrénéennes. (With Breuil.) III--Niaux (Ariège). _L'Anthropol._, tome XIX, 1908, pp. 15-46.

1910.1 Les peintures et gravures murales des cavernes pyrénéennes. (With Breuil.) IV--Gargas, Cne. d'Aventignan (Hautes-Pyrénées). _L'Anthropol._, tome XXI, 1910, pp. 129-150.

1912.1 Les Grottes de Grimaldi (Baoussé-Roussé). Tome II, fasc. II--Archéologie. Peintures et gravures murales des cavernes paléolithiques publiées sous les auspices de S. A. S. Prince Albert I{er} de Monaco. Monaco, 4to, 1912.

=Chamberlin, T.=

1895.1 Glacial Studies in Greenland. III--Coast Glaciers between Disco Island and Inglefield Gulf. _Journ. Geol._, vol. III, 1895, pp. 61-69.

1905.1 Geology. (With Salisbury, R. D.) American Science Series, Advanced Course, vols. I and II. Second edition, revised, New York, 8vo, 1905.

=de Charpentier, J.=

1841.1 Essai sur les glaciers et sur le terrain erratique du bassin du Rhône. Lausanne, 8vo, 1841.

=Chauvent, G.=

1899.1 Sur l'existence d'une faune d'animaux arctiques dans la Charente à l'époque quaternaire. (With Boule, M.) See Boule, M., 1899.1.

=de Christol.=

1829.1 Notice sur les ossemens humains fossiles des cavernes du département du Gard. _Ext._ [Acad. Montpellier], 25 pp. et planche. Montpellier, 8vo, 1829.

=Christy, H.=

1875.1 Reliquiæ Acquitanicæ. (With Lartet, E.) See Lartet, E., 1875.1.

=Collignon, R.=

1890.1 L'anthropologie au conseil de revision; méthode à suivre. Son application à l'étude des populations des Côtes-du-Nord. _Bull. Soc. d'Anthropol._, Paris, sér. 4, tome I, 1890, pp. 736-805.

=Commont, V.=

1906.1 Les découvertes récentes à Saint-Acheul, l'Acheuléen. _Rev. de l'Ecole d'Anthropol._, Paris, année XVI, 1906, pp. 228-241.

1908.1 Les industries de l'ancien Saint-Acheul. _L'Anthropol._, tome XIX, 1908, pp. 527-572.

1909.1 L'industrie moustérienne dans la region du nord de la France. Congr. _Préhist. de France, V{e} Sess._, 1909, pp. 115-157.

1909.2 Saint-Acheul et Montières. Notes de géologie, de paléontologie et de préhistoire. _Mém. Soc. Géol. du Nord_, tome VI, iii.

1912.1 Moustérien à faune chaude dans la vallée de la Somme à Montières-les-Amiens. _Congr. Intern. d'Anthropol. et d'Archéol. préhist., C. R., XIV{e} Sess._, Genève, 1912, pp. 291-300.

=Cope, E. D.=

1893.1 The Genealogy of Man. _Amer. Nat._, vol. XXVII, 1893, pp. 321-335.

D

=Dana, J.=

1875.1 Manual of Geology: Treating of the Principles of the Science with Special Reference to American Geological History. Second edition, New York, 8vo, 1875.

=Darwin, C.=

1871.1 The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex. Vols. I and II. London (Murray), 8vo, 1871.

1909.1 The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex. Second edition, revised and enlarged, New York (Appleton), 8vo, 1909.

1909.2 The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life. With additions and corrections. From sixth and last English edition, New York (Appleton), 8vo, 1909.

=Dawkins, W. Boyd.=

1880.1 Early Man in Britain and His Place in the Tertiary Period. London, 1880.

1883.1 On the Alleged Existence of _Ovibos moschatus_ in the Forest-Bed, and on its Range in Space and Time. _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, London, 1883, vol. XXXIX, pp. 575-581.

=Dawson, C.=

1913.1 On the Discovery of a Palæolithic Human Skull and Mandible in a Flint-Bearing Gravel overlying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching (Sussex). With an Appendix by Prof. G. Elliot Smith. (With A. S. Woodward.) _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, London, vol. LXIX, part I, 1913, pp. 117-151, Pls. 15-21.

1913.2 Prehistoric Man in Sussex. _Zoologist_, ser. 4, vol. 17, pp. 33-36.

1914.1 Supplementary Note; On the Discovery of a Palæolithic Human Skull and Mandible in a Flint-Bearing Gravel, etc. (With A. S. Woodward.) With an Appendix by Prof. Grafton Elliot Smith. _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. LXX, 1914, pp. 82-99, Pls. 14, 15.

=Déchelette, J.=

1908.1 Manuel d'archéologie préhistorique celtique et gallo-romaine. Tome I--Archéologie préhistorique (1908). Tome II--Archéologie celtique ou protohistorique. Première partie--Age du Bronze (1910). Deuxième partie--Premier Age du Fer ou Epoque de Hallstatt (1913). Appendices (1910). Appendices (Supplément) (1912). Paris, 8vo, 1910-1913.

=Desnoyers, J.=

1863.1 Note sur des indices matériels de la coexistence de l'homme avec _l'Elephas meridionalis_ dans un terrain des environs de Chartres, plus ancien que les terrains transport quaternaires des vallées de la Somme et de la Seine. _C. R. Acad. Sci._, Paris, tome 56, 1863, pp. 1073-1083.

=Dietrich, W. O.=

1910.1 Neue fossile Cervidenreste aus Schwaben. _Jahreshefte, Ver. vaterl. Naturk._, Württemberg, 66 Jahrg., 1910, pp. 318-336.

=Dubois, E.=

1894.1 _Pithecanthropus erectus_, eine Menschenaehnliche Uebergangsform aus Java. Batavia, 4to, 1894.

=Dupont, É.=

1866.1 Etudes sur les fouilles scientifiques exécutées pendant l'hiver de 1865-1866 dans les cavernes des bords de la Lesse. _Bull. Acad. R. de Belgique_, sér. 2, tome XXII, 1866, pp. 31-54.

1871.1 Les temps antéhistoriques en Belgique. L'homme pendant les âges de la pierre dans les environs de Dinant-sur-Meuse. Deuxième édition. Bruxelles (Muquardt), 8vo, 1871.

E

=Eccardus, J. G.=

1750.1 De Origine et Moribus Germanorum eorumque vetustissimis colonis, migrationibus ac rebus gestis. (Ioh. Guil. Schmidii), 4to, Goettingæ, ciↄ iↄ ccl (1750).

=Elbert, J.=

1908.1 Über das Alter der Kendeng-Schichten mit _Pithecanthropus erectus_ Dubois. _N. Jahrb. Mineral. Géol. u. Pal._, XXV Beil.-Bd., 1908, pp. 648-662.

=Ewart, J. C.=

1904.1 The Multiple Origin of Horses and Ponies. _Trans. Highl. Agri. Soc. Scotland_, 1904, pp. 1-39.

1907.1 On the Skulls of Horses from the Roman Fort at Newstead, near Melrose, with Observations on the Origin of the Domestic Horses. _Trans. R. Soc. Edinburgh_, vol. XLV, part III, no. 20, 1907, pp. 555-587.

1909.1 The Possible Ancestors of the Horses Living under Domestication. _Science_, n. s., vol. XXX, no. 763, August 13, 1909, pp. 219-223.

F

=de Ferry, H.=

1869.1 L'Age du Renne en Mâconnais. Mémoire sur le gisement archéologique du clos du Charnier à Solutré, Département de Saône-et-Loire. (Compte rendu des fouilles opérées en 1867 et 1868 par MM. H. de Ferry et A. Arcelin.) _Trans. Intern. Congr. Préhist. Archéol., III{e} Sess._, London, 1868 (published 1869), pp. 319-350, Pls. I, II.

=Fischer, E.=

1913.1 Fossile Hominiden. _Sonderabd. Handwörterbuch Naturwiss._, Bd. IV, pp. 332-360, Jena, 8vo, 1913.

=Fraipont, J.=

1887.1 La race de Neanderthal ou de Canstadt en Belgique. (With Lohest, M.) _Arch. Biol._, tome VII, 1887, pp. 587-757.

=Fraunholz, J.=

1911.1 Die Kastlhäng-Höhle, eine Renntierjägerstation im bayerischen Altmühltale. Mit einem Beitrag von Max Schlosser. (With Obermaier.) _Beiträge, Anthropol. u. Urgesch. Bayerns_, Bd. XVIII, 1911. (Unpaged separate.)

G

=Gaudry, A.=

1876.1 Matériaux pour l'histoire des temps quaternaires. Fasc. I. Paris, 4to, 1876.

1890.1 Le Dryopithèque. _Mém. Soc. Géol. de France, Pal. Mém._ no. 1. Paris, 4to, 1890.

=Geikie, J.=

1894.1 The Great Ice Age and Its Relation to the Antiquity of Man. Third edition, largely rewritten. London, 8vo, 1894.

1914.1 The Antiquity of Man in Europe, being the Munro Lectures, 1913. Edinburgh, 8vo, 1914.

=Godwin-Austen.=

1840.1 On the Geology of the Southeast of Devonshire. _Trans. Geol. Soc._, ser. 2, vol. VI, pp. 433-489, Pl. XLII.

=Gorjanovič-Kramberger, K.=

1901.1 Der paläolithische Mensch und seine Zeitgenossen aus dem Diluvium von Krapina in Kroatien. _Mitt. Anthrop. Gesell. Wien_, Bd. 31, pp. 163-197, 4 Pls., 13 Figs.

1903.1 Nachtrag (to the above). _Mitt. Anthrop. Gesell. Wien_, Bd. 32, pp. 189-216, 4 Pls., 17 Figs.

1906.1 Der diluviale Mensch von Krapina in Kroatien. Ein Beitrag zur Paläoanthropologie. Studien über Entwicklungsmechanik des Primatskelettes mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Anthropologie und Descendenzlehre.... Herausgegeben von Dr. Otto Walkhoff, Wiesbaden, 4to, 1906.

1909.1 Der vordere Unterkieferabschnitt des altdiluvialen Menschen in seinem genetischen Verhältnis zum Unterkiefer des rezenten Menschen und den der Anthropoiden. _Zeitschr. Abstammungs-u. Vererbungsl._, Bd. I, pp. 411-439.

H

=Harlé, E.=

1899.1 Notes sur la Garonne. _Bull. Soc. d'Hist. Nat. Toulouse_, année XXXII (Oct., 1899), pp. 149-198.

1908.1 Faune quaternaire de la province de Santandér (Espagne). _Bull. Soc. Géol. de France_, sér. 4, tome VIII, 1908, pp. 82-83.

1910.1 Les mammifères et oiseaux quaternaires connus jusqu'ici en Portugal. Mémoire suivi d'une liste générale de ceux de la Péninsule Ibérique. Ext. tome VIII, "_Communicações_," _Service Géol. du Portugal_.

=Haug, E.=

1907.1 Traité de Géologie. Tome I--Les Phénomènes géologiques (1907). Tome II--Les Périodes géologiques (1911). Paris, 8vo.

=Hauser, O.=

1909.1 _Homo aurignacensis_ Hauseri, etc. See Klaatsch, H., 1909.1.

=Heim, A.=

1894.1 Ueber das absolut Alter der Eiszeit. _Vierteljahrschrif. naturf. Gesell. Zurich_, Bd. 39, 1894, pp. 180-186.

=Hilzheimer.=

1913.1 Studienreise zu den paläolithischen Fundstellen der Dordogne. See Wiegers, 1913.1.

=Hrdlička, Dr. A.=

1914.1 The Most Ancient Skeletal Remains of Man. _Report, Smithsonian Institution_, etc., 1913, pp. 491-552, Pls. 1-41. Publication 2300. Government Printing Office, Washington, 8vo, 1914.

=Huntington, E.=

1907.1 The Pulse of Asia. New York, 8vo, 1907.

J

=James, W.=

1902.1 The Varieties of Religious Experience. A Study in Human Nature. Being the Gifford Lectures on Natural Religion delivered at Edinburgh in 1901-1902. New York, 8vo, 1902.

=Johnson, J. P.=

1913.1 The Stone Implements of the Tasmanians. _Nature_, vol. 92, no. 2298.

K

=Keane, A. H.=

1901.1 Ethnology. Cambridge Geographical Series. Stereotyped edition. Cambridge, 8vo. 1901.

=Keith, A.=

1911.1 Ancient Types of Man. Harper's Library of Living Thought. New York, 12mo. 1911.

1911.2 Discovery of the Teeth of Palæolithic Man in Jersey. _Nature_, vol. 86, no. 2169, May 25, 1911, p. 414.

1911.3 The Early History of the Gibraltar Cranium. _Nature_, vol. 87, no. 2184, September 7, 1911, pp. 313, 314.

1912.1 Cranium of the Crô-Magnon Type found by Mr. W. M. Newton in a Gravel Terrace near Dartford. _Rpt. 82d Meeting, Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci._, Dundee, 1912, pp. 516, 517.

1912.2 Hunterian Lecture on Certain Phases in the Evolution of Man. (Abstract.) _Brit. Med. Journ._, 1912, vol. I, pp. 734-737, 788-790.

1913.1 The Piltdown Skull and Brain Cast. _Nature_, vol. 92, no. 2294, October 16, 1913, pp. 197-199.

1913.2 The Piltdown Skull and Brain Cast. _Nature_, vol. 92, no. 2297, November 6, 1913, p. 292.

1913.3 The Piltdown Skull and Brain Cast. _Nature_, vol. 92, no. 2299, November 20, 1913, pp. 345, 346.

=Kennard, A. S.=

1913.1 [Discussion of] On the Discovery of a Palæolithic Human Skull and Mandible ... at Piltdown, Fletching (Sussex). See Dawson, C., 1913.1, p. 150.

=King, W.=

1864.1 The Reputed Fossil Man of the Neanderthal. _Quart. Journ. Sci._, vol. I, pp. 88-97, Pls. I, II.

=Klaatsch, H.=

1909.1 _Homo aurignacensis Hauseri_, ein paläolithischer Skeletfund aus dem unteren Aurignacien der Station Combe-Capelle bei Montferrand (Périgord). (With Hauser.) _Prähist. Zeitschr._, Bd. I, 1909 (Heft 3-4, 1910), pp. 273-338.

=Koken, E.=

1912.1 Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands, von R. R. Schmidt. II--Geologischer Teil von Ernst Koken. Die Geologie und Tierwelt der paläolithischen Kulturstätten Deutschlands. See Schmidt, R. R., 1912.1.

=Kraemer, H.=

Weltall und Menschheit. Geschichte der Erforschung der Natur und der Verwertung der Naturkräfte im Dienst der Völker. Band II. Berlin, n. d.

L

=Lalanne, G.=

1911.1 L'abri sculpté de Cap-Blanc à Laussel (Dordogne). (With Breuil, H.) See Breuil, H., 1911.1.

=Lamarck, J.=

1809.1 Philosophie Zoologique. Paris (Duminil-Leseur), 8vo, 1909.

1815.1 Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres.... Tomes 1-7 (1815-1822). Paris (Verdière), 8vo, 1815-1822.

=Lartet, E.=

1861.1 Nouvelles recherches sur la coexistence de l'homme et des grands mammifères fossiles réputés caractéristiques de la dernière période géologique. _Ann. Sci. Nat._, sér. 4, Zoologie, tome XV, 1861, pp. 177-253, Pl. X.

1875.1 Reliquiæ Acquitanicæ. (With Christy.) Being Contributions to the Archæology and Palæontology of Périgord and the Adjoining Provinces. Edited by Rupert Jones. London, 4to, 1875.

=Leverett, F.=

1910.1 Comparison of North American and European Glacial Deposits. _Zeitschr. für Gletscherk._, Bd. IV, 1910, pp. 241-316.

=Lubbock, Sir J. (See Avebury, Lord).=

1862.1 On the Evidences of the Antiquity of Man afforded by the Physical Structure of the Somme Valley. _Nat. Hist. Rev._, 1862, pp. 244-269.

=Lyell, Sir C.=

1863.1 The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man with Remarks on the Theories of the Origin of Species by Variation. Second revised edition. London (Murray), 8vo, 1863.

1867.1 Principles of Geology or the Modern Changes of the Earth and Its Inhabitants Considered as Illustrative of Geology. Tenth and entirely revised edition. Vol. I, 1867. Vol. II, 1868. London (Murray), 8vo, 1867-1868.

1877.1 Principles of Geology or the Modern Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants Considered as Illustrative of Geology. Eleventh and entirely revised edition. Vol. I, 1877. Vol. II, 1872. New York (Appleton), 8vo, 1872-1877.

M

=MacCurdy, G. G.=

1905.1 The Eolithic Problem. Evidences of a Rude Industry Antedating the Paleolithic. _Amer. Anthropol._, n. s., vol. VII, no. 3, 1905, pp. 425-479.

=Mahudel.=

1740.1 Sur les prétendues pierres de foudre. _Hist. Acad. R. Inscript. et Belles-Lettres_, Paris, tome XII, 1740, pp. 163-168.

=Makowsky, A.=

1892.1 Der diluviale Mensch im Löss von Brünn. _Mitt. Anthropol. Gesell. Wien_, Bd. XXII (N. F. Bd. XIII), pp. 73-84.

=Marett, R. R.=

Anthropology. Home University Library of Modern Knowledge. New York (Henry Holt & Co.), 12mo, n. d.

=Martin, H.=

1910.1 Astragale humain du Moustérien moyen de La Quina. (_Ext., Bull. Soc. préhist. de France_, 1910, p. 391.) [Reviewed by M. Boule.] _L'Anthropol._, tome XXII, 1911, pp. 312, 313.

=Martin, R.=

1914.1 Lehrbuch der Anthropologie in systematischer Darstellung. Mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der anthropologischen Methoden. Für studierende Ärzte und Forschungsreisende. Jena, 8vo, 1914.

=Martins, C.=

1847.1 Recherches sur la période glaciaire et l'ancienne extension des glaciers du Mont-Blanc depuis les Alpes jusqu'au Jura. _Rev. deux mondes_ 1847, tome 17, pp. 919-942.

=Maška, K.=

1886.1 Fund des Unterkiefers in der Schipka-Höhle. _Verh. Berliner Gesell. f. Anthropol., Ethnol. u. Urgesch._, 1886, pp. 341-350.

1912.1 La statuette de mammouth de Předmost. (With Obermaier and Breuil.) _L'Anthropol._, tome XXIII, 1912, pp. 273-285.

=Massénat, É.=

1869.1 Objets gravés et sculptés de l'Augerie Basse (Dordogne). _Matér. pour l'hist. de l'homme_, année V, sér. 2, pp. 348-356.

=Morlot, A.=

1854.1 Notice sur le Quaternaire en Suisse. _Bull. Soc. Vaudoise, Sci. nat._, 1854, pp. 41-45.

=de Mortillet, A.=

1869.1 Essai d'une classification des cavernes et des stations sous abri, fondée sur les produits de l'industrie humaine. _C. R. Acad. Sci._, Paris, tome 68, 1869, pp. 553-555.

=de Mortillet, G.=

1872. Classification des âges de la pierre. Classification des diverses périodes de l'âge de la pierre. _C. R. Congr. Intern. d'Anthropol., d' Archéol. Préhist., VI{e} Sess._ Bruxelles, 1872, pp. 432-444.

=Munro, R.=

1893.1 [On the Relation between the Erect Posture and the Physical and Intellectual Development of Man.] _Rpt. 63d Meeting, Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci._, Nottingham, 1893, Presidential Address, Section of Anthropology, pp. 885-889.

1912.1 Palæeolithic Man and the Terramara Settlements in Europe. Being the Munro Lectures in Anthropology and Prehistoric Archæology in connection with the University of Edinburgh. Edinburgh, 8vo, 1912.

N

=Nehring, A.=

1880.1 Übersicht über vierundzwanzig mitteleuropäische Quatär-Faunen. _Zeitschr. deutsch. geolog. Gesell._, 1880, pp. 468-509.

1896.1 Die kleineren Wirbeltiere vom Schweizersbild bei Schaffhausen. _N. Denkschr. allg. schweiz. Gesell. gesam. Naturwiss._, Bd. XXXV, 1896, pp. 40-77.

=Neumeyer, M.=

1890.1 Erdgeschichte. Band I, 1895. Band II, 1890. Leipzig, R. 8vo, 1890-1895.

=Nicolle, E. T.=

1910.1 Report on the Exploration of the Palæolithic Cave-Dwelling known as La Cotte, St. Brelade, Jersey. (With Sinel, J.) _Man_, 1910, nos. 101-102, pp. 185-188.

=Niezabitowski, E.=

1911.1 Die Überreste des in Starunia in einer Erdwachsgrube mit Haut und Weichteilen gefundenen _Rhinoceros antiquitatis_ Blum. (_tichorhinus_ Fisch.). _Bull. Acad. Sci. Cracovie_, Classe des Sci. Mathémat., etc., 1911, sér. B; Sci. nat., pp. 240-266.

=Nüesch, J.=

1902.1 Das Schweizersbild, eine Niederlassung aus palæolithischer und neolithischer Zeit. Die praehistorische Niederlassung am Schweizersbild bei Schaffhausen. Die Schichten und ihre Einschlüsse. _N. Denkschr. allg. schweiz. Gesell. gesam. Naturwiss._, Bd. XXXV, zweite Verbesserung, pp. 1-120.

O

=Obermaier, H.=

1909.1 Crânes paléolithiques façonnés en Coupes. (With Breuil.) See Breuil, H., 1909.2.

1909.2 Les formations glaciaires des Alpes et l'homme paléolithique. _L'Anthropol._, tome XX, 1909, pp. 497-522.

1909.3 Die Aurignacienstation von Krems (N.-O.). (With Strobel.) See Strobel, 1909.1.

1911.1 Die Kastlhäng-Höhle, eine Renntierjägerstation im bayerischen Altmühltale. (With Fraunholz und Schlosser.) See Fraunholz, J., 1911.1.

1912.1 Der Mensch der Vorzeit. München, R. 8vo, 1912.

1912.2 Les premières travaux de l'Institut de Paléontologie humaine. (With Breuil.) See Breuil, H., 1912.6.

1912.3 La statuette de mammouth de Předmost. (With Mas̆ka et Breuil.) See Mas̆ka, 1912.1.

1913.1 La Pasiega à Puente-Viesgo (Santander, Espagne). (With Breuil and Alcalde del Rio.) See Breuil, H., 1913.2.

=Osborn, H. F.=

1894.1 From the Greeks to Darwin. An Outline of the Development of the Evolution Idea. New York, 8vo, 1894.

1910.1 The Age of Mammals in Europe, Asia and North America. New York, 8vo, 1910.

P

=Penck, A.=

1908.1 Das Alter des Menschengeschlechts. _Zeitschr. für Ethnol._, Jahrg. 40, Heft 3, 1908, pp. 390-407.

1909.1 Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter. (With Brückner, E.) Band I, II, III. Leipzig, R. 8vo, 1909.

=Peyrony, M.=

1908.1 La grotte de la Mairie à Teyjat (Dordogne). (With Capitan and Breuil.) See Capitan, L., 1908.1.

1910.1 La caverne de Font-de-Gaume aux Eyzies (Dordogne). (With Breuil and Capitan.) See Capitan, 1910.1.

1912.1 Les gravures sur cascade stalagmitique de la grotte de la Mairie à Teyjat (Dordogne). (With Breuil, Bourrinet, and Capitan.) See Capitan, 1912.2.

=Piette, E.=

1907.1 L'art pendant l'Age du Renne. Album de cent planches dessinées par J. Pilloy. Paris, small folio, 1907.

=Pilgrim, G.=

1913.1 The Correlation of the Siwaliks with Mammal Horizons of Europe. _Records, Geol. Survey India_, vol. XLIII, part 4, pp. 264-326, Pls. 26-28.

Q

=Quatrefages, A.=

1884.1 Hommes fossiles et hommes sauvages. Etudes d'Anthropologie. Paris, 8vo, 1884.

R

=Reeds, C. A.=

1915.1 The Graphic Projection of Pleistocene Climatic Oscillations. _Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer._, vol. 26, no. 1, 1915, pp. 106-109.

=Reid, C.=

1908.1 The Pre-Glacial Flora of Britain. (With E. M. Reid.) _Journ. Linn. Soc._ Botany, vol. XXXVIII, 1908, pp. 206-227.

1913.1 [Discussion of] On the Discovery of a Palæolithic Human Skull and Mandible ... at Piltdown ... Sussex. See Dawson, C., 1913.1.

=Reinach, S.=

1889.1 Antiquités nationales. Déscription raisonnée du Musée de Saint-Germain-en-Laye. I--Epoque des alluvions et des cavernes. Paris, 8vo [1889]. 322 pp.

1913.1 Répertoire de l'Art quaternaire. Paris, 12mo, 1913.

=Retzius, A.=

1864.1 Ethnologische Schriften. III--Ueber die Form des Knochengerüstes des Kopfes bei verschiedenen Völkern. Stockholm, 4to, 1864.

=Rigollot.=

1854.1 Mémoires sur des instruments en silex trouvées à Saint-Acheul. Amiens, 1854.

=Ripley, W. Z.=

1899.1 The Races of Europe. A Sociological Study. (Lowell Institute Lectures.) Accompanied by a Supplementary Bibliography of the Anthropology and Ethnology of Europe, etc. New York, 8vo, 1899.

=Rivière, E.=

1897.1 La grotte de La Mouthe (Dordogne). _Bull. Soc. d'Anthropol._, Paris, sér. 4, tome VIII, 1897, pp. 302-329; 484-490; 497-501.

1897.2 La grotte de La Mouthe (Dordogne). _C. R. assoc. franç. pour l'avanc. sci., 26{me} Sess._, Saint-Etienne, 1897, pp. 669-687.

=Robertson, A. W. D.=

1914.1 The Place in Nature of the Tasmanian Aboriginal as Deduced from a Study of his Calvaria. (With Berry, R. J. A.) See Berry, R. J. A.; 1914.1.

=Rutot, A.=

1902.1 Les industries primitives. Défense des éolithes. Les actions naturelles possibles sont inaptes à produire des effets semblables à la retouche intentionelle. _Bull. et Mém. Soc. Anthropol._, Bruxelles, tome XX (1902), mém. III.

1907.1 A fin de la question des éolithes. _Bull. Soc. Belge Géol._, Procès-Verbal, 1907, tome XXI, pp. 211-217.

=Rzehak, Prof. A.=

1906.1 Der Unterkiefer von Ochos. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des altdiluvialen Menschen. _Verhandl. naturf. Ver._, Brünn, Bd. XLIV (1905), pp. 91-114. Published in 1906.

S

=Salisbury, R. D.=

1905.1 Geology. (With Chamberlin, T. C.) See Chamberlin, T., 1905.1.

=Salmon, P.=

1898.1 Age de la pierre: habitations néolithiques. (With d'Ault du Mesnil and Capitan.) Le Campignien. _Rev. de l'Ecole d'Anthropol._, année VIII, 1898, pp. 365-408.

=de Sautuola, M.=

1880.1 Breves apuntes sobre algunos objetos prehistóricos de la provincia de Santander. Madrid, 1880, 4 pl.

=Schaaffhausen, D.=

1857.1 Theilen des menschlichen Skelettes im Neanderthale bei Hochdal. _Sitzungsber. niederrhein. Gesellsch. f. Natur u. Heilkunde_, Bonn, 1857, pp. xxxviii-xlii.

1858.1 Zur Kenntniss der ältesten Rassenschädel. _Müller's Archiv_, Jahrg. 1858, pp. 453-478.

=Schliz, A.=

1912.1 Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands, von R. R. Schmidt. Teil III--Anthropologischer Teil. Die diluvialen Menschenreste Deutschlands. See Schmidt, R. R., 1912.1.

=Schlosser, M.=

1911.1 Die Kastlhäng-Höhle, eine Renntierjägerstation im bayerischen Altmühltale. (With Fraunholz und Obermaier.) See Fraunholz, 1911.1.

=Schmerling, P.-C.=

1833.1 Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles découvertes dans les cavernes de la province de Liége. Liége, 4to, 1833.

=Schmidt, R. R.=

1912.1 Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands. I--Archäologischer Teil: Die diluvialen Kulturen Deutschlands, R. R. Schmidt. II--Geologischer Teil: Die Geologie und Tierwelt der paläolithischen Kulturstätten Deutschlands, Ernst Koken. III--Anthropologischer Teil: Die diluvialen Menschenreste Deutschlands, A. Schliz. Stuttgart, 4to, 1912.

=Schoetensack, O.=

1908.1 Der Unterkiefer des _Homo heidelbergensis_ aus den Sanden von Mauer bei Heidelberg. Ein Beitrag zur Paläontologie des Menschen. Leipzig, 4to, 1908.

=Schuchert, C.=

1913.1 Climates of Geologic Time. _Reprint_, Carnegie Inst. of Washington, Publication No. 192, pp. 263-298.

=Schuchhardt, C.=

1913.1 Paläolithische Fundstellen der Dordogne. (With Wiegers und Hilzheimer.) See Wiegers, 1913.1.

=Schwalbe, G.=

1897.1 Ueber die Schädelformen der ältesten Menschenrassen mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Schädels von Egisheim. _Mitt. Philomat. Gesell. Elsass-Lothringen_, Jahrg. 5 (1897), Heft III, pp. 72-85.

1899.1 Studien über _Pithecanthropus erectus_ Dubois. _Zeitschr. f. Morph. u. Anthropol._, Bd. I, Heft I, pp. 16-22, Pls. I-III.

1901.1 Der Neanderthalschädel. _Bonner Jahrb._, no. 106, Bonn, pp. 1-72.

1901.2 Über die specifischen Merkmale des Neanderthalschädels. _Verh. Anat. Gesell._, Bonn, 1901, pp. 44-61.

1904.1 Die Vorgeschichte des Menschen. Braunschweig, 8vo, 1904.

1906.1 Das Schädelfragment von Brüx und verwandte Schädelformen. _Zeitschr. für Morphol. und Anthropol._, Sonderheft, 1906, pp. 81-182, Pls. I-II.

1914.1 Kritische Besprechung von Boule's Werk: "L'homme fossile de La Chapelle-aux-Saints" mit eigenen Untersuchungen. _Zeitschr. Morph. u. Anthropol._, Bd. XVI, Heft 3, pp. 527-610.

1914.2 Über einen bei Ehringsdorf in der Nähe von Weimar gefundenen Unterkiefer des _Homo primigenius. Anat. Anzeiger_, Band 47, nos. 13-17. Oktober, 1914, pp. 337-345.

=Selenka, L.=

1911.1 Die Pithecanthropus-Schichten auf Java. (With Blanckenhorn.) Geologische und paläontologische Ergebnisse der Trinil-Expedition (1907-1908). Herausgegeben von M. Lenore Selenka und Prof. Max Blanckenhorn, Leipzig, 4to, 1911.

=Serrano Gomez, P.=

1912.1 Les peintures rupestres d'Espagne. (With Breuil and Cabre Aguilo.) See Breuil, 1912.5.

=Sierra, R. P. L.=

1912.1 Les cavernes de la région cantabrique (Espagne). (With Alcalde del Rio and Breuil.) See Alcalde del Rio, 1912.1.

=Smith, G. E.=

1912.1 Presidential Address to the Anthropological Section (B. A. A. S.). _Rpt. 82d Meeting, Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci._, Dundee, 1912, pp. 575-598.

1913.1 The Controversies concerning the Interpretation and Meaning of the Remains of the Dawn-Man Found near Piltdown. [Abstract.] _Meet. Manchester Lit. and Philosoph. Soc._, November 18, 1913.

1913.2 On the Discovery of a Palæolithic Human Skull and Mandible in a Flint-Bearing Gravel overlying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching (Sussex). With an Appendix by Prof. Grafton Elliot Smith. See Dawson, C., 1913.1.

1913.3 The Piltdown Skull. _Nature_, vol. 92, no. 2292, October 2, 1913, p. 131.

1913.4 The Piltdown Skull and Brain Cast. _Nature_, vol. 92, no. 2296, October 30, 1913, pp. 267, 268.

1914.1 Supplementary Note on the Discovery of a Palæolithic Human Skull and Mandible at Piltdown (Sussex). (With Dawson and Woodward.) With an Appendix by Prof. Grafton Elliot Smith. See Dawson, C., 1914.1.

=Smith, W.=

1894.1 Man the Primeval Savage. His Haunts and Relics from the Hill-Tops of Bedfordshire to Blackwall. London, 8vo, 1894.

=Sollas, W. J.=

1900.1 Evolutional Geology. Presidential Address to the Geological Section (B. A. A. S.). _Rpt. 70th Meeting, Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci._, Bradford, 1900, pp. 711-730.

1911.1 Ancient Hunters and Their Modern Representatives. London, 8vo. 1911.

1913.1 Paviland Cave: An Aurignacian Station in Wales. (The Huxley Memorial Lecture for 1913.) _Journ. R. Anthropol. Inst. of Gr. Brit. & Ireland_, vol. XLIII, 1913, pp. 325-373.

=Steinmann, C.=

1914.1 Diluviale Menschenfunde in Obercassel bei Bonn. (With Verworn and Bonnet.) IV--Über das geologische Alter der Fundstelle. See Verworn, M., 1914.1.

=Strobel, J.=

1909.1 Die Aurignacienstation von Krems (N.-Ö.). (With Obermaier, H.) Mit einem Anhang von Oskar von Troll. _Jahrb. Altertumskunde_, Bd. III, 1909, pp. 129-148, Pls. XI-XXI.

T

=Tomes, C. S.=

1914.1 A Manual of Dental Anatomy, Human and Comparative. Edited by H. W. Marett Tims and A. Hopewell-Smith. Seventh edition. (J. and A. Churchill.) London, 8vo, 1914, 616 pp.

=von Troll, O.=

1909.1 Die Aurignacienstation von Krems (N.-Ö.). (With Strobel and Obermaier.) Mit einem Anhang von Oskar von Troll. See Strobel, J., 1909.1.

U

=Upham, W.=

1893.1 Estimates of Geologic Time. _Amer. Journ. Sci._, vol. XLV, 1893, pp. 209-220.

V

=Verneau, R.=

1886.1 La race de Crô-Magnon. _Rev. Anthropol._, sér. 3, tome I, 1886, pp. 10-24.

1891.1 Cinq années de séjour aux îles Canaries. Paris, 1891.

1906.1 Les Grottes de Grimaldi (Baoussé-Roussé). Tome II, fasc. I--Anthropologie. Monaco, 4to, 1906.

=Verworn, M.=

1914.1 Diluviale Menschenfunde in Obercassel bei Bonn. (With Bonnet and Steinmann.) I--Fundbericht, Verworn. II--Die Kulturstufe des Fundes, Verworn. III--Die Skelete, Bonnet. IV--Über das geologische Alter der Fundstelle, Steinmann. _Die Naturwissenschaften_, Heft 27, Jahrg. 2, 3 Juli 1914, pp. 645-650.

=de Vibraye.=

1864.1 Note sur des nouvelles preuves de l'existence de l'homme dans le centre de la France à une époque où s'y trouvaient aussi divers animaux qui de nos jours n'habitent pas cette contrée. _C. R. Acad. Sci._, Paris, tome 58, 1864, pp. 409-416.

=Villeneuve, L.=

1906.1 Les Grottes de Grimaldi (Baoussé-Roussé). Tome I, fasc. I--Historique et Déscription. Monaco, 4to, 1906.

=Volz, W.=

1907.1 Das geologische Alter der Pithecanthropus-Schichten bei Trinil, Ost-Java. _N. Jahrb. Miner., Geol. u. Paläontol., Festband_, 1907, pp. 256-271.

W

=Walcott, C. D.=

1893.1 Geologic Time as Indicated by the Sedimentary Rocks of North America. _Amer. Geol._, vol. XII, no. 6, 1893, pp. 343-368, Pl. XV.

=Wiegers, F.=

1913.1 Eine Studienreise zu den paläolithischen Fundstellen der Dordogne. (With Schuchhardt and Hilzheimer.) _Zeitschr. f. Ethnol._, Jahrg. 45, Heft I, 1913, pp. 126-160.

=Wilser, L.=

1898.1 Menschenrassen und Weltgeschichte. _Naturwiss. Wochenschr._, Band XIII, Heft I, 1898.

=Woodward, A. S.=

1913.1 On the Discovery of a Palæolithic Human Skull and Mandible in a Flint-Bearing Gravel overlying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching, Sussex. (With Dawson, C.) With an Appendix by Prof. Grafton Elliot Smith. See Dawson, C., 1913.1.

1914.1 Supplementary Note on the Discovery of a Palæolithic Human Skull and Mandible at Piltdown (Sussex). (With Charles Dawson.) With an Appendix by Prof. Grafton Elliot Smith. See Dawson, C., 1914.1.

1914.2 On the Lower Jaw of an Anthropoid Ape (_Dryopithecus_) from the Upper Miocene of Lérida (Spain). _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, London, vol. LXX, pp. 316-320, Pl. XLIV.

1915.1 A Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man in the Department of Geology and Palæontology in the British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, London, S. W. With 4 plates and 12 text-figures. Printed by order of the trustees of the British Museum. 8vo, 1915, 33 pp.

INDEX

INDEX[BK]

A

Abbeville, 109, =116=, 124, =125=, 127, 149, 152, 156, 166, 167, 244, 331

Abri Audit, 245, 246, 248, =255=, 269, 277, 305, 307, 309, 311, 314

Abri Dufaure, 471

Abri Mège, 435, 442

Abris, see Rock Shelters

Achenheim, 30, 160, =161=, 167, 176, 195, 284, 314

_Achenschwankung_, see Postglacial Stage

Acheulean, 14-16, 18, 30; chronology, 33, 41, 89; climate, 112, =117=, =118=, =165=, 166, =173=, =174=, 175-177, 186; fauna, =144-148=, 165; geography (physical), 166; human fossils, 24, =181-185=; industry, 14, 16, 18, 41, 108, 113, 122-124, =169-173=, 177-180, 270, 280, 362; stations, 151, 158-162, =166-169=; see Origin

Æschylus, on the prehistory of man, 3, 505

Aggsbach, 29, 435, 448

Agriculture, 2, 486, 496

_Aiguille_, needle, =271=, 310, 313, 387, 388, =391=, =392=, 440, 443-445, 449, 461, 462

_Alactaga jaculus_, 373, =374=; see Jerboa

_Alces_, 187, 287, 369; _latifrons_, 70, see Moose

Alento, 167

Alpera, 469, 497

Alpine fauna, see Fauna

Alpine race, 278, 458, 479, 480, 481, 484, 485, 491, =499=, =500=

Alpine vole, =371=, see _Arvicola nivalis_

Altamira, 17, 319, 321, 331, 332, 346, 368, 385, 394, =395=, 399, 408, 415, 416, =422-427=, 434, 435, Pl. VIII

Ancestry of Man, see Man

Ancona, 167

Andernach, 160, 195, 279, 372, 378, 435

Anthropoid Apes, 3, 21; ancestry, =49-61=; brain, =52-60=; compared with Grimaldi, 266, with Neanderthal, 9, 217, 230-233, 237-240, with Piltdown, 140, 141, with _Pithecanthropus_, 9, 77-79; known to Carthaginians, 511, 512; recent discoveries, 511

Anthropology, rise of, 3-10

_Antilope saiga_, see Saiga antelope

Anvils, bone, 211, 253, 256, 271; see _Compresseur_

Apes, see Anthropoid

Arboreal life, effects of, 56, 57

Archæology, rise of, 10-18

Archer, 329

_Arctomys marmotta_, 182, 370; see Marmot

Arcy-sur-Cure, 214, 219, 435

Argali sheep, 46, 285, 287, =371=; see _Ovis argaloides_

Arrow, 214, 258, 270, 272, 344, =353=, =354=, 410, 450, =497=

Art, 13, 14, 17, 21, =315-330=, 332, =347-350=, =392-434=, 449, see Aurignacian, Magdalenian, Solutrean, Engraving, Painting, Sculpture, Industry; implements used in, =270=, 309-312, 321, =329=, =330=, 385, 396, 415, 463; means of dating, =317-320=

Arudy, 435, 436

_Arvicola_, _amphibius_, 147; _gregalis_, 373; _nivalis_, 370, 371

Ascoli Piceno, 167

Ass, wild (kiang), see Horse

Aurensan, 435, 438, 471

Aurignac, 5, 13, 14, 16, 275, 279, =290=, 294, 314

Aurignacian, 14-16, 18, 275, 276; art, =315-330=, 403, 404, 408; burial customs, =302-305=; chronology, 33, 41, 351; climate, 123, =281-286=; fauna, =285-289=; human fossils, =289-305=; industry, 16, 18, 41, 108, =269-271=, 275-277, 280, =305-313=, 329, 330, 362; stations, 275, 283, 284, 289, 307, =313-315=; see Origin

Aurignacian race, see Combe-Capelle man

Aurochs, see _Bos primigenius_ and Cattle

Australian head type, 136, 228, 232, 234

Awl, see _Poinçon_

Axe, 493, 494

Azilian, see Azilian-Tardenoisian

Azilian-Tardenoisian, 16, 275, 451, 456; art, 456; burial customs, =475-479=; chronology, 275, 456, 459; climate, 463, 468; fauna, 463, 466, =468-470=, 471, 472, 474; human fossils, 461, =475-485=; industry (Azilian), 15, 16, 18, =270=, =271=, 275, 276, 456, =459-465=, 466, =470-475=, (Tardenoisian) 16, 18, =270=, =271=, 450, 456, =465-468=, 470-472, (painted pebbles) 394, 456, 461, =463-465=; stations, 459, 463, 466, 467, =472-475=; see Origin

B

Badegoule, 279, 331, 336, 435

Badger, 165, 201, 343, 367, 447, 498; see _Meles taxus_

Ballahöhle, 279, 331, 336

Baltic race, 458, 486, 500; see Maglemose

Balverhöhle, 471

Baoussé Roussé, see Grimaldi, Grottes de

Baousso da Torre, see Grimaldi, Grottes de

Barma Grande, see Grimaldi, Grottes de

_Bâton de commandement_, 271, 311, 312, 345, =358=, =359=, 388, 391, 432, 443-445, 449

Baumannshöhle, 160, 195, 245, 247, 248, 439

Bear, 43, 44, 62, 95, 96, 165, 213, 245, 264, 287, 288, 333, 343, 348, 367, 378, 430, 441, 447, 461, 468, 498; see Cave-bear and _Ursus_

Beaver, 63, 95, 134, 165, 182, 288, 348, 367, 447, 461, 468, 498, see _Castor_; giant, III, 155, see _Trogontherium_

Bernifal, 321, 395, 396, 435

Billancourt, 109, 149, 152

Bison, Wisent, 13, 43, 44, 69, 71, 95, 98, 106, 125, 147, 165, 192, 194, 196, 202, 206, 211, 223, 287, 288, 317, 321, 333, 348, =353=, 356, 364, 368, 372, 385, =403=, 405, 406, 410, =414=, 420, 421, =423-428=, =430=, 431, 449, 466, 469, 496, 498, 505, 506, Pls. VII and VIII; see _Bison_

_Bison_, _antiquus_, 69; _priscus_, 71, 95, 148, 368, see Bison

Blade, see _Couteau_ and _Lame_

Bléville, 167

Boar, wild, 2, 3, 43, 44, 76, 95, 264, 265, 421, 426, 447, 461, 466, 468, 498; see _Sus_

Bockstein, 285, 314, 435, 442

Bois Colombes, 109, 149, 152

Borer, drill, see _Perçoir_

_Bos_, 71, 369, 405; _longifrons_, 498; _primigenius_, 71, 94, 222, 368, 413, 468, 469, 498; _taurus_, 447, 498; see Cattle

Bossuet, on the prehistory of man, 503, 504

Brachycephaly, 7, 8, 78, 183, 457, 458, 478-485

Brain, anthropoid, 51, 52, 56, 59; Brünn, 334, 490; Combe-Capelle, =236=, 302, 490; Crô-Magnon, 272, 292, 294, 299, 490; evolution of, 8, 9, =56-60=; Grimaldi, 269, 490; Modern, =56-59=, 83, 84, 140, 235, 303, 490; Neanderthal, 9, 58, 59, =235-237=, 490; Ofnet, 480, 490; Piltdown, 58, 59, =139-141=, 236, 490; _Pithecanthropus_ 9, 58, 59, =83=, =84=, 490

Brassempouy, 14, 279, 314, 322, 331, 347, 355, 393, =395=, 433-435, 438

Brive, 307, 314

Bronze Age, 12, 18, 21, 202, 267, 460, 461, 476

Bruniquel, 279, 348, 388, 427, 435, 436

Brünn, 279, 315, 322, 331, 334-337, =395=, Pl. II; race, 23, 257, 276, 278, 302, 331, 333, =334-338=, 480, 489-491, 500; see Brüx, Galley Hill, Předmost, Human fossils, and Origin

Brüx, 334; see Brünn race

Buchenloch, 245, 314, 435

Buffon, G. L. L., 3

_Bühl_, see Postglacial Stage

Burial customs, 24, 215, 221-223, 270, 271, 302, =303-305=, 337, =376-380=, =475-479=

_Burin_, graver, =270=, =306-308=, 310, 386, 389, 470

C

Cabeço da Arruda, 467, 471, 474

Camargo, 279, 294, 314, 331, 435

Campignian, 493-495

Campigny, 471; see Campignian

Camps, open, 29, =30=, 176, 283, 284, 314, 334, 337, 341-343, 442, 448

Canary Islands, 453, 454, =506-510=

_Canis_, _lagopus_, =193=, 206, see Fox, arctic; _neschersensis_, 333; _suessi_, 147; see Dog, Jackal, and Wolf

Cannibalism, 184, 477

Cannstatt, 10, 105, 218, 220, 331

Cap-Blanc, 317, =395=, 428, =431=, 435

_Capreolus_, 70, 147, 367, 469; see Deer, roe-

Capri, 167, 168

Caramanico, 167

Castillo, 33, 150, =162-165=, 167, 245, 246, 279, 314, 319, 320, 324, 325, 331, 342, 349, =395=, =402=, 408, 435, 436, 459, 460, 471

_Castor_, 69; _fiber_, 147, 183, 470; see Beaver

Cattle, wild (Aurochs, Urochs, urus), 43, 44, 62, 66, 76, 95, 98, 106, 119, 125, 148, 165, 182, 192, 206, 211, 214, 245, 265, 284, 288, 325, 333, 348, 356, 368, 372, 392, 405, =413=, 461, 466, 468, 469, 497, 498, 505, 506; see _Bos_ and _Leptobos_

Cave-bear, =10=, =11=, 13, 182, 194, 197, 201, 202, 206, =210=, =211=, 212, 213, 218, 287, =401=, =413=; see _Ursus spelæus_

Cave-hyæna, 11, 212, 218, 265, 287, 288; see _Hyæna crocuta spelæa_

Cave-leopard, 206, 287; see _Felis pardus spelæa_

Cave-lion, 201, 206, 265, 287; see _Felis leo spelæa_

Caverns, 24; formation of, =30-33=, 212; life in, 2, 30, 32, =211-213=, 457

Cavillon, Grotte de, see Grimaldi, Grottes de

Cazelle, 435

Cephalic index, 8, 480, 490

Ceppagna, 167

Cergy, 109, 149, 152

_Cervus, carnutorum_, 71; _dama_, 498; _dicranius_, 71; _elaphus_, 70, 94, 147, 367, 392, 426, 461, 469; _maral_, 367, 447; _sedgwicki_, 69, 71; see Deer and Stag

Chaffaud, Grotte du, 396, 404, 435, 438

Chaleux, Trou de, 435

Chamois, _Rupicapra_, 44, 46, 201, 264, 265, 357, 365, 366, =369=, =371=, 466

Champs, 435, 436

Champs Blancs, 331, 348, 435

Chancelade, 279, =376-378=, 382, 435

Chapelle-aux-Saints, La, 7, 9, =203=, 214, =222-224=, =226-232=, =235-238=, =241-243=, 245, 246

Châtelperron, 305, 307, 314; see _Pointe_

Chellean, 14-16, 18; chronology, 33, 34, =113-115=, 120; climate, =117,= =118=; fauna, =144-148=; geography (physical), 115, =116=, =154-157=; industry, 12, 14, 16, 18, 41, 108, 114, =148-154=, =270=, 280, 362; stations, =149=, 152, 154-158; see Origin

Chelles, 16, 109, =111=, 116, 149, 152, =154=, 167, 244

Chimpanzee, 3, 8, 49, =52-56=, 58, 59, 78, 140, 227, 231, 235, 490, 511, 512

Chipping, see Flint

Chisel, see _Ciseau_

Chronology, 10, 12-14, 16, =18-24=, =41=, 510; tables, 18, 21, 22, 23, 33, 41, 43, 54, 108, 280, 362, 395, 491; means of estimating, 19, 20, =22-24=, =317-320=

_Ciseau_, chisel, =270=, =271=, 388, 392, 444

Climate, effect on fauna, 46, 47, 192, 194, 205, 284-287; effect on man, 33, 297, 332, 372, 382; glacial, 20, 29, 34, 37-43, 64-66, 89, 104, 105, 114, 117, 188-194, 202, 205, 281, 285; interglacial, 20, 29, 30, 33, 34, 37-41, 43, 67, 90, 91, 95, 103, 112, 117, 118, 186-188; Pliocene, 63; Postglacial, 23, 41, 43, 276, 281-284, 361-363

Clothing, 2, 178, 186, 213, 388, 392, 496

Cogul, 394, 497

Colombes, 109, 149, 152

Combarelles, 319, =395-397=, =399-401=, 435

Combe-à-Roland, 331

Combe-Capelle, 167, 192, 196, 197, 199, 211, 245, 248, 249, 252, 253, 255, 279, 314; man (_Homo aurignacensis_), =302=, =303=, 338

Combo-Negro, 435, 436

_Compresseur_, =271=; see Anvils

Continental outline, 19, =34-37=, 64, 65, 71, 86, 92, 105, 115, 116, 155, 156, 166, 189, 190, 281, 282, 288, 362

Cotte de St. Brelade, La, 214, =225=, 245

Cottés, Les, 213, 314

_Coup de poing_, =113=, =114=, =121=, 129, 130, =152-154=, 169-173, 177-180, 222, 251-254, 256, =270=

_Couteau_ (knife, blade), 130, 172, 177, 180, =270=, 306, 308, 310, 386, 389, 488, 494

Crayford, 198, 245

Créteil, 109, 149, 152

_Cricetus phæus_, 373, =374=; see Hamster

Crô-Magnon, 279, =291=, 314, 331, 437, Pl. II; man, 7, =273=, 279, =291-294=, =300=, =301=; race, 7, 23, 54, 240, 257, 258, 260, 261, 263, 265-276, =278=, 280-282, 284, =289-305=, 336, 351, 358, 376-382, 434, 440, 443, 449-454, 457-459, 489-492, 499, 500, 506-510, Pl. VII

Cromer, Forest Bed of, 64, 67, 68, 71

Crosle Biscot, 435

Crouzade, 331, 341, 435, =437=

Culture, see Industry

_Cyon alpinus fossilis_, 201

D

Dart-thrower, see _Propulseur_

_Daun_, see Postglacial Stage

Deer, =44=, 125, 134, 245, 265, 356, 426, see _Cervus_; _Axis_, 62, 71, 76, 102; fallow, 265, 469, 497, see _Cervus dama_; giant, 43, 94, 96, 165, 187, 206, 211, 213, 288, 335, see _Megaceros_; polycladine, 63, 102, see _Cervus dicranius_ and _sedgwicki_; red, 44, 287, 426, 447, see _Cervus elaphus_ and Stag; roe-, 44, 94, 95, 165, 264, 265, 287, 404, 447, 466, 468, 488, 498, see _Capreolus_; rusa, 76

_Dicerorhinus_ (R.), _antiquitatis_, 46, 106, 285, see Rhinoceros, woolly; _etruscus_, 41, 63, 69, see Rhinoceros, Etruscan; _merckii_, 41, =92-94=, 117, 148, 263, see Rhinoceros, Merck's

Dog, domestic, 474, 486, 488, 497, 499

Dolichocephaly, 7, 8, 78, 220, 230, 231, 266, 268, 334, 336, 338, 457, 478-481

Domestic Animals, 447, 466, 474, 486, 488, 497-499

Drill, see _Perçoir_

_Dryopithecus_, 6, 49, 50, 511

Dürnten, 20, 117, 119

Dürntenian, 107, 119

Duruthy, see Sorde

E

Ehringsdorf, 167, 181, 214

Elasmothere, _E. sibiricum_, 46, 286, 373

Elephant, 38, 43, 44, 47, 72, 76, 86, =91-95=, 102, 117, 119, 123, 124, 147, 148, 155, 157, 161, 174, 177, 186, 187, 192, 205, 245, 264; see _Elephas_

_Elephas_, _antiquus_, 27, 41, 47, 72, 76, =92-94=, 96, 117, 123, 125, 148, 165, 263; _hysudricus_, 76; _meridionalis_, 26, 27, 41, 62, 69, 72, =92=, 125; _planifrons_, 62; _primigenius_, 26, 46, 106, 285; _trogontherii_, 41, 93, 102, 117; see Elephant and Mammoth

Elevation, see Continental outline

Enfants, Grotte des, see Grimaldi, Grottes de, and Grimaldi race

Engis, 435, 453

Engraving, 317, =319-324=, 326, 348, 349, 353, 355, 356, 358, =392-407=

_Eoanthropus dawsoni_, 138, see Piltdown

Eolith, 11, 68, =84-86=, 135

Eolithic, Era, 17, 18; industry, 17

_Equus_, _caballus celticus_, =367-369=, 400, 408, 412, 419, 431, 432, 498; _przewalski_, 194, =367=, 373, 408, 410, 419; _stenonis_, 27, =62=, 63, 69, 72; see Horse

Erect attitude, 4, =57-60=, 73, 74, 82, 241-244

Ermine, _Mustela erminia_, 46, 207, 370, 447, 469

Etruscan rhinoceros, see Rhinoceros

Eyzies, Les, 13, 249, 279, 331, =378=, 388, 394, 435

F

Fate, Grotte delle, 245, 247

Fauna, 19-21, =38-47=, 61-64, 66, 69, 108; Acheulean, =117=, =147=, =148=, 165, 177, 182; African-Asiatic, 43, 44, 47, 62, 63, 71, 72, 86, 91-94, 205, 206, 287; alpine, 44, 46, 206, 287; Aurignacian, 284-289; Azilian-Tardenoisian, 466, =468-470=, 472; Chellean, =117=, 125, =144-148=; forest, 44, 71, 206, 287; glacial, 105, 106, 117, 190-194, 196, 197, 205-214, 265; interglacial, 69-72 91-98, 101-103, 108-112, 117, 119, 123-125, 186-188, 265; Magdalenian, =364-376=, 385, 397-434, 449, 466, 469; meadow, 44, 71, 206, 287; Mousterian, =117=, 186-188, =190-194=, 196, 197, =199-214=, 218, 221-223, 225, 263, 264; Pliocene, 54, =61-64=, 144; Postglacial, =281=, 364, 468, 469, 498, 499; Pre-Chellean, 108-112, =117=, =125=; Siwalik, 76; Solutrean, =332=, =333=, 343, 348; steppe, 44, 46, 194, 206, 281, 287, 362-366, =373-376=, 449, 450; tundra, 44, 46, =190-194=, 206-211, 281, 285, 287, 348, 361, 362-366, =370-373=; migrations of, 19, 34-37, 62-64, 71, 72, 202, 205-210, 287; represented in Palæolithic art (list), 366; see Climate, for effect of, and Faunal lists

Faunal lists, 95, 125, 147, 206, 207, 287, 366

_Faune chaude_, 39, 91, 192; see Mousterian fauna

_Faune froide_, see Mousterian fauna

Faustkeil, see _Coup de poing_

Fées, Grotte des, 279, 435

_Felis_, _leo_, 72, 92, 469; _leo antiqua_, 147; _leo spelæa_, 47, 188; _manul_, 447; _pardus spelæa_, 201; see Cave-leopard, Cave-lion, Leopard, Lion, and Wildcat

Femur (thigh-bone), 73, 74, 77, 80, =237-241=, 266, 298, 376, 380

Fère-en-Tardenois, 16, 465, 471

Ferrassie, La, 7, 214, 216, =219=, =224=, 232, 237, 245, 246, 269

Fire, use of, 2, 165, 212, 213

First Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch

First Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch

Fishing, 355, 385, 390, 450, 465, 471

Flake, see Levallois

Flaking, see Flint

Flint, chipping, 170; cleavage, 171; flaking, 169

Floors, Mousterian, 198, 199

Flora, 20; Acheulean, 117, 118, 174, 175; Chellean, 117, 118; glacial, 65, 108, 117-119, 191, 192, 202, 208; interglacial, 20, 67, 90, 91, 117-119; Mousterian, 199; Pliocene, 61, 63; Postglacial, 361, 372, 375, 463, 488; Pre-Chellean, 117, 118; Pre-Neolithic, 488

Font-de-Gaume, 283, 314, 318, 319, 321, 325, 331, 349, 356, 358, 365, 372, 395-397, 399, 406-409, 412, =414-424=, 435, 449

Font Robert, 277, 311, 314, 331, 340, 344

Forestian, Upper, 362; Lower, 282

Forests, see Flora

Foro, 167

Fourth Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch

Fox, 43, 63, 71, 206, 265, 287, 333, 343, 348, 366, 447, 498, see _Vulpes_; arctic, 44, 46, =193=, 207, 287, 289, 348, 370, 447, 468, 469, see _Canis lagopus_.

Freudenthal, 279, 435

Frileuse, 167

Frontal, Trou de, 435

Fuente del Frances, 435

Furfooz, 7, 279, =481-483=, Pl. II; race, 278, 458, 480, 482-485, 489, 491, 492, 500; see Grenelle, Ofnet, and Origin

Furninha, 167, 168

G

Galley Hill, 28, 302, 337, 338; see Brünn race

Gansersfelsen, 435

Garenne, 435, 440

Gargano, 167

Gargas, 31, 307, 314, 317, 325, =327=, 349, =394=, =395=

Germolles, 307, 314

Gibbon, =49-54=, 58, 61, 63, 77, 511; see _Hylobates_

Gibraltar skull, 7, 9, 140, 214, =215=, =216=, 219, 226, 228, 232, 233, 236

Glacial Epoch, 18-23, 33, 40, 41, 43, 54; chronology, 18-23, 40, 41, 108, 188, 280, 362; see Climate, Continental outline, Fauna, Glaciers; First Glacial Stage (Günz), 23, 25, 26, 37, 38, 41, 43, =64-66=; Second Glacial Stage (Mindel), 23, 25, 26, 33, 37, 38, 41, 43, 65, =86-90=; Third Glacial Stage (Riss), 23, 25, 26, 33, 37-39, 41, 43, 94, =104-106=, 115; Fourth Glacial Stage (Würm), 18, 22, 23, 25, 26, 30, 32, 33, 36-38, 41, 43, 107, 108, 117, 160, =188-195=, 205, 206, 280, 281, 284, 285, 362, _Laufenschwankung_, 41, 108, 280, 362; First Interglacial Stage (Günz-Mindel or Norfolkian), 23, 26, 29, 33-35, 38, 41, 43, =66-72=, 84, 95, 115; Second Interglacial Stage (Mindel-Riss), 23, 25, 29, 33, 38, 40, 41, 43, 69, =90-95=, 109-111, 114, 115; Third Interglacial Stage (Riss-Würm), 23, 25, 29, 33, 34, 36, 38-41, 43, 69, 94, 107, 108, 112, 113, =115-119=, 186-188, 280, 362; Postglacial Stage, 18-23, 29, 32, 33, 36, 41, 43, 108, =280-284=, 362, 468, 510, _Bühl_, 23, 25, 26, 41, 108, 276, 280, =281=, =361=, =362=, 370, 372, 446, 447, 449, _Gschnitz_, 23, 41, 108, 276, 280, =281=, 362, =363=, 372, 449, 450, _Daun_, 23, 41, 108, 276, 280, =281=, 362, =363=, _Achenschwankung_, 25, 26, =281=, =282=, 284

Glaciers, 64-66, 89, 90, 94, 104-106, 118, 189, 190, 361-363

Glutton, see _Gulo luscus_ and Wolverene

Gobelsburg, 435, 448

Goccianello, 167, 168

Gorge d'Enfer, 331, 435

Gorilla, 49, 52, =54-56=, 511, 512

Goulaine, 435, 438

Gourdan, 214, 279, 331, 341, 369, 388, 392, 435, 438

Goyet, 435

_Grattoir_, 129, 130, 177, 254, =270=, =306-310=, =386=, 390, 470, =473=, 494; _caréné_, 308, =309=, 463

Graver, see _Burin_

_Gravette_, etching tool, 270

Gravette, La, 277, 311, 314

Gray's Thurrock, 28, 109, 116, 128, 149, 152, =156=, =157=

Greek conception of nature and of the prehistory of man, 1-3

Grenelle, 279, 481, 482, 484; race, see Furfooz

Grèze, La, 314, 317, 327, 331, =395=, 396

Grimaldi, Grottes de (Baoussé Roussé), 245, 247, =262-265=, 279, =294=, 295, 312-314, 321, 323, 380; Baousso da Torre, 263, 294; Barma Grande, 263, 294; Cavillon, Grotte de, 263, 294; Enfants, Grotte des, =263-265=, 292, 294-297, see Grimaldi race; Prince, Grotte du, 262, 263

Grimaldi race, 7, 19, 245, 260, 262-269, 278, 279, =294=, 301, 314, 490-492

_Gschnitz_, see Postglacial Stage

Guanches, 453-455, 507-510

Gudenushöhle, 245, 248, 279, 307, 314, 435, 448

_Gulo luscus_, 469; _borealis_, =193=; see Wolverene

Günz, see Glacial Epoch

H

_Hachette_ (_tranchette_, chopper, cleaver), =270=, 488, 494

Hammer-stone, see _Percuteur_

Hamster, 46, 63, 147, 165, 287, 362, 364, =374=

Hand-axe, see _Coup de poing_

Hand-stone, see _Coup de poing_

Hare, 289, 333, 368, 447, 468, 498, see _Lepus_ (_timidus_); arctic, 46, 207, 287, 348, 370, 447, 468, 469, see _Lepus variabilis_; tailless, see _Lagomys_ and Pika

Harpoons, 355, 383-385, =387=, =388=, 390, 391, 440, 443-445, 449, 450, 456, =460-462=, 465, 466, 470, 474, 486, 487

Hastings, 471, 475

Heidelberg man, Mauer, 7, 23, 24, 40, 41, 53, 54, 90, =95-101=, 114, 138, 143, 144, 214, 228, 229, 489, 491, 492, Pl. II

Heidelberg race, see Heidelberg man and Origin

Helin, 109, =116=, 127, =128=, 149, 152, 166, 167

Helvetian, see Dürntenian

Hermida, La, 435

Hippopotamus, _H. major_, 38, 39, 41, 43, 44, 47, 69, 71, 86, 91, =92-94=, 102, 117, 123-125, 134, 147, 148, 155, 157, 165, 174, 177, 186, 192, 199, 263, 264

Höhlefels bei Hütten, 435, 442

Höhlefels bei Schelklingen, 435, 442

Hohlestein, 314, 435

Hommes, Grotte des, 279, 435

_Homo_, _aurignacensis_, see Combe-Capelle man; _heidelbergensis_, see Heidelberg man; _mousteriensis_, see Neanderthal race; _neanderthalensis_, see Neanderthal race; _sapiens_, 7, 9, 10, 54, 230-234, 257, 260, 261, 278, 334, 484, 490, 491, 500

Horace, on the prehistory of man, 3, 504

Hornos de la Peña, =245-247=, 314, 331, =395=, 435, 436

Horse, 45, 165, 182, 192, 225, 284, 355, 385, 392, =404=, 405, 407, =408=, =410=, =412-414=, =431=, =432=, 469, 498; Desert, Plateau or Celtic, see _Equus caballus celticus_; Forest or Nordic, 95, 147, 288, 289, =367=, 369, 400, 498; Hipparion, 63; kiang or wild ass, 194, 285-287, 366, =367=, =372-374=, 400, 447; Solutré, =288=, =289=, 414; Steno's, 34, 96, 110, 111, 125, see _Equus stenonis_; Steppe, see _Equus przewalski_

Hôteaux, Les, 279, =378=, =379=, 435

Hoxne, 158

Human figures, 317, =321-323=, =328=, =329=, 337, 357, 393, =395=, 399, =433=, 434, 497

Human fossils, 4, 11; distribution of, 214, 279; tables of, 7, 219, 294, 336, 378, 490; see Lists

Human races, see Lists and Origin

Hunting, 2, 11, 166, 202, =211-214=, 283, 372, 456, 471, 496, 497

Hyæna, 43, 62, 76, 110, 147, 148, 155, 165, 188, 214, 245, 265, 317, 356, 476; see Cave-hyæna and _Hyæna_

_Hyæna_, _brevirostris_, 125; _crocuta_, 102, 147; _crocuta spelæa_, 47, 102, 188; _striata_, 92, 102; see Hyæna

_Hylobates_, 6; see Gibbon

I

Ibex, _Ibex priscus_, 44, 46, 201, 206, 264, 265, 287, 289, 321, 348, =357=, 369, =371=, 391, 401, 405, 433, 447, 466, 469, 497

Ice Age, see Glacial Epoch

Ice-fields, 19, 22; see Glaciers

Implements, 11, 27-30, 130, =270=, =271=; art, =270=, 329, 330; see Eolith, Flint, Industry, Lists, Neolith, Palæolith

Industry, 4, 11, 12-14, 19, 33, see Acheulean, Aurignacian, Azilian-Tardenoisian, Chellean, Campignian, Magdalenian, Mousterian, Neolithic, Pre-Chellean, Solutrean; see Lists and Implements

Interglacial Stages, see Glacial Epoch

Iron Age, 12, 18, 21, 202, 267

Irpfelhöhle, 245, 248

Istein, 469, 471-473

Isturitz, 347, =395=

J

Jackal, 43, 44; see _Canis neschersensis_

Javelin point, see _Sagaie_

Jerboa, 46, 194, 287, 364; see _Alactaga jaculus_

K

Kärlich, 314

Kartstein, 245, 248, 314, 435

Kastlhäng, 370, 435, 442

Kent's Hole, 10, 152, =244=, =245=, 435, 440

Kesslerloch, 279, 286, 355, 361, 364, 378, 383, 435, 436, 441, 442, =444-446=, 449

Kiang, wild ass, see Horse

Kleinkems, 471

Knife, blade, see _Couteau_ and _Lame_

Knight, Charles R., see Restorations

Kostelìk, 435, 448

Krapina, 7, 162, 167, =181-185=, 214, 219, 220, 228, 229, 256

Krems, 119, 248, 289, 307, 314, 435, 448

L

Lacave, 279, 331, 340, 345, 347, 391

_Lagomys_, 63; _pusillus_, 202, 370, see Pika

_Lagopus_, see Ptarmigan

Lamarck, on man, 4

_Lame_, blade, 271

_Lampe_, lamp, 270, =401=, =402=

_Laufenschwankung_, see Glacial Epoch

Laugerie Basse, 13, 14, 275, 279, 331, 348, =376-378=, 385, 388, 392, 407, 434, 435, 471

Laugerie Haute, 13, 14, 279, 294, =296=, 314, 331, 346, 352, 435

Laussel, 245, 246, 249, 275, 313, 314, 317, =326-329=, 331, 352, =395=, 435

Lauterach, 314

Lemming, 46, 191, =193=, 194, 202, 207, 281, 287, 333, 348, 361, 364, 370, 469, 476; see _Myodes_

Leopard, 265, 348; see Cave-leopard and _Felis pardus spelæa_

Leptobos, 71; _elatus_, 62; _etruscus_, 63; see Cattle

_Lepus_, 469; _cuniculus_, 364, see Rabbit; _timidus_, 364, see Hare; _variabilis_, 206, see Hare, arctic

Levallois, 167, 179

Levallois flake, 167, 168, =179=, 180, 199, 250, 251

Limeuil, 279, 435

Lion, 43, 86, 94-96, 98, 148, 165, 188, 281, 317, 348, 356, 365, 378, 400, =407=, 446, 468, 472, 498; see Cave-lion and _Felis leo_

_Lissoir_, polisher, smoother, =270=, =271=, 380, 388, 392, 456, 463, 466, 470

Lists and Tables, chronology, 18, 21, 22, 23, 33, 41, 54, 108, 280, 362; climatic changes, 38, 39, 41, 43, 117, 191, 192, 275, 281, 284, 361-364; fauna, 21, 41, 43, 54, 62, 95, 125, 147, 206, 207, 287; human fossils, 7, 9, 219, 236, 237, 239, 266, 294, 295, 336, 378, 490; human races, 41, 54, 108, 278, 280, 362, 458, 490, 491, 499, 500; industries, divisions of, 18, 113, 114, 248, 249, 252, 340, 389, succession of, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 33, 41, 108, 280, 362; implements, 130, 172, 254, 270, 271, 306, 308, 310

Liveyre, 331, 435

Loam, 5, 24, 27, 28

Loess, 5, 23-25, =29=, =30=, 36, 38, 46, 97, 103, 112, 115, 117-119, 122-124, 151, 159, 161, 162, 174, 176, 181, 252, 281, 282, 284, 286, 314, 334, 337, 364, 376, 442, 448; stations, see Camps, open

Longueroche, 435, 471

Lorthet, 406, 407, 435, 438, 471

Lourdes, 279, 388, 432, 435, 436, 438, 471

Lower Rodent Layer, see Rodent Layers

Lucretius on the prehistory of man, 1, 2, 503

Lussac, 279, 435

_Lutra vulgaris_, 147; see Otter

_Lynchus lynx_, 469; see Lynx

Lynx, 43, 63, 206, 287, 367, 466; see _Lynchus lynx_

M

Macaque, 54, 61, 63, 69, 76

Macerata, 167

_Machærodus_, 41, 69, 244; see Sabre-tooth tiger

Madeleine, La, 13, 16, 279, 351, =383-389=, 398, 435, 443, 445, 449, 471

Magdalenian, 14-16, 18, 276, 277, 351-360; art, 351-357, 365, 366, 393, =395-434=; burial customs, =376-380=; chronology, 18, 33, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281, 351, 361-364; climate, 276, =360-364=, =370-376=, 443, 447, 449, 450; fauna, =361-376=, 443, 445-447, 449, 450; human fossils, =376-382=; industry, 14-16, =270=, =271=, 275, 276, 351-356, 358, =382-392=, 436, 440, 443-450; stations, 351, =434-449=; see Origin and Rodent Layers

Maglemose, 458, 471, =487=, =488=, 501

Magrite, Trou, 314, 331, 344, 435

Mairie, Grotte de la, 317, =395=, 400, 405, 412, =413=, 435, 442

Malarnaud, 214, 219

Mammoth, 10, 43, 102, 109, 117, 134, 147, 148, 177, 187, 194, 200, 202, 205, 206, 213, 218, 281, 288, 289, 316, 317, 321, 324-326, 333, 337, =348-350=, 356, 364, 372, 385, 401, 403, =420=, =421=, =427=, 429, 449, 450, 476, see _Elephas_; woolly, 13, 40, 41, 43, 106, 117, 174, 187, =190-192=, 196, 205, =207=, =208=, 210, 218, 221, =285-289=, 334, 335, 363, 370, 372, 384, =397=, =398=, 420, 427, 446, see _Elephas primigenius_

Man, ancestry of, 3-7, =49-64=, 491, 511

Mantes-la-Ville, 167

Marcilly-sur-Eure, 214

Mare-au-Clercs, La, 167

Marignac, 109, 126, 149, 152

Markkleeberg, 167

Marmot, _Arctomys marmotta_, 182, 201, 206, 265, 370

Marsoulas, 314, 319, 321, 328, 373, =394=, =395=, 396, 399, 403, 405, 415, 416, 435, 471, 485

Marten, 71, 165, 201, 265, 367, 380, 447, 498; see _Mustela martes_

Martinshöhle, 435, 471

Mas d'Azil, 15, 16, 279, 319, 357, 375, 380, 385, 388, 391-396, 432, 433, 435, 437, 449, =458-465=, 471, 472, 474

Massat, 437, 471

Mastodon, 62, 70, 134

Maszycka, 435, 436, 449

Mauer, see Heidelberg man

McGregor, J. Howard, see Restorations

Mediterranean race, 261, 278, 457, 458, 479, 480, 485, 489, 491, 492, 499, 500

_Megaceros_, 45, =68=, 70, 106, 147, 182, 196, 287, 367; see Deer, giant

_Meles taxus_, 147; see Badger

Mentone, 247, 322, 395, 472, 473; see Grimaldi, Grottes de

Merck's Rhinoceros, see _Dicerorhinus_ and Rhinoceros

Mesaticephaly, 8, 479

Metternich, 284, 314

Micoque, La, 113, =167=, =168=, 179, 192, 196, 245, 246, 248, 249

Microlith, see _Microlithique_

_Microlithique_, microlith, =270=, 306, 308, 310, 388, 396, 450, 470-472

Migration, of fauna, see Fauna; of human races and industries, see Origin

Mindel, see Glacial Epoch

Miskolcz, 245, 248, 331

Mommenheim, 245, 247, 248

Monkeys, 54, 61-63

Montconfort, 279, 331, 435

Montfort, 341, 471

Monthaud, 331, 346

Montières, 109, 127, 149, 152, 186, 244, 245, 283, 314, 331

Moose, 44, 94, 96, 265, 281, 348, 366, 468, 469, 472, 488, 496-498; see Alces

Moulin-de-Laussel, 331

Mousterian, 14-16, 18, 30, =186-188=, 248-250; burial customs, 222, 223, 271; chronology, 18, 33, 41, 108, 280, 362; climate, 117, 123, =188-199=, 202, 205, 207; fauna, 117, 190-194, 196, =199-214=; flora, 199; human fossils, =218-226=; industry, 14-16, =113=, =248-256=, =270=, =271=; stations, 194-202, =244-248=; see Caverns, life in, Floors, and Origin

Moustier, Le, 13, 16, =196-199=, 214, 245, 246, 251, 253, 255; man, 7, 196, 214, =221-223=, 226, 228, frontispiece

Mouthe, La, 17, 246, 279, 314, 317, 320, 321, 394, =395=, =398=, =399=, 401

Mugem, 471, 474, 486

Munzingen, 160, 195, 435, 439, 442, 443

Murals, see Painting

Musk-ox, 42-44, 46, 65, =66=, 187, 191, =193=, 207, 285, 287, 289, 348, 362, 366, 370; see _Ovibos moschatus_

_Mustela_, _erminea_, see Ermine; _martes_, 147, 469, see Marten.

_Myodes_, _lemmus_, 210; _obensis_, 206, 285, 370; _torquatus_, =193=, 202, 206, 285, 370, 441, 446, 447; see Lemming

N

Narbonne, 435, 437

Naulette, La, 7, 214, =221=, 228

Neanderthal, cave, 31, 214, 216, 217, Pl. II; burial customs, see Mousterian; man, 5, 7, 9, 56, 181, =216-219=, 490; race, frontispiece, 5-7, 9, 23, =40=, =41=, 54, 136, 182, 191, 196, =211-244=, 256, 258, 263, 272, 491, 492, anatomical features, 53-56, 183, 184, 203, 219-223, =226-244=, 490, chronology, 41, 108, 257, 262, 280, 491, compared with Crô-Magnon, 297, 298, discoveries, 181-185, =215-226=, distribution of, 214, 219; see Origin

Necklace, 302, 304, 376, 378, =437=, 472

Needle, see _Aiguille_

Negroid race, 261, 262, =266-269=, 278, 301, 302, 321, 492

Neolith, 11, 496

Neolithic, New Stone Age, 10, 13, 18, 19, 21, 41, 108, 280, 362, 447, 482, 484-486, 488, 493-501

_Neopithecus_, 49

Neschers, 245, 435, =438=

Niaux, 314, 319, 353, 373, 391, =394=, =395=, 400, 406, =409-411=, 412, 429, 435

Niedernau, 370, 435

Norfolkian, see First Interglacial Stage and Forest Bed of Cromer

Nutons, Trou des, 435

O

Oban, 474, 475, 486

Obercassel, man, 7, 279, 353, 378, =380-382=, 435, 443

Oberlarg, 435

Ochos, 214, 219, =221=, 228, 245, 248

Ofnet, 279, 285, 314, 331, 370, 435, 469, 471, 473, =475-481=; races, 442, 457-460, 480, 481, 490, 491, 500; see Furfooz race and Origin

Ojcow, 331, 436, 449

Ondratitz, 331

Orang, 3, 49, =52-54=, 56, 77, 511

Origin, of industries, Acheulean, 261, 492, Aurignacian, 261, 289, 305-307, 322, 492, Azilian-Tardenoisian, 457, 470-472, 492, Chellean, 126, 261, 492, Magdalenian, 351-353, 383, Mousterian, 261, Pre-Chellean, 126, Solutrean, 330, 331, 340, 353, 492; of human races, Alpine, 458, 484, 485, Brünn, 331, 492, Crô-Magnon, 261, 322, 492, Furfooz, 492, Grimaldi, 262, Heidelberg, 492, Mediterranean, 492, Neanderthal, 492, Ofnet, 457, 484, 485, Piltdown, 492, Teutonic, 486

Otter, 63, 71, 76, 165, 201, 287, 468, 498; see _Lutra vulgaris_

_Ovibos_, 376; _moschatus_, =193=, 445, 447, see Musk-ox

_Ovis argaloides_, 369; see Argali sheep

P

Painted Pebbles, see Azilian-Tardenoisian industry

Painting, 305, 316-318, 320, 321, =324=, =325=, 327, 328, 330, 358, 365, =394-396=, 404-406, 408-429, 464, 465, 474, 496, 497

Pair-non-Pair, 279, 307, 314, 317, 320-322, 331, =336=, =394-396=

Palæolith, 11, 24, 84, 85, 109, 111, 158, 389

Palæolithic, Old Stone Age, 13, 16, 18, 19, 21, 28, 33, 41, 108, 160, 280, 362; Lower Palæolithic, 14, 41, 108, 113, 114, 214, 280, 362, 490, 491; Upper Palæolithic, 14, 41, 108, 214, 275, 276, 278, 280, 362, 395, 396, 490, 491, 500; chronology, 18, 41, 108, 280, 362, 456

_Palæopithecus_, 49, 511

Parietal Art, see Painting

Pasiega, La, 319, =395=, =402-405=

Pataud, 245, 246, 331

Paviland, 279, =289=, =290=, 294, 314, 440

Pech de l'Azé, 214, 219, 245

_Perçoir_, drill, borer, 130, 135, 153, 172, 179, 253, 254, =270=, 306, 308, 310, 311, 344, 346, 385, 386, 388, 390, 392, 470, 473, 488

_Percuteur_, hammer-stone, 130, 254, =270=, 306

Pescara, 167

Petit Puymoyen, 214, 245, 246

_Pic_, pick, 494

_Pierre de jet_, throwing stone, 130, 172, 213, 254, =270=, 306

Pika, 46, 362, 447; see _Lagomys_ (_pusillus_)

Piltdown, 109, 116, 128, =130-135=, 149, 152, 214, Pl. II; industry, 127, 128, =133-135=; man (_Eoanthropus_), 7, 23, 24, 40, 50, 53, 54, 56, =130-145=, 214, 489-491; race, see Piltdown man and Origin

Pindal, =314-316=, 325, 349, =394=, =395=

_Pithecanthropus_, Trinil race, 7, 23, 24, 40, 53, 54, 86, 491, 511, Pl. II; anatomical features, 9, 10, 53, 56, 74, =77-84=, 233, 234, 240, 490; discovery, =73-77=

Placard, 279, 331, =333=, =334=, 340, 345-348, 352, 353, 355, =378-380=, 383, 385, 389, 435, 436, 438

Planing tool, see _Grattoir_

Pleistocene, see Glacial Epoch

_Pliohylobates_, 49, 54

_Pliopithecus_, 49, 54

_Poignard_, dagger, poniard, =271=, 392, 432

_Poinçon_, awl, 271, 308, 346, 392, 470

_Pointe_, point, knife, lance head, spear head, =15=, 113, 153, 172, 177, 179, =248-255=, =270=, 306, 308, 310, 311, 473; Châtelperron, 306, 307, 311; _pointe à cran_, shouldered, =270=, 308, 310, 313, 334, 340, 342, 345, 346, 352; _pointe à face plane_, 341; _pointe de lance_, =271=, 306; _pointe de laurier_, laurel leaf, =15=, =270=, 310-312, 334, 337, 339-341, 344, 345, 347, 348, 352; _pointe de sagaie_, javelin point, =271=, 308, 340, 346, 354, 355, 361, 364, 370, 383, 387, 390, 442, 449, 462, 494; _pointe de saute_, willow leaf, 340, 344, 347; _pointe à soie_, =270=, 310, 311, 313, 340, 345

Polisher, see _Lissoir_

Portel, Le, 319, 394, =411=, =412=

Postglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch

Pottery, 461, 466, 474, 486, 488, 496

Praule, Trou de, 435

Pre-Chellean, 16, 18, 36, 41; chronology, 18, 33, 40, 41, 90, =107-115=, 280, 362; climate, 108, 112, 114, =117=, =118=, 123; fauna, 108-112, 117, 124, =125=; industry, 40, 114, =120-130=, =270=; stations, 109, 116, =122-128=, 149, 150-152, 158, see Continental outline and Origin

Předmost, 257, 279, 331, 341, 345, 348, 349, 366, =395=, 427; see Brünn race; mammoth hunters, 279, =337=

Primates, 3-10, 40, =49-64=, 73-84, 86, 140, 141, 217, 219, 227, 231, 233-235, 237-240, 490, 491

Prince, Grotte du, see Grimaldi, Grottes de

_Propliopithecus_, 49, 54

Propstfels, 372, 435, 442, 469

_Propulseur_, spear thrower, dart thrower, =271=, 355, 391, 432, 433, 436, 445, =449=

Ptarmigan, _Lagopus_, 44, 206, 207, 287, 289, 370, =371=, =375=, 469

Q

Quartz, 166

Quartzite, 163, 164, 265

Quina, La, 9, 113, 211, 213, 214, 245, 246, 248, 253-256; man, 7, 9, 214, 216, 217, =219=, 221, =225=, 236, 237, 248

R

Rabbit, 265, 343, 368, 468; see _Lepus cuniculus_

_Racloir_, scraper, 113, 114, 130, 135, 172, =178=, 209, 248, 250, 251, =253-255=, =270=, 306, 387, 388, 470, 472, 473, 488

_Rangifer tarandus_, =193=, =209=, 210, =285=; see Reindeer

Räuberhöhle, 245, 247, 248, 314

Raymonden, 349, 376, 388, 435

Reilhac, 331, 471

Reindeer, 13, 41, =43=, =44=, 46, 102, 103, 187, =191-194=, 196, 197, 202, 205, 206, =209=, 210-212, 214, 221, 223, 225, 284, =285=, 286-289, 314, 317, 332, 333, =365=, =366=, 370, 372, 385, 392, 399, =405=, =407=, 411-413, 415, 419-421, =429=, 433, 440, =441=, 445, 447, 461, 462, 468, 469, 471, 474, 481, 498; see _Rangifer_

Reindeer Epoch, Period, 13, 14, 102, 192, 275, 286, 363, 375, 392, 438, 456, 459

Religion, 272, 358-360, 463, 465, 501

Remouchamp, 471, 474

Ressaulier, 435, 436

Restorations, Knight, Charles R., frontispiece, 358; McGregor, J. Howard, 9, 79-82, 87, 137, 140, 142, 143, 145, 203, 242, 243, 273, 293, 300, 301; Rutot-Mascré, 73, 101, 484, 495

Retouch, =169-172=, 248, 269, 306, 308, 310, 331, 332, 338, 339, 358, 389

Rey, 331

Rhens, 284, 314

Rhinoceros, 38, 39, 43, 44, 62, 76, 123, 221, 245, 289, 337, 356, 365, see _Dicerorhinus_; Etruscan, 34, 95-97, 101, 109, 110-112, 117, 125, 134, 144, see _D. etruscus_; Merck's (broad-nosed), 27, 43, 47, =93=, =94=, 97, 102, 109, 119, 124, 125, 134, 147, 148, 151, 155, 157, 161, 164, 165, 177, 182, 186, 187, 192, 205, 263-265, see _D. merckii_; woolly, 11, 13, 40, 41, 117, 148, 174, 187, =190=, 191, 196, 199, 205, 206, =208-210=, 213, 218, 223, 225, 281, =285-288=, 314, =319=, 324-326, 348, 363, 366, 372, 400, 409, see _D. antiquitatis_

Riss, see Glacial Epoch

River-drifts, 5, 11, 12, 23; formation, =24-27=, 90, 119, 154-157, 186; stations, 114-116, 119-124, 154-156; terraces, 20, 23, =24-28=, 34, 85, 90, 104, 154-157, 162

Robenhausen, 471, 495

Roccamorice, 167

Roche au Loup, 307, 314

Rochette, La, 245, 246

Rock Shelters, 32, 33

Rodent Layers, 447; Lower, 206, 207, 211, 281, 314; Upper, 281, 361, 363, 446

Romanelli, 306, 314

Rüderbach, 167

Rüdersheim, 167

_Rupicapra_, see Chamois

Ruth, Le, 314, 331, 435

Rutot-Mascré, see Restorations

S

Sablon, 162, 167

Sabre-tooth tiger, 34, 43, 62, 69, =70=, 72, 94, 102, 110-112, 117, 125, 144, 147; see _Machærodus_

_Sagaie_, javelin point, see _Pointe de sagaie_

Saiga antelope, 44, 46, 194, 287, 289, 333, 357, 362, 366, 373, =374=, 376, =449=

_Saiga tartarica_, see Saiga antelope

Salitre, 435

Saint Acheul, 5, 14, 16, 109, 116, =119-124=, 127-129, =149-152=, 155, 162, 163, 166, 167, 170, 244, 245, 249, 283, 314, 331, 435, 440

Saint Lizier, 435

Saint Martin d'Excideuil, 331

Saint Prest, 17, 67-69

San Isidro, 109, 126, 149, 152, 167, 245, 246

_Sciurus vulgaris_, 367; see Squirrel

Schmiechenfels, 372, 435, 469

Schussenquelle, 372, 435, 442

Schussenried, 435, 441; see Schussenquelle

Schweizersbild, 286, 361, 364, 370, 435, 441, 442, =444-447=, 449, 460

Scraper, see _Racloir_

Sculpture, 317, =320-323=, =328=, =329=, =347-349=, 356-358, 392, 393, =395=, 396, =427-434=

Second Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch

Second Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch

Seven Oaks, 471, 475

Shelters, abris, see Rock Shelters

Šipka, 214, 219, =221=, 228, 245, 247, 248, 435, 449

Sireuil, 314, 322, 395

Sirgenstein, =201=, =202=, 245, 248, 285, 314, 331, 370, 372, 435, 441, 460

_Sivapithecus_, 511

Siwalik, see Fauna

Solutré, 16, 279, 283, 286, 288, 294, 314, 330, 331, =341-345=, 373, 435, 436, 438

Solutrean, 14-16, 18, 41, =270=, =271=, 276, 278, 280; art, =347-350=, 357; burial customs, 332; chronology, 18, 33, 41, 108, 280, 362; climate, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281, =332=, =333=; fauna, =332-334=, 343, 348, 366; human fossils, 279, =334-337=; industry, 275-278, 330-332, 334, =338-348=, 351, 352, 354, 358; stations, 326-328, =331=, 337, =340-348=, see Origin

Somme River, 12, 110, 112, =114-117=, 119, 120, =122-125=, 127, 162, 252, 276

Sorde, 279, 378, 435, 438

Souzy, 435

_Spermophilus rufescens_, 194, 373; see Suslik

Spear-point, see _Pointe_

Speech, power of, 4, 58, 60, 139, 140

Spiennes, 127, 128, 495

Spy, 162, 214, 244, 245, 311, 314, 331; man, 7, 181, 214, =218-220=, 226, 228, 229, 231-233, 235-237, 244, 256, 257, 490

Squirrel, 447, 498; see _Sciurus vulgaris_

Stag, 43, 44, 95, 106, 119, 187, 201, 202, 264, 265, 288, 333, 364, 367, 370, 372, 405, =426=, 429, 456, 461, 463, 468, 469, 481, 488, =497=, 498; see _Cervus elaphus_ and Deer, red

_Stegodon_, 76, 134

Strassberg, 435

Stratification of Castillo, 164; Enfants, Grotte des, 265; Heidelberg, 97; Madeleine, La, 385; Mas d'Azil, 461; Ofnet, 476; Piltdown, 133; Placard, 333-334; Saint Acheul, 122, 123, 150; Schweizersbild, 447; Sirgenstein, 202

Subsidence, see Continental outline

Sureau, Trou du, 435

_Sus_, _arvernensis_, 63; _scrofa_, 71; _scrofa ferus_, 147, 165, 368, 469; _scrofa palustris_, 499; see Boar

Suslik, 206, 289, 447; see _Spermophilus rufescens_

T

Tables, see Lists

Tardenoisian, see Azilian-Tardenoisian

Tasmanian compared with Neanderthal, 232, 233; see Neanderthal

Taubach, 119, 167, 214

Tectiforms, =283=, 284, 403, 404

Terraces, see River-drifts

Teutonic race, 458, 486, 488, 499-501

Teyjat, 388, 394, 396, 435; see Mairie, Grotte de la, and Abri Mège

Thiede, 314

Third Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch

Third Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch

Throwing stone, see _Pierre de jet_

Thumb, opposable, 55, 58, 60, 240

Tibia, shin-bone 237-239, 241, 266, 298

Tilloux, 109, 149, 152, 167

Torralba, 109, 126, 149, 152

Tourasse, La, 471, 486

Trilobite, Grotte du, 314, =324=, =326=, 331, 340, 341, =344=, =347=, 440

Trinil race, see _Pithecanthropus_

_Trogontherium_, 45, 69, 94; see Beaver, giant

Tuc d'Audoubert, 32, 395, 396, 406, =427-431=, 435

Tundra, see Climate, glacial; see Fauna

Turbarian, Lower, 361; Upper, 363

U

Upper drift, 191

Upper Rodent Layer, see Rodent Layers

Urochs, Aurochs, see _Bos primigenius_ and Cattle

_Ursus_, _arctos_, 102, 147, 211, 469; _arvernensis_, 63, 94, 102; _deningeri_, 102; _spelæus_, 45, 183, =210=, =211=, 369; see Bear and Cave-bear

V

Vache, Grotte de la, 435, 437, 471

Valle, 435, 466, 471, 474

Venosa, 167

Villejuif, 30, 167, 176

Volgu, 331, 339, 345

Völklinshofen, 284, 314

_Vulpes_, 469; see Fox

W

Warm fauna, see _Faune chaude_

Weimar, 167

Wierschowie, 245, 248, 331

Wildcat, _Felis catus_, 43, 63, 95, 287, 498

Wildhaus, 314, 435

Wildkirchli, =200=, 201, 245, 247, 256

Wildscheuer, 286, 314, 370, 435, 442, 444

Willendorf, 30, 279, 311-315, 322, 395

Winterlingen, 435

Wisent, see Bison

Wolf, 43, 44, 71, 95, 147, 165, 187, 206, 264, 265, 287, 288, 333, 343, 348, =356=, 366, 441, 447, 468, 498; see _Canis suessi_ and _Cyon alpinus fossilis_

Wolvercote, 167

Wolverene, glutton, 44, 46, 71, =193=, 287, 289, 348, 370, 447, 468, 498; see _Gulo luscus_

Würm, see Glacial Epoch

Wüste Scheuer, 471

Z

Zonhoven, 471, 474

Zuffenhausen, 314

FOOTNOTES:

[A] The folding map at the end of the volume exhibits the entire extent of the author's tour.

[B] Lucretius was born 95 B. C. His poem was completed before 53 B. C. In the opening lines of Book III he attributes all his philosophy and science to the Greeks. See Appendix, Note I.

[C] Lucretius, _On the Nature of Things_, metrical version by J. M. Good. Bohn's Classical Library, London, 1890.

[D] Horace was born 65 B. C., and his Satires are attributed to the years 35-29 B. C. See Appendix, Note II.

[E] Æschylus was born 525 B. C. See Appendix, Note III.

[F] Georges Louis Leclerc Buffon (b. 1707, d. 1788). For reviews of Buffon's opinions and theories see Osborn, 1894.1, pp. 130-9; also Butler, 1911.1, pp. 74-172.

[G] Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, known as the Chevalier de Lamarck (b. 1744, d. 1829). For a summary of the views of Lamarck see Osborn, 1894.1, pp. 152-181; also Butler, 1911.1, pp. 235-314, an excellent presentation of Lamarck's opinions.

[H] References are indicated by numbers only throughout the text. At the close of each chapter is a list giving the author, date, and reference number for every citation. A full list of all the works cited, including those from which illustrations have been taken, together with complete references, will be found in the bibliography at the end of the book.

[I] The best reference works on the history of French and German Palæolithic Archæology are: Cartailhac,(12) _La France Préhistorique_; Déchelette,(13) _Manuel d'Archéologie_, T. 1; Reinach,(14) _Catalogue du Musée de St.-Germain: Alluvions et Cavernes_; Schmidt,(15) _Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands_; Avebury,(16) _Prehistoric Times_.

[J] The Cannstatt skull and Cannstatt race are now regarded as Neolithic, and therefore not contemporary with the mammoth or the cave-bear.

[K] Note that lists and tables of races, cultural stages, faunæ, etc., in this volume are given not in chronological but in _stratigraphic_ order, beginning with the _most recent_ at the top and ending with the _oldest_ at the bottom.

[L] This table is a modification of that of Obermaier in his _Mensch der Vorzeit_.(38) To each period of the chronologic reckoning should be added the 1900 years of our era.

[M] Bison and wild cattle are grass eaters, and their natural habitats are the open plain and meadow regions. They also range into open forest lands where grasses can be found. The prehistoric 'urus' and 'wisent' of Europe were both found in forests, but this may not have been their natural habitat in Palæolithic times. See Appendix, Note IV.

[N] A recent article by A. Smith Woodward describes the fourth known specimen of _Dryopithecus_, lately discovered in northern Spain (see Woodward, 1914.2).

[O] There is a vast _Pithecanthropus_ literature. That chiefly utilized in the present description includes Dubois,(13) Fischer,(14) Schwalbe,(15) Büchner.(16)

[P] In the Trinil skull as restored by McGregor (Fig. 36) the cranial capacity is 900 c.cm.

[Q] These horses are now identified respectively as _E. mauerensis_, _E. mosbachensis_, and _E. süssenbornensis_.

[R] This glaciation as it occurs in northern Europe has been termed _Polandian_ by Geikie; in the Alps Penck has termed it the _Riss_; in America it is known as the _Illinoian_ from the great drifts it deposited over the State of Illinois.

[S] This stage is known as the _Helvetian_ or _Dürntenian_ of Geikie; it is the _Riss-Würm_ of Penck's terminology and the _Sangamon_ of the American glaciologists.

[T] Modified after Schmidt.

[U] The weakness of Penck's argument for placing the Chellean in the Second Interglacial was exposed by precise observations of Boule(5) and Obermaier(6) in the Alps, the Jura, and the Pyrenees.

[V] The writer is indebted to M. Marcelin Boule and to M. l'Abbé Henri Breuil for their observations on this fauna and culture period.

[W] Industry similar to the Chellean, but not necessarily of the same age, is distributed all over eastern Africa from Egypt to the Cape.

[X] Schmidt regards the _Strépyan_ implements, which are considered by Rutot and others to be transitional, between the Mesvinian and the Chellean, as closely similar to the Pre-Chellean of France and probably of the same age.

[Y] The original paper describing this remarkable discovery was read before the Geological Society of London, December, 1912, and published as a separate pamphlet in March, 1913. A discussion as to the geologic age by Kennard, Clement Reid, and others was held at the time of the reading of the original paper.

[Z] By the author of this work, and also by Professor J. Howard McGregor of Columbia University and Doctor William K. Gregory of Columbia University and of the American Museum of Natural History.

[AA] _Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man_, 1915.1.

[AB] The reconstruction (Fig. 66) of the Piltdown skull made by Professor J. H. McGregor has a cranial capacity of about 1300 c.cm. The brain (Fig. 70) is seen to be very narrow and low in the prefrontal area, the seat of the higher mental faculties. In the reconstruction the cranial region is in the main very like the second restoration by Doctor Smith Woodward, but the jaws differ in some respects. The tooth hitherto regarded as a right lower canine, is now placed as the left upper canine, in accord with the conclusions of the author of this work and of Doctors Matthew and Gregory of the American Museum of Natural History. The dental arches are more curved, thus more human and less ape-like than in the Smith Woodward restoration, and the chin region is made somewhat deeper, thus giving a somewhat less prognathous aspect to the face.

[AC] The early Teutonic designation of these animals was as follows: bison, 'wisent,' wild ox, 'auerochs,' 'urochs' (the 'urus' of Cæsar). The urus survived in Germany as late as the seventeenth century, while a few of the bison or 'wisent' survive to the present time. The bison was distinctively a short-headed animal, while its contemporary, the urus, was long-headed and less agile. At Dürnten, near Zürich, remains of the urus are found associated with those of the hardy, straight-tusked elephant and of Merck's rhinoceros. (See Appendix, Note IV.)

[AD] The author was guided through this station by Doctor Hugo Obermaier in the summer of 1912.

[AE] The entire fourth glaciation has been termed _Mecklenburgian_ by Geikie;(6) the recession may correspond with his Fourth Interglacial Stage, the _Lower Forestian_. It is the _Würm_ of Penck in the Alpine region, with a first and second maximum separated by the recession known as the _Laufenschwankung_. In America it is the early _Wisconsin_ with the _Peorian_ recession interval, followed by the late _Wisconsin_, which is the final great glaciation of America.

[AF] Obermaier, Breuil and Schmidt assign La Micoque to the transition between late Acheulean and early Mousterian times.

[AG] The _climate_ of the _tundras_ is extreme, the winter temperature falling on an average to 27°F. below zero, while in summer the temperature is about 50°F. In the subarctic steppes the average January temperature hardly exceeds 30°F., while that of July is 70°F.

[AH] The last of this very primitive race of the great island of Tasmania became extinct in 1877.(62)

[AI] This cavern, like many of those discovered in the early days of anthropological research, was not carefully explored in reference to the all-important horizontal bedding of the layers of flint flakes and of animal remains.

[AJ] See Appendix, Note VI.

[AK] Named in honor of the reigning Prince of Monaco, whose generous gifts and personal interest made the adequate exploration of these grottos possible.

[AL] This correlation agrees in the main with that of Schmidt in his _Diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands_.(10)

[AM] Obermaier,(19) R. Martin.(20)

[AN] Denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form.

[AO] Denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form.

[AP] Denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form.

[AQ] Breuil,(34) Schmidt.(35)

[AR] The writer had the privilege of visiting all these caverns in the company either of Professor Emile Cartailhac, or of the Abbé Breuil.

[AS] Despite Schwalbe's statement, the supraorbital ridges in this skull appear to form a complete bridge. Doctor Hrdlička regards the related Předmost skull as distinctly showing Neanderthaloid affinity.

[AT] Obermaier,(45) R. Martin.(46)

[AU] From notes by Doctor Robert H. Lowie (Nov. 16, 1914) of the American Museum of Natural History on the opinions of Marett (_Anthropology_) and of James.

[AV] After Obermaier,(10) R. Martin,(11) and others.

[AW] This custom is observed again in Azilian times in the burials at Ofnet on the Danube (see page 475).

[AX] The whole history of these successive discoveries, beginning with the finding of an engraved bone, in 1834, in the grotto of Chaffaud, and concluding with the discoveries of Lalanne, and of Bégouen, in 1912, is summarized in the admirable little handbook by Salomon Reinach.(23) This convenient volume also includes outline tracings of the more important drawings and sculptures found in western Europe up to the present time.

[AY] Only a few drawings from this cavern have as yet been published, such as the famous mammoth of Combarelles; the entire work is in the hands of Breuil.

[AZ] The stations of Castillo, of Pasiega, and of Altamira were visited by the writer, under the guidance of Doctor Hugo Obermaier, in August, 1912.

[BA] Letter of October 23, 1912.

[BB] J. Bayer(34) has lately expressed the opinion that the industry of the open 'loess' stations of Munzingen, Aggsbach, and Gobelsburg is not really of Magdalenian age, but represents an atypical Aurignacian.

[BC] Lucretius, _On the Nature of Things_, metrical version by J. M. Good. Bohn's Classical Library, London, 1890.

[BD] Bossuet, Jacques Bénigne, _Discours sur l'Histoire universelle_ (first published in 1681), pp. 9, 10. Edition conforme à celle de 1700, troisième et dernière édition revue par l'auteur. Paris, Librairie de Firmin Didot Frères, 1845.

[BE] _The Satires, Epistles and Ars Poetica of Horace_, the Latin Text with Conington's Translation, pp. 29, 31. George Bell & Sons, London, 1904.

[BF] Æschylus, _Prometheus Bound_. Elizabeth Barrett Browning, _Poetical Works of Elizabeth Barrett Browning_, pp. 148, 149. Oxford edition, 1906. Henry Frowde, London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, New York, and Toronto.

[BG] Kobelt, W., _Die Verbreitung der Tierwelt_, pp. 403-7. C. H. Tauchnitz, Leipsic, 1902.

[BH] Abercromby, Hon. John, _The Prehistoric Pottery of the Canary Islands and Its Makers_. Royal Anthropological Institute, November 17, 1914. _Nature_, December 3, 1914, p. 383.

[BI] Verneau, Dr. R., _Cinq années de séjour aux îles Canaries_. (Ouvrage couronné par l'Académie des sciences, 1891.)

[BJ] Bunbury, E. H. _History of Ancient Geography_, vol. I, pp. 318-333. John Murray, London, 1879.

[BK] Authors' names are given in the bibliography and in the reference lists at the end of each chapter.

Transcriber's Notes:

Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.

Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=.

Superscripted characters are indicated by {superscript}.

End of Project Gutenberg's Men of the Old Stone Age, by Henry Fairfield Osborn