CHAPTER XXXIII

RETURN ON THE ERIE CANAL AND THE RIVER HUDSON TO NEW YORK--VOYAGE TO EUROPE

The Erie Canal--Lockport--Rochester--Perinton on the Irondequot--Clyde--Montezuma Marshes--The River Seneca--Syracuse--Saline Tract near Salina--Remains of the Onondago Nation--Onondago Hill--Manlius--Canastote--Oneida--Remains of the Oneida Nation--Verona--New London--Rome--Oriskany--Beautiful Valley of the Mohawk River--White's Town--Utica--German Flats--Amsterdam--Rotterdam--Schenectady--The Iron Railroad to Albany--Hudson River--New York--Voyage to Europe.

Early in the morning of the 1st of July we left the Eagle Hotel, at Niagara, and travelled twelve miles to Tonawanta, where we found a packet boat, towed by three horses, on board which we embarked about noon. The boats on the Erie Canal are much the same as those on the Ohio Canal; but here they are fitted up only for passengers, and take no goods on board, except their baggage; hence they are more convenient, lighter, and more rapid than luggage boats. Our boat had fourteen or sixteen berths, which were very commodiously arranged. The horses drawing these boats are always on the trot, and they perform a distance of 104 miles in twenty-four hours. Twelve hundred such boats navigate this canal, the original cost of which was 700,000 dollars; whereas that of the Ohio Canal was only 400,000. This great work was commenced in 1817, and completed in eight years.

We proceeded first on the Tonawanta River as far as the village of Pentleton, where we entered the canal. About five miles from this place it is cut through a stratum of grauwacke, which rises from four to fifteen feet above the water; but the depth of the ravine soon increases, and the bridges are thrown, at a great height, over the canal. At Lockport, an extensive place, situated on the eminence, the canal is conducted, by means of five sluices, down a slope of at least sixty feet.[195] The prospect from the eminence is very beautiful. The canal descends between two hills, connected at a considerable elevation by a bridge, under which the boats pass. On the following day {499} we came to Rochester, on the River Genessi, which has a large aqueduct eighty feet in length. This river is celebrated for its waterfalls. There are many fine forests, especially of beech; some, however, consist entirely of oaks. I observed in the canal many turtles and water-snakes. Near the village of Perinton is Irondequot or Irondequit Creek, with wooded banks. The forests here were filled with the finest species of trees. Beyond Fairport the _Arbor vitæ_ grew vigorously to the height of thirty and forty feet, as well as larches, planes, walnuts, oaks, elms, maples, all entwined by wild vine and ivy.[196] The peculiar smell of the _Arbor vitæ_ was powerfully wafted to us by the wind. These forests are wild and magnificent. Dry trunks of pines lay confusedly one over another: in the shade cattle were feeding, whose bells produced an agreeable harmony. We could have fancied ourselves transported to the forests of the Hartz, if the country had been mountainous. The wheat was not yet ripe, nor the potatoes in blossom. The land was still in part covered with the stumps of the trees that had been cut down. All the dwellings are of wood, and the fields are everywhere intersected by wooden fences. The dense beech forests constantly reminded us of the scenery of Germany.

In the afternoon we came to the rising town of Clyde, which lies on Clyde River, and towards evening to the Montezuma Marshes, which are about three miles in extent.[197] They are formed by the overflowing of the lakes of Cayuga and Seneca,[198] and the water in them is said to be from four to eight feet deep. The farmers have cultivated the dry spots in these marshes. At twilight we came to some places where the canal crosses Seneca River; and at eight o'clock were at the mouth of that river, over which a long wooden bridge is built for the horses that tow the boats.

On the following day, the 3rd July, we came to the neighbourhood of Syracuse, in Onondago County, which is traversed by Onondago Creek, and was formerly the abode of the numerous Indian tribe of that name, which was one of the six nations.[199] It is now cultivated; the soil is fruitful, and thriving towns have arisen in various parts. This tract was purchased from the Indians, and part of it settled by them. Syracuse is a place of some importance; it is usually denominated a village, but it certainly looks as if it were entitled to the appellation of town. Twenty years ago there was one solitary dwelling on this spot; now there are 500 houses, among which are some large buildings, several churches, a large inn, a court-house, prison, bank, and many respectable shops.[200] All the environs are strongly impregnated with salt, and there are saline springs, from whence a great quantity of salt is obtained. The salt water is conducted for about {500} a mile from the springs at Salina to the vicinity of Syracuse, where it is evaporated by the sun in shallow vessels, and the salt crystallized. The works are to the north of Syracuse.[201]

As several roads and canals cross at this place, we had to wait for passengers, especially for the packets from Lake Oswego, which is now navigated by steam-boats. During this interval we viewed the traces of the extensive fire which had taken place in the preceding spring. Though many buildings have been rebuilt in a better style than before, the marks of the fire are everywhere to be seen. To the southwest of Syracuse there is an extensive valley, bounded by wooded eminences, in which many neat villages are seen; among them one called Onondago Hill, erected upon a verdant rising, is worthy of notice, the remnants of the Onondago Indians being settled here. It is reckoned to be eight miles from Syracuse to the spot where the chief town, Onondago, lay. Here they had their council fires, and here the powerful and warlike nation deliberated on public affairs, resolved upon war, concluded peace, &c. Onondago Hill is said to be a neat town, and was formerly the seat of the courts of justice, which, however, are now removed to Syracuse. At the latter place we saw several Onondago Indians, who do not much differ from the Senecas and Tuscaroras; their costume is exactly similar, and the women were also wrapped in white blankets.

After some delay, our boat pursued its voyage, and I saw large tracts of land entirely covered with the stumps of woods that had been cleared; others with the remains of stems burnt black, which present a singular, unattractive sight. The dry heights are covered with pine, of which the inhabitants affirm that six different sorts are here found--the hemlock, the spruce, the white, the yellow, the Norway, and the pitch pine, the two latter of which grow on barren grounds.

We took on board a great number of passengers at Syracuse, so that our boat was crowded to excess; yet the arrangements for the accommodation of so many people of every description, and of both sexes, were extremely judicious and well contrived.

Beyond the village of Manlius I observed thickets of _Arbor vitæ_, especially in marshy spots, where pines flourish. After passing Chittenango Creek we came to the village of the same name; and an hour later to Canastote, a large village with new houses, and a couple of churches. The few fields of wheat in the vicinity were not yet ripe. At noon we were in the village of Oneida, which is irregularly built on both sides of the canal.[202] Here we happened to meet with above 100 Oneida Indians, whose lands, assigned to them by the government, lie to the south of this place. The women wore round black felt hats; the men red woollen scarfs over their blue great coats. Their complexion was a yellowish-brown, not dark. They were of low stature, especially the women, as has been observed of all the remnants of the six nations, and have retained more of the national features than the men. We were informed that some of these people were to embark here and proceed to Green Bay, near which they intended to settle.[203] They lived hitherto {501} twelve or fifteen miles from this place, scattered on their plantations, and their settlement is usually called a village, though the dwellings are all isolated. Here stands a building, commonly called Oneida Castle, where they discuss the affairs of their tribe, and the Council Grove, a spot with lofty old trees, under which the Oneidas assemble on important occasions. They now meet every year at Oneida Castle, on the 6th of June, form a circle in Council Grove, every family by itself, and the agents of the government pay seven dollars to each of them, because they sold their land to the United States. The counties of Oneida and Madison comprise the former abode of the Oneidas, but they now live in this part of the country, having sold a portion of their land to the United States. Of all the tribes of the six nations, they were the only one who remained faithful to the Americans in the early wars.[204]

From Oneida we soon came to Verona, a small village, where there is a manufactory of window glass, to the south of Lake Oneida, to which it was intended to make a canal from this place. At two we arrived at the little village of New London, in a country abounding with hemlock pines. Large quantities of timber, planks, logwood, &c., are sawn here, and shipped in flat-bottomed canal boats.[205] Five miles from New London is Rome, at a small distance from the canal; it is a considerable place, with five churches, which are seen from a distance.[206] The country round is an extensive plain, through which the Mohawk flows, and is bounded by forests in the horizon. The canal then traverses the village of Oriskany, on Oriskany Creek, which was one of the principal abodes of the Oneida nation.[207]

Passing through a rich, verdant country, adorned with pleasant habitations and fine forests, illumined with the most cheerful sunshine, we came, at six o'clock in the afternoon, to White's Town, a neat and thriving place on the left bank of the canal, founded by a person of the name of White, who, as the first settler, gave his name to the town, and whose grandson, Mr. Henry White, was on board our boat.[208] On the right of the canal stands the great cotton manufactory of Mr. Marshall, of New York, which forms an entire village;[209] two similar establishments are in the immediate neighbourhood, and it appears that there are at least twelve cotton manufactories on Sacquit Creek, which falls into the Mohawk. When Mr. White settled here, this large tract of country was inhabited by the Oneida Indians, whose chief, Skenandoah, kept up a very good understanding with the new settlers. This was the scene of the event already recorded by other travellers, when Mr. White entrusted them with his eldest daughter, at that time a child two years old, because they had conceived a particular affection for her. In the sequel, the family were uneasy about the fate of the child, but the Indians brought her back, loaded with presents, and were delighted at this proof of confidence.[210]

The country about White's Town, and, in fact, the whole valley of the Mohawk, is picturesque and beautiful, and is unquestionably the most pleasant that I have yet seen in North America. On every side there are neat, cheerful towns, manufactories, corn, saw, gypsum, and other mills, in the latter of which, the gypsum, which is piled up on the banks of the canal {502} in large grey blocks, is ground to manure the fields. This country was formerly inhabited by the Mohawks, who, being friends to the English, removed, and settled in Canada.[211]

At Utica,[212] a large town with regular streets and good houses, there was a brisk traffic, and the servants of the inns crowded about the boats to receive the passengers; but I proceeded on the voyage, and enjoyed the fine scenery, the Mohawk meandering, between lofty trees, through the extensive verdant valley. During the night we passed German Flats, which was originally cultivated by Germans, whose descendants still live here, and whose language is spoken by many settlers near the canal.[213] We passed through Canajoharie, and on the 4th of July still followed the valley of the Mohawk, which had much increased in breadth. In the river, the navigation of which is now transferred to the canal, there are beautiful islands covered with poplar, willow, and other thickets, and a covered bridge crosses it at Amsterdam, a place consisting of about 100 tolerably good houses, from which it is sixteen miles to Schenectady, where, having passed Rotterdam during dinner, we arrived at three in the afternoon.[214]

Schenectady, where the passengers quit the boats to proceed by the railway to Albany, is a considerable place. Carriages stood ready to convey the passengers to the railway, and we entered them without delay. They are long and roomy, contain many passengers, and run on ten small wheels. One horse drew each carriage for 200 paces towards an eminence, where it was taken off, and the carriages fastened to a rope, and drawn up by a steam-engine. On the eminence, the whole train, with the closed carriages for the luggage of the passengers on the river, is connected with the steam-engine, and in about an hour we arrived at Albany, sixteen miles distant.[215]

It was early in the afternoon when we reached Albany, a large town with 26,000 inhabitants, the capital and seat of government of the state of New York, on the bank of the fine, large River Hudson. I will not repeat what may be found in every American hand-book for travellers, but only observe, that it was the Day of Independence, one of the great festivals in America, which was interesting to us, because it was on that day (the 4th of July) two years before, that I landed on the American coast. We heard some firing, and now and then cannon were discharged in the streets, and sky-rockets and fireworks displayed. Crowds of people thronged every place. An introduction from Dr.

Pitcher, with whom I had travelled on the Erie Canal, procured me the interesting acquaintance of Dr. Edwin James, author of the account of Major Long's "Expedition to the Rocky Mountains," who is well known in the literary world as a botanist and geologist. I found him a singularly amiable, unassuming person, and passed the evening very agreeably in his family circle. He is at present engaged on the Indian languages, especially that of the Chippeways, among which people he resided for a long time.[216] He had the kindness to escort me about the city, which has many handsome buildings, some broad streets, and in the centre a large square, round which the most important public edifices are erected. The capitol is built on a gentle eminence; it cost 120,000 dollars, is 115 feet long, 90 feet wide, and 60 feet {503} high, and is adorned on the east front with four Ionic columns. The academy, which cost 92,000 dollars, and the city hall, built of white marble, likewise stand in this square. The square itself is laid out very tastefully, covered with greensward, and intersected with broad walks, and is a great ornament to the town.

At eight o'clock in the morning of the 5th of July we embarked in the Albany steamer for New York. The Hudson or North River is even here a fine broad stream, with picturesque banks, but soon widens considerably: my navigation of it is unquestionably the most agreeable voyage that I made in America. The distance, which is 144 miles (by land 160 miles), is conveniently performed in one day, though it is often accomplished in twelve or fourteen hours. The steam navigation is very brisk on the river, except in winter, when it is impeded by the ice. The steamers on the Hudson are very large, and no such accidents occur as on the Mississippi and the Ohio, because only low pressure engines are employed.

The Albany was a large vessel, of the size of a frigate, with three decks, of which the upper one was covered by an awning. The middle deck was eighty paces in length; the lower space contained three very elegantly furnished cabins--the two at the back for the ladies, and, in front, the large cabin or dining-room, which was adorned with oil paintings. Our proud vessel glided swiftly down the stream, and the beautiful banks speedily vanished from our view. After proceeding thirty miles, we reached the town of Hudson, opposite the Catskill Mountains, a picturesque range, with fine summits, such as are seldom seen in North America. This range is also called Catsbergs; the highest summit is near Greene, eight or ten miles distant from the river. Along the shore, at the foot of this range, lies the village of Catskill, on Catskill Creek, which runs through the village, and flows into the Hudson. Here we landed, and took in some passengers, who, in token of their having come from those more elevated regions, brought in their hands large bunches of the beautiful kalmia blossoms. The village contains about 350 houses and 5000 inhabitants. I would recommend the view of the Catskill Mountains to every landscape painter.

Lower down, the character of the banks of the river has much similarity with that of Italian Switzerland; bright verdant plains alternate with the loveliest woods; while numerous little vessels, especially schooners, glide swiftly on the bosom of the river, which is double the width of our Rhine; and many steamers (among them the colossal Champlain, with four chimneys), towing large flat boats filled with passengers, added greatly to the animation of the scene. After dinner we lay-to at Newbury. Below this, rounded hills covered with wood appear along the shore, not unlike the Rhenish. The river now runs through a narrow, picturesque gorge, almost shut in by the verdant hills. On the western coast lies West Point, where the military academy of the United States is situated; below this, the country grows more open and flat, and the river becomes very broad and majestic. We passed the large house of correction at Singsing, on the eastern coast, and arrived at New York before evening.

{504} We rejoiced to find the town in a perfectly healthy state, and all our friends well. On the 8th of July I visited Philadelphia, which can now be easily accomplished by means of the railway from Amboy. At Bordentown we went on board the Philadelphia steamer, and reached that town at five in the afternoon. Our two days' stay here was devoted to visiting friends; and I am indebted to Professor Harlan for introducing me to Mr. Duponceau, a learned investigator of the Indian languages, as well as for taking me to several collections of natural history.[217] The museum of the society of natural sciences contains many interesting curiosities, among which I may mention Dr. Morton's collection of skulls.[218] In the museum of Mr. Titian Peale I saw many objects which deserve close investigation.

Early on the 11th of July we re-embarked on board the Burlington for Bordentown; thence by railway to Amboy, and returned to New York by the Swan steamer. Here we found an accumulation of business, consequent upon our approaching voyage to Europe; Messrs. Gebhard and Schuchart, however, very kindly gave us every assistance, and greatly helped to expedite our affairs. I again spent a most pleasant day at the country-house of Mr. Schmid, the Prussian consul, where I had the gratification of seeing Mr. Astor, so justly esteemed in the fur countries.[219] There was a great uproar at this time in the streets of New York; the mob attacked the negroes, and some clergymen, who took their part, had their windows broken and houses demolished. Towards evening, the militia paraded the streets, and occupied different posts, in order to check these riots. Dr. Julius gives an account of this assault upon the negroes in New York, page 369.[220]

We engaged berths on board the packet-boat Havre, Captain Stoddart; it belongs to the Havre Line, whose vessels are from 400 to 600 tons burden, and go every week, in winter as well as in summer. The arrangements are particularly good, the table capital, with abundance of fresh milk and meat every day.

As the packet was to leave on the 16th of July, our collections, &c., were put on board on the 15th, and we bade our friends and acquaintances farewell. At ten o'clock on the day fixed for our departure we went, accompanied by many friends, on board the Rufus King steamer, which received her passengers on the North River Pier, and conveyed them in twenty minutes to the packet, which was lying in the fine harbour near the city. The anchor was already weighed, and the pilot on board. As soon as the baggage of the several passengers was disposed of in the hold, the Havre spread all her sails, but the wind being very faint, it was eleven o'clock before we were opposite the lighthouse of Statenland, which lay on our right hand, and the batteries of Long Island on our left. The wind soon became quite contrary, and we were obliged to cast anchor and take in our sails: several steam-boats passed us, and we wanted them to take us in tow, but, to our great vexation, they refused to stop. Towards evening, however, the wind rose a little, and we tacked slowly towards the sea.

{505} At six in the morning of the 17th of July we lay opposite Sandy Hook, a little above the lighthouse. At half-past twelve we saw, at a distance on the left hand, Fire Island lighthouse, which is forty miles from Sandy Hook; and on the 18th we lost sight of the coast. Our voyage was on the whole favourable: we did not pass over the bank of Newfoundland, but on the 24th and 25th of July were very far to the south of it. We afterwards had a fresh and favourable wind, and followed the track of the Columbia, (as laid down in the charts), which performed the voyage from Portsmouth to New York in fifteen days.

On the 30th of July we made 5° in twenty-four hours. The sight of the numerous vessels which passed us full sail was very striking, and greatly cheered the whole of the ship's company. We proceeded at the rate of nine or ten knots an hour; the wind was favourable, and, though very strong, even our topmost sails were spread, an experiment which other nations do not often venture upon; but the Americans are very bold seamen. On the 2nd of August we were to the north of the Azores, which I had seen in 1817, and on the following day spoke the brig Helen Douglas, from Hamburgh, and communicated reciprocally our longitude and latitude. We overtook several ships, which the Havre soon left far behind her.

Our people endeavoured to harpoon some dolphins, but the handle of the instrument, which was admirably contrived, soon broke.[221]

At _a_ there is a joint; _b_ is a movable ring; _d_ is the sharp edge of the instrument; _f_ the back, which is blunt. When the point _e_ is forced into the body of the animal, it penetrates so far, that the resistance of the body moves the ring _b_; the whole head springs from the position in which it was held by the ring; the edge _d_ continues to act in an horizontal direction, and the point _c_ forms a barb by which the instrument remains fixed in the animal.

On the 6th of August we overtook the Congress, a large ship bound from New Orleans to Liverpool, which had come thus far in forty-eight days. We soon got the start of her, and on the following day were already in the channel, having passed Cape Lizard in the night. At three in the afternoon land was descried from the mast-head; it was the Island of Guernsey: we then saw Alderney, and afterwards Cape la Hogue on the French coast, very clearly. The wind became more fresh every moment, and, twilight setting in, we greatly desired to obtain a pilot. At length we saw a boat contending with the waves, which, with considerable exertion, brought us a pilot from Havre. We sailed in the dark, passed the lighthouse at Cherbourg, and afterwards saw that of Harfleur, our ship running seven or eight knots an hour.

Early on the morning of the 8th of August we were off Havre de Grace, with a violent head {506} wind, and waited for the proper time to enter, which, as in many ports in the channel, can only be done at high water. We were the more impatient for this moment, as the wind continued to increase, and threatened to rise to a storm. Large ships from Martinique and Guadaloupe, under French colours, shared the same trial of patience with ourselves. At length, after ten o'clock, the pilot gave the signal--the sails were spread, and the Havre hastened to enter the port. A great crowd of people was assembled on the pier, and breakers raged at the narrow mouth of the harbour; however, we soon felt the effect of the mole which human art has opposed to the fury of the elements, and at half-past eleven o'clock the Havre cast anchor in Europe.

FOOTNOTES:

[195] Pendleton, in Niagara County, was settled before the projection of the canal by Sylvester Pendleton Clark, who built the first log tavern here in 1821. Although a junction on the canal, and later a station on the Erie Railway, the town has not attained much prosperity.

For Lockport, see Bullock's _Sketch_, in our volume xix, p. 151, note 21.--ED.

[196] Rochester, Perinton, and Fairport, all in Monroe County, on the canal, were settled before the route was laid out. The first permanent settlement at Rochester was not until 1803, although saw and grist mills had been built some years earlier, and worked intermittently. The name given to the village in 1811 was in honor of Nathaniel Rochester, of Maryland, an early purchaser of lands. The village incorporation took place in 1811.

Perinton, named for its first settler, Glover Perrin (about 1790), had little growth until the opening of the canal; the name is now applied to the township in which Fairport is situated. The first settler of the latter town came in 1810; there were but nine houses there, seven of which were log-cabins, at the opening of the canal (1822). It numbered in 1900, 2,439.

Irondequot Creek was an early highway into Iroquois territory. It was the rendezvous (1687) of the expedition led by Denonville, governor of Canada, against the marauding Seneca. See Thwaites, _Lahontan's Voyages in North America_ (Chicago, 1904), i, pp. 123-130.--ED.

[197] Clyde, in Wayne County, New York, had its first permanent settlers in 1811. It was at first called Lauraville; later, the river was, by a Scotch settler, named Clyde, and upon incorporation (1836) this was applied to the settlement.

Montezuma marshes, in southwest Cayuga County, were called by the aborigines Tiohero.--ED.

[198] This part of the country is remarkable for the number of fine lakes, all of which have very harmonious names, taken from the old Indian language, such as Canandaigua, Cayuga, Seneca, Onega, Ontario, Oswego, Onondago, &c. From the immense Lake Superior, the area of which is estimated at 30,000 square miles, to the small lakes only a few miles in length, their forms differ entirely, and are in part highly picturesque. These lakes and rivers have been judiciously suffered to retain their ancient harmonious Indian names; whereas the Americans have, in general, transferred the names of European towns and districts to this land, where we often meet with excessively dissonant, inappropriate names, which frequently call forth a smile, as Dr. Julius very justly observes, Vol. I. p. 420.--MAXIMILIAN.

_Comment by Ed._ Nicolaus Heinrich Julius, author of _Nordamerikas sittliche zustande, nach eigener Enshauungen in den jahren 1834-36_ (Leipzig, 1839).

[199] For the Onondaga, see Croghan's _Journals_, in our volume i, p. 60, note 23.--ED.

[200] The site of Syracuse had been that of an Indian village, where Ephraim Webster, coming from New England, built a trading post in 1786. It was included in the salt reservation established in 1797 and offered for sale by the state in 1804. The first purchaser was Abraham Walton, who built a mill upon the site the following year. Walton intended to found a village, but not until the establishment of the canal did Syracuse outgrow its embryonic stage. Meanwhile several names had been in use; Milan was suggested in 1809; South Salina was used for three years (1809-12); Corinth was desired, but a Corinth post-office already existing, Syracuse was suggested, because of a certain resemblance to the site of the famous Sicilian city. Organized as a village in 1825, Syracuse finally became a city in 1847.--ED.

[201] The salt springs of this vicinity were noted by Jesuit missionaries in the seventeenth century. By 1770, salt from this region was an article of barter among Indian tribes. The first made by white men was in 1788; primitive methods were followed, however, until in 1797 the state set apart a reservation of thirteen thousand acres, embracing the saline springs, and the next year manufacture on a large scale was begun. Although much of the land was afterwards sold by the state, control of the salines was maintained by the government for a hundred years; in 1898, however, the state finding participation in this manufacture unprofitable, the springs became private property.--ED.

[202] Manlius was first settled in 1792, when a log-cabin inn was opened upon its site, which was first called Liberty Square. Shortly after 1800 the name was changed to Manlius, and the first postmaster appointed. The town had in 1900 a population of 1,219.

Chittenango and Oneida, in Madison County, were not early settlements, but due to the growth of canals and railroads. Oneida was incorporated in 1848, and had (1900) a population of 6,364.

The site of Canastote (signifying "Cluster of pines") was purchased (1810) by Reuben Perkins; the settlement was, however, due to the canal, and was incorporated in 1835. It has attained a population of about three thousand.--ED.

[203] The Oneida Indians, one of the "five nations" of the Iroquois confederacy, lived east of the Onondaga, in the present Madison and Oneida counties. In 1788 they ceded their land to New York state, retaining a large reservation, which has been gradually disposed of for successive annuities. About 1820 the project of their removal to Wisconsin was broached, and two delegations representing diverse interests among the Oneida, headed respectively by Dr. Jedidiah Morse, and Reverend Eleazer Williams, visited the West, and entered into arrangements with the Menominee and Winnebago tribes for territory contiguous to Green Bay. These treaties were the subjects of much negotiation, but the controversy was finally settled (1831) by the United States government in favor of the New York Indians. With the Oneida were three tribes of New England Indians--the Stockbridge, Munsee, and Brothertown--who had previously been (in the latter part of the eighteenth century) received among the Oneida in New York. The migration of these various tribes began about 1823, and continued at varying intervals until about 1846, a small remnant only remaining in New York. In Wisconsin they located permanently; the Munsee and Brothertown having assumed citizenship, are for the most part absorbed in the white population of Brown, Outagamie, and Calumet counties, chiefly the last named, although a few are mingled with the Oneida on their reservation near Green Bay. The latter number about two thousand, and are in a fairly prosperous condition, chiefly farmers. On the Stockbridge reservation in Shawano County there are about five hundred engaged in farming and lumbering. Consult _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, ii, pp. 415-449; xv, pp. 25-209; and J. N. Davidson, _Unnamed Wisconsin_ (Milwaukee, 1895).--ED.

[204] Oneida Castle was located south of the modern town of that name, in Lenox Township, Madison County, on the borders of Oneida County. At this village Reverend Samuel Kirkland established himself as a missionary in 1766, and it was chiefly due to his influence that the main body of the Oneida remained neutral during the Revolutionary War. After the removal to Wisconsin a few of the tribe clung to their original home, and about a hundred and fifty are still to be found in this vicinity.--ED.

[205] Verona's first settlement was made in 1797 by Captain Ichabod Hand, who kept a tavern on the road from Rome to Oneida Castle.

New London is a small hamlet in Oneida County, erected during the progress of the canal. Its first settler came in 1824, and the following year a post-office was erected.--ED.

[206] The site of Rome was on the Oneida portage between the Mohawk Valley and waters flowing into Lake Ontario. As early as 1756 the English had erected Fort Bull at the western extremity of the portage, but this was promptly captured and destroyed by French troops. Two years later, Fort Stanwix was erected by the British general of that name; the cost was $60,000, and the fort was heavily garrisoned until the close of the French and Indian War. In 1768 the famous treaty with the Iroquois, making a great land cession to the English colonies took place at this outpost. At the outbreak of the Revolution the name of the fort was changed to Schuyler, and the next year (1777) it was besieged by Major Barry St. Leger with a force of Indian allies; the post was finally relieved by General Benedict Arnold. The first settler near the fort was a German, Johann Reuff (or Roof). He fled at the time of the siege, and the place was without inhabitants until 1785-87, when New England colonists began to arrive. The site of Rome was purchased by a New York merchant named Lynch who laid out a town (1796) and called it Lynchburg; this was later changed for the classic cognomen, and the village of Rome incorporated in 1819.--ED.

[207] Oriskany (Indian dialect, signifying "nettles") was the site of the battle of August 6, 1777, when General Nicholas Herkimer, of the American army, repulsed the invading British forces under Major St. Leger. The village was settled in 1802 by Colonel Garrett Lansing, a Revolutionary soldier, and a post-office opened about 1821.--ED.

[208] Hugh White of Middletown, Connecticut, was one of the four purchasers of a confiscated Tory patent known as Sadequahada, he being the first settler west of German Flats, on the Mohawk. Coming out to his purchase in 1784, with his entire family of sons and sons-in-law, he settled what was for a time known as Whitestown, whither a number of Connecticut relatives and friends followed in succeeding years. Judge White was a man of ability and much physical strength. He attained considerable influence with the Oneida, who adopted him into their tribe. Dying in 1812, he left many descendants. Originally known as Whitestown, the village surrendered that title to the township, and was incorporated (1811) as Whitehall Landing, a name changed two years later to Whitesborough. The Oneida Historical Society in 1884 celebrated the centennial of the founding of this place by erecting a granite shaft upon the village green. Whitesborough at one time bid fair to rival Rome and Utica, but has now a population of only two thousand.--ED.

[209] The village of New York Mills, the site of the first cotton factory in the state, was founded in 1808 by Walcott and Company. In 1825 a partnership was formed with Benjamin Marshall, of New York City, who retired in 1847. The mills are still owned and managed by the Walcott family.--ED.

[210] Skenandoah (Skenando) died in 1816, reputed to be a hundred and ten years old. He favored the Americans in the Revolutionary War, and was long known as the white man's friend, an eloquent advocate for peace, and a Christian of strong character. His grave is at Clinton, Oneida County, near that of his friend, the missionary Samuel Kirkland.

The incident in relation to White's granddaughter (not daughter) is well authenticated. See D. E. Wager, _History of Oneida County_, New York (Boston, 1896), p. 618.--ED.

[211] At the close of the American Revolution a grant of 300,000 acres upon Grand River, Ontario, was secured from the British government, and the entire tribe of Mohawk removed thither, accompanied by British sympathizers from the other Iroquois tribes. The reservation is now reduced to about 60,000 acres. Mohawk also live at St. Regis, Caughnawaga, and Bay of Quinte, Quebec. A descendant of Joseph Brant, the great Mohawk chief, recently stated that there were still 30,000 Iroquois in Canadian boundaries. See F. W. Halsey, _Old New York Frontier_ (New York, 1901), p. 320.--ED.

[212] At Utica, originally a ford on Mohawk River, a small fort was erected during the French and Indian War, named Fort Schuyler, but it was abandoned before the Revolution. The first two houses were built upon the site in 1786; the early prospect for growth was not bright, and the increase was slow. The village was incorporated in 1798, when the new name was selected by lot. The city charter was received in 1832.--ED.

[213] German Flats was the original seat of the Palatines who emigrated to New York in large numbers in 1710, and began to settle as early as 1712 on land patented to them by the Mohawk. The settlement was for many years the outpost of the Mohawk Valley, and thus was sadly harassed in Indian wars. In November, 1757, French and Indians led by Belestre fell upon the village, carried away captive many of its inhabitants, and burned the entire settlement. A similar fate befell the place in 1778, when the Mohawk chief Brant advanced against this valley, and continued attacks were maintained by his people until the close of the war. The Germans were loyal to the American cause, and under General Nicholas Herkimer formed the bulk of the army that won the day at Oriskany. About 1784 there was a large influx of new settlers of American stock. The chief town of the settlement is now known as Herkimer, with a population of about six thousand.--ED.

[214] Canajoharie, in Montgomery County, was the site of a Mohawk village where Joseph Brant had his early home. In 1750 Philip Van Alstine built the first house upon the site, and ten years later erected thereon a mill. The early settlers were chiefly Germans, and the place suffered severely during the Revolutionary War, being raided successively in 1780 and 1781. By 1790 the settlement had taken on new life, and by 1829 was incorporated as a town.

Near Rotterdam, an early Dutch settlement, is located the oldest house of that region now extant, thought to have been built in 1680, and known as the Jan Mabie house.

Schenectady (also called Corlaer in early days) was laid out in 1662 by Arent Van Curler and fourteen associates. As a frontier settlement in King William's War, it suffered an attack and massacre by French and Indians (1690). In 1705, Queen's Fort was built therein, and it was garrisoned until the Revolution. The first town charter was obtained in 1763, and the city incorporated in 1798.--ED.

[215] The Mohawk and Albany Railway was projected by George W. Featherstonehaugh, an Englishman of some eminence, who had married an American and settled near Albany. A friend of George Stephenson of England, Featherstonehaugh conceived the idea, as early as 1825, of uniting Albany and Schenectady by a railway. The next year a company was incorporated, whose president was Stephen Van Rensselaer. Delay was incident upon construction, and the line was not opened until August, 1831, when the locomotive "Detroit Clinton" drew a train of carriages from Albany to Schenectady. The Mohawk and Albany Railway was the progenitor of the present New York Central and Hudson River Railway. See G. S. Roberts, _Old Schenectady_ (Schenectady, 1904), pp. 143-152.--ED.

[216] For a biographical account of Dr. Edwin James, see our volume xiv, preface, pp. 13-25.--ED.

[217] For sketches of these scientists, see our volume xxii, p. 29, note 3, and p. 64, note 27.--ED.

[218] Samuel George Morton (1799-1851) was educated in medicine at the Universities of Pennsylvania and Edinburgh. In 1823, he settled in practice in Philadelphia, and interested himself in the development of natural science, being a member for many years and finally president (1850) of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. To this institution he bequeathed his collection of skulls, which he began in 1830, and which is the largest museum of comparative craniology in the United States, containing over fifteen hundred specimens, nearly two-thirds of which are human. For the origin of Peale's Museum, see our volume ix, p. 55, note 22. Titian Peale is noted in our volume xiv, p. 40, note 1.--ED.

[219] For brief notice of John Jacob Astor, see Franchère's _Narrative_, in our volume vi, p. 186, note 8.--ED.

[220] For Dr. Julius, see _ante_, p. 179, note 198. The riots of July 9-11, 1834, were occasioned by popular opposition to the abolition movement. The American Anti-Slavery Society held a meeting in New York on the fourth of July; immediately excitement arose, and the leaders were threatened. On the night of the ninth, the attempt to hold a meeting of the society resulted in an attack on the Chatham Street chapel--the place of meeting--and the house of Lewis Tappan, one of its prominent members. See _Niles' Register_, xlvi, pp. 332, 346, 357-360.--ED.

[221] See p. 169, for illustration of harpoon for dolphins.--ED.

APPENDIX

I. VOCABULARIES OF SOME OF THE TRIBES OF NORTHWESTERN AMERICA, WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE SIGN LANGUAGE. Translated and adapted from the German edition (Coblentz, 1839), by _Asa Currier Tilton_.

II. TRADITION OF THE ORIGIN OF THE OTO, JOWA, AND MISSOURI. From the London edition, 1843.

III. EXTRACT FROM AN INDIAN LAND CONTRACT. From the London edition.

IV. TREATY OF PEACE BETWEEN THE AMERICAN FUR COMPANY AND THE BLACKFEET. From the London edition.

V. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT FORTS UNION AND CLARKE. Summarized from the German edition, by _Asa Currier Tilton_.

VI. BIRD CALENDAR FOR THE REGION OF THE MANDAN VILLAGE, WINTER OF 1833-34. Translated and adapted from the German edition, by _Asa Currier Tilton_.

VII. CATALOGUS PLANTARUM IN MONTE POCONO. From the London edition.

VIII. SYSTEMATIC VIEW OF PLANTS FROM THE MISSOURI. From the London edition.

IX. CATALOGUE OF BIRDS OBSERVED IN THE MONTHS OF NOVEMBER, DECEMBER, JANUARY, AND FEBRUARY, AT THE MOUTH OF THE WABASH. Translated and adapted from the German edition, by _Asa Currier Tilton_.

I. VOCABULARIES OF SOME OF THE TRIBES OF NORTHWESTERN AMERICA, WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE

INTRODUCTION

Much has been written by scholars in recent times on the Asiatic extraction of the American peoples; and the attempt has been made, particularly in the United States, to prove such a relationship. This exceedingly interesting subject opens to the investigator a boundless field; but one whose paths are dark and difficult to make clear. Many good reasons can be given for an Asiatic descent of the Americans; on the other hand, objections can be made which cannot easily be set aside. In either case strikingly similar traits have been found in the peoples of the two continents, as may be seen from Delafield's new work, where everything that can be said on the subject has been brought together.[222]

As the traveller stands in front of the long lines of the old Indian burial mound near St. Louis, he can easily believe that he has before him one of the south Russian kurgans. Moreover, surprising correspondences are found from a comparison of the works of art, as well as the intellectual and moral characteristics, of the peoples of Mexico and Peru with those of India and Egypt. But we search in vain for Mongols in North America. When one has seen the Hindoos, Kalmucks, Bashkirs, and Chinese, he will find that the features and complexion of the type of man now inhabiting North America are very different from those of the Asiatic peoples; and will feel justified in regarding the Americans as a distinct race.

The most firmly-grounded objections to the theory of the Asiatic extraction of the Americans seems to lie in the difference in the color of the skin and in the slight relationship of the languages; for the few words related to American, which have so far been sought out with great difficulty in the Asiatic languages, do not appear to have much weight.

D'Orbigny[223] assumes that there are different races among the peoples of America. But even if it is necessary, for the sake of clearness, to make various subdivisions in such an extended and varied population, on the basis of distinguishing characteristics, nevertheless such a division is difficult and arbitrary. If representatives of all these peoples could be brought together, a classification would present fewer difficulties; but great distances often separate related tribes, and memory rarely suffices for making these exact comparisons. I cannot render a decision on D'Orbigny's supposition that in the American branch of humanity the North Americans form a different race from the South Americans, since I have become acquainted with only a small number of the South American nations.

One claim, which seems to me to have decided probability, is that the ancient Mexicans migrated from the more northern parts of the continent of America. There are many indications of this. The hieroglyphic painting of the migration of the people, which later rose to a higher culture in Mexico, which was discovered by Boturini and brought out by Delafield, is, from this standpoint, a highly interesting document.[224] The drawings of the present North American Indians still show many similarities to those of old Mexican pictures, although it must be said that they are much rougher, cruder, and more childish.[225] Therein, also, foot prints are represented when it is desired to show a continued movement of the figures; and other correspondences have already been pointed out. In various places in the account of my travels, I have sought to call attention to them and to the conjectured southward migration of the Americans. The skulls, however, which have been taken from the old burial grounds on the Wabash, do not show that flattening of the heads that is portrayed on Delafield's first plate; but their crowns are rounded just as nature formed them.

All conjectures over the origin and relationship of these peoples must await the more trustworthy conclusions which it will be justifiable to draw from the relationship of their languages; only through more exact knowledge of them can we hope to make progress in this broad and obscure field. Several of the North American dialects are already fairly well known to philologists; for a majority of the rest there are, at least, vocabularies which allow a superficial classification according to relationship. Distinguished American philologists, Duponceau, Pickering,[226] Edwin James, Gallatin, and several others have accumulated much material, but there has been no comprehensive work on the subject. This lack has in part been filled by Mr. Albert Gallatin, whose learned work is in the hands of the publishers.[227] Since at the present time the attention of travellers is being directed more and more to this highly interesting subject, these materials are likely to be largely increased in the near future, and to give American scholars the chance of constantly perfecting their work. Some authors, among them McKenney, in his _History of the Indian Tribes of North America_,[228] do not seem to attach much value to vocabularies collected by travellers. To be sure, these often are handled in a thoughtless and superficial manner; but it must be remembered that in the interior of North America excellent interpreters of the Indian languages may now be found, and that the Indians themselves often fluently speak several languages. Through these agencies interesting contributions to our knowledge of the dialects referred to may always be expected.

In an examination of the tribes of America, the multiplicity of their languages is very striking. These languages are often confined to quite small tribes; their origin is quite correctly explained by Mr. Gallatin.[229] From the interesting work of this scholar it appears, however, that a certain similarity of character belongs to this multitude of tongues--a circumstance that testifies to their common origin as well as to the antiquity of the American population.[230] All this material thus gains value in the eyes of the philologist; and in this connection it is with pleasure to be noticed, that with the extension of these investigations the interest in them in America constantly brings forward diligent co-operators.

Such work would be far easier and much more useful if all the vocabularies were compiled and copied on the same principles. Most of those in existence have been written down by Englishmen, or Anglo-Americans; and as a rule they, like the French, cannot, as Gallatin admits, correctly reproduce the Indian gutturals;[231] yet it is characteristic of all these languages that they abound in gutturals. Another defect in the usual vocabularies, lies in the omission of accents; for these, also, are peculiarly characteristic of the American languages. One of the dialects which I investigated is so difficult to write, that even after the greatest effort I could reproduce but a few words--I refer to that of the Grosventres of the prairies, sometimes called by the English Fall Indians.[232] For this tongue, even the fur trade company had not been able to find an interpreter; and was compelled to carry on all business with those Indians in the Blackfoot language. Most of the other languages of the Missouri Valley can more easily be reproduced by the Germans and Dutch than by other nations; because, as has already been explained, their own speech abounds in gutturals and regularly has hard endings. Consequently the English vocabularies for these tribes are always more or less defective. Pickering felt this very decidedly, and has consequently proposed for his countrymen a notation of tones which is analogous to the German, and which, if it comes into use, will produce most beneficial results. Pickering's scheme requires that the vowels be pronounced in America as follows:

_a_ as in the word _father_, _e_ as in _there_, _i_ as in _machine_, _o_ as in _note_, _u_ as in _rule_, _y_ as in _you_ (or as _ee_ in English).

In short, he adopts the German system, completely. In place of the German _æ_ and _œ_, or _ä_ and _ö_, he proposes to write in English _aᵉ_ and _oᵉ_; in place of _c_ to use _k_, a change that will avoid many misunderstandings; and when the pronunciation is hard, to use _z_, etc. If this system had been used earlier, a smaller number of errors would have crept into the works on this subject, and into the translations from one language to another. For instance, my vocabularies of the Brazilian peoples have in places been very incorrectly reproduced by French translators.

Another defect in the usual English system, for such vocabularies, arises from the division of all words into syllables, a method which Duponceau very rightly censured; for in this way the correct pronunciation of the words is generally lost. When the word with its accents has been written as a whole, the division into syllables is the next task, in order thus to reach conclusions regarding its inflection and derivation--something quite indispensable for the philologist. A word divided in the English style into its component parts, could be correctly pronounced neither by a German nor by a Frenchman; besides, every language has its own intonation, not common to others. I have, therefore, held it to be the surest way of making the Indian words intelligible to all my readers, to call to my aid the pronunciation of several nations. For instance, _on_ and _an_, in the Indian languages are spoken, sometimes as in German, sometimes as in French; in such cases I have noted in a parenthesis the system according to which the word or syllable is to be pronounced. Other notes of this character have seemed necessary, and these require the following explanations:--

(1) Sharp _c_ is designated as in French by _ç_.

(2) Guttur. denotes guttural, _i.e._, the German or Dutch pronunciation.

(3) _aº_ or _oª_ denotes full _a_ or _o_, somewhat like _aw_ in English. Here I might have written _o͡a_; but by using _aº_ and _oª_, I also indicate that the sound of the lower letter predominates.

(4) d. d. N. (durch die Nase) denotes through the nose: _i.e._, a nasal sound.

(5) When the sign ½ follows a letter, it means that it is to be only half pronounced, somewhat as the first _e_ in the German word _gegangen_, or the second _e_ in the English word _achievement_.

(6) I have tried to indicate the length of a syllable by adding an _h_, a plan which I preferred to the ordinary signs ∽ or ⏝, since these might easily be confused in printing.

(7) A _g_ is often heard at the end of the syllables _on_ and _an_; consequently I have written them _ong_ and _ang_. This is the German system, as I have indicated by the word "German." It is assumed that the philologist will be familiar, at least in general, with German as well as with French and English pronunciation.

(8) As the French acute accent seemed to me entirely adequate for indicating the correct intonation of the Indian words, I have chosen it to show on what letter or syllable the emphasis is to be placed. Occasionally, owing to haste or lack of time, it may have been forgotten or omitted.

(9) In the case of the letter _j_, I have not followed Mr. Pickering's scheme, for everyone knows how it is pronounced in French and in German. When it has the former value--as very often in the American languages--I have noted "French:" _i.e._, pronounce as in French. In no other way, it seems to me, can the soft French _j_ be clearly indicated.

(10) The German guttural sound _ch_, as in the syllables _ach_, _och_, or _uch_, is, as Gallatin observes, difficult for Englishmen and Frenchmen;[233] but it occurs everywhere in the American languages, and the reader must learn it if he wishes to pronounce such words correctly.

(11) The _r_ is never pronounced by these peoples as a guttural, but always with the point of the tongue against the roof of the mouth; _d_ and _r_, as well as _r_, _l_, and _n_,[234] are quite often interchanged, or indistinctly pronounced.

(12) On the syllable _in_, I have often noted that _n_ is to be pronounced as in French: _i.e._, the syllable _in_ does not sound like _ain_ in French, but merely the _n_ is pronounced as in French; the whole sound is, therefore, almost _i_ nasal, and only a little at the end sinks to _n_.

It is the duty of every traveller in distant, little-known lands to make contributions, according to his ability, to the knowledge of their languages; hence I have brought together in the following pages my own notes, however insignificant and incomplete they may be, under the difficulties which stand in the way of such work. The ignorance of the interpreters, their lack of sympathy with any kind of scientific investigation, the frequent unwillingness of the Indians to assist, superstitious and unintelligible ideas, and lack of time and leisure--these usually combine to make such examinations difficult. When, here and there, I detected some deviations from Mr. Gallatin's vocabularies, it was my duty to record them in order to aid investigation and come nearer the truth. The fault-finding spirit would certainly never prompt me to this, since we are concerned here, not with the use of the material, but with the former method of collecting it.

I have written these vocabularies, in part from the pronunciation of the Indians themselves; in part, from that of interpreters, who are usually half-breeds, and therefore thoroughly acquainted with the Indian as well as with the French or English languages--they have, at least, lived for a long time with those nations; finally, in part from the pronunciation and with the kind assistance of the Indian agent, Major Dougherty,[235] who speaks several of these languages fluently. From some tribes, owing to lack of time or interpreters, I have obtained but few words; from others, more; the most complete vocabularies are in the Mandan and Minnitarri languages, because I passed the winter among them. While I was living with the Mandans I undertook something of a grammatical study of their language; but unfortunately its continuation and completion were interrupted by illness.

Since but a moment was sometimes at my disposal for collecting a few words, I chose a list of twenty of those that frequently occur, and asked for them first, in order to make a comparison and draw conclusions regarding the relationship of the tribes. These words were as follows:

sun moon star god fire water earth man woman child head arm hand hair eye mouth bow arrow tobacco pipe tomahawk

In each of the vocabularies I have noted the source from which it was obtained. The order in which the tribes are arranged is not according to linguistic relationship, but alphabetical for the sake of easier reference.

From an examination of the following examples of the languages of twenty-three peoples it appears, as is observed by the Rev. Dr. Reck, a philologist,[236] that the Sauki, Musquake, Kickapuh, Ojibua, and Krih tribes belong together--a circumstance that has long been known. The speech of the Wasaji [Osage], Konsa, Oto, Omaha, Punca, Dacota, Assiniboin, and Mandan tribes appear to be only dialects of the Dacota (Sioux) linguistic group, of which the last, which I can give most completely, has been but little known. The ten remaining tribes seem to be more foreign to one another--only between the Blackfoot and Snake (Shoshone) dialects, do we find word relationships. There are likewise many similarities between the Mandan and Minnitarri languages; but these, as I was repeatedly assured, arose only after the two peoples had lived near each other, as I have already related elsewhere in the account of my travels. The name of the deity is "manito" among the Musquake [Fox], Sauki, Kickapuh, Ojibua, and Krih tribes, all of which belong to the Algonkin, or Algic linguistic group; among the seven tribes of the Dacota group, it is "wakonda," or "wakanda," which has the same or a similar meaning in half of the tribes mentioned. The word for water is very similar among most of these people, and the name of the tobacco pipe is the same or similar in half of the dialects.

First and last, various corrections have been made in these lists; yet they remain incomplete, and further observation will add many new corrections. I must, therefore, as always, request consideration from learned critics. Finally, I must note that if in the body of my narrative some words are not written as in the vocabularies, the spelling of the latter is to be preferred.[237]

FOOTNOTES:

[222] S. Delafield, _Inquiry into the origin of the antiquities of America_. Cincinnati, 1836.--MAXIMILIAN.

_Comment by Ed._ The author is John Delafield, Jr., and the work bears the imprint of New York, London, and Paris, 1839. A few copies are also marked Cincinnati, 1839.

[223] For d'Orbigny, see our volume xxiii, p. 300, note 273.--ED.

[224] Chevalier Lorenzo Boturini Beneduci was an Italian scholar who came to Mexico in 1736 on a mission for a descendant of Montezuma. Becoming interested in Mexican antiquities, Boturini spent eight years in making a valuable collection of aboriginal manuscripts; but having incurred the suspicion of the government, he was imprisoned and his collection confiscated (1745). On his return voyage to Spain, whither he was sent for trial, the galley was captured by the English, and the last vestiges of his antiquities disappeared. In Spain he sought redress, which was granted him, but this of course did not restore his collection. While in Spain he published _Idea de una nueva historia general de la America septentrionale_ (Madrid, 1746), in which appears a catalogue of this collection. A portion was recovered, and is now in the museum in the City of Mexico. The manuscript seen by Delafield was the property of William Bullock (for whom see our volume xix, preface), who was also a specialist in Mexican antiquities.--ED.

[225] Consult Plate 55, in the accompanying atlas, our volume xxv; also the authorities quoted in note 53, p. 184, of Brackenridge's _Journal_, in our volume vi.--ED.

[226] For Duponceau, see our volume xxii, p. 29, note 3.

John, eldest son of Timothy Pickering, the Massachusetts statesman, was born at Salem in 1777; being graduated from Harvard (1796), he began the study of law at Philadelphia, where his father was in residence as a member of the federal cabinet. The following year, however, John went to Portugal as legation secretary, being transferred to the embassy at London, where he remained until 1801. Returning to Salem, he again devoted himself to the legal profession, also to linguistic studies which he had diligently pursued abroad, making contributions to Greek philology, and publishing a lexicon of that language. He was offered chairs of both Hebrew and Greek at Harvard, but declined, preferring to live in Boston, whither he removed in 1829. His interest in North American linguistics was awakened (1819) by Duponceau's work, and the following year he published an "Essay on a Uniform Orthography for the Indian Languages of North America," in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences _Transactions_, iv. He also edited, with copious notes, John Eliot's _Indian Grammar_, Jonathan Edwards's _Observations on the Mohegan Language_, and Father Sebastian Rasle's _Dictionary of the Abnaki Tongue_; and prepared the article on North American languages for the _Encyclopædia Americana_. Pickering was a member of many learned societies, at one time being president of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and was granted the degree of LL. D. by both Bowdoin (1822) and Harvard (1835). His death occurred at Boston in 1846.--ED.

[227] See _Archaeologia Americana_, vol. 2. Cambridge, 1836. In this volume is Mr. Gallatin's _Synopsis of the Indian tribes within the United States east of the Rocky mountains_.--MAXIMILIAN.

[228] See our volume xxii, p. 29, note 3.--ED.

[229] Mr. Gallatin (p. 151) expresses himself on this subject as follows:--"on the other hand, the great extent of ground necessary to sustain game sufficient for the subsistence of a very moderate population, compels them (the Indians) to separate and to form a number of small independent communities. It may easily be perceived that the perpetual state of warfare, in which neighboring tribes are engaged, had its origin in the same cause which has produced the great diversity of American languages or dialects. We may also understand how the affections of the Indian became so exclusively concentrated in his own tribe, the intensity of that natural feeling, how it degenerated into deadly hatred of hostile nations, and the excesses of more than savage ferocity, in which he indulged under the influence of his unrestrained vindictive passions."--MAXIMILIAN.

[230] Gallatin, _Ibid._, p. 142.--MAXIMILIAN.

[231] _Ibid._, p. 4.--MAXIMILIAN.

[232] See on these Indians, Franchère's _Narrative_, in our volume vi, p. 371, note 183.--ED.

[233] Gallatin, _Ibid._, p. 4.--MAXIMILIAN.

[234] _Ibid._, p. 45.--MAXIMILIAN.

[235] For Dougherty, see our volume xiv, p. 126, note 92.--ED.

[236] Johann Friedrich von Recke, born at Mitau, in Livonia, in 1764, early turned his attention to historical and linguistic pursuits. Educated under a brother of Emanuel Kant, he studied at Göttingen with Professor Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, who later gave an impetus to Maximilian's investigations. About 1785 Recke retired to Mitau where for over forty years he was state archivist, with leisure to pursue his special investigations. As a philologist his fame rests on his _Allgemeinen Schriftsteller und gelehrten Lexikons der provinzen Livland, Esthland, und Kurland_ (Mitau, 1827-32). It would appear that Maximilian consulted Dr. Recke upon the analogies of his Indian vocabularies.--ED.

[237] In transcribing the Indian words of these vocabularies, the word divisions and diacritical marks of the German edition have been copied exactly as they stand, save when the division of a word at the end of a line has necessitated an additional hyphen. Most of the diacritical marks are explained by the author in his introduction. The vertical accent seems to be used to indicate secondary, or less emphatic stress; the horizontal superior ° appears, likewise, to be used to show that the sound is less prominent than when the usual superior ° is used.

Exact translation of the German words has been very difficult in some cases, owing to the entire absence of context. The parentheses following the English contain alternative or explanatory words. Some of these are given by Maximilian himself, some lie in the form of the German word, and some are supplied by the translator.--TRANSLATOR.

ARIKKARAS (Rikkaras; French, Ris)[238]

=American= (an), Nehsikuss (Long Knife, the name which the Americans have among all Indian nations).

=Arm=, ui̍hnu (_uih_ very long; _nu_ very short and low).

=Arrow=, ni̍h-schu (_nih_ with strong accent; _sch_ very short and falling in tone).

=Autumn=, niskútsch.

=Beans= (the fruit), a̍ttika-hunáhn.

=Beard=, hakaráhnuch (_uch_ guttural).

=Bird=, nix.

=Black=, tecati̍h.

=Blind=, tschirikarúch (_uch_ guttural).

=Blood=, páhtu (_u_ barely audible).

=Blue=, tischidanáhuisch.

=Bone=, dje̍h-schu (_schu_ short and low; _je_ French).

=Bow=, náhtsch (_sch_ hissed softly at the end; German throughout).

=Bow-lance=, na̍hts-saha̍hn.

=Brave=, ui̍hta-nakóh.

=Brave= (n), ui̍hta-ti.

=Bridle= (horse), hah-karachkóhku (_ach_ guttural; _koh_ with strong emphasis).

=Brook=, taháhneni-kaki̍rihu.

=Brother=, ináhn (_i_ barely audible).

=Chief= (leader), däscháhn.

=Child=, pi̍hrau (German throughout; _r_ with the point of the tongue).

=Cold=, tipsi̍h.

=Come here=, schi-schá (both short); or, schi-schá-pisch, come here quickly.

=Dance= (v), tiráhnaui̍sch-uischu (very short; run together).

=Day=, tiuëne-sáhkaritsch (second _e_ ½; the last word low and short).

=Deaf=, kaketschiesch (first _e_ ½; otherwise German throughout).

=Devil= (evil spirit), sziri̍tsch (same word as for wolf).

=Die= (v), necksáhn.

=Door=, hihuattóhnin (_nin_ short and low; _hih_ together).

=Dream= (v), itcháhn (_it_ barely audible; _ch_ guttural).

=Drink=, metetschi̍hka.

=Dumb=, wakárru (_u_ barely audible).

=Ear=, atkaha̍hn (_at_ barely audible).

=Earth=, honáhnin (_n_ barely audible; _nah_ very long; German pronunciation throughout).

=Enemy=, páh-tu (like word for blood).

=Englishman=, Sáhnisch-takapsia (_a_ low and short; _i_ and _a_ separated).

=Evening=, hinách (_ach_ guttural).

=Eye=, tschiri̍hko (_ko_ short and low).

=Father=, hiáchti (_ti_ low and short; _ach_ guttural).

=Feather=, hi̍h-tu (_u_ barely audible; the whole run together).

=Fire=, ha-ni̍h-tu (_ha_ short; _tu_ barely audible; the whole run together).

=Fish=, tschiuátsch (_t_ indistinct; _ua_ like _wa_).

=Flesh=, sászsch.

=Fog=, uettetara̍nsa (_e_ full value).

=Forehead=, nikakinn.

=Forest=, waráhkt (_t_ barely audible; _r_ with the point of the tongue).

=Frenchman=, Sáhnisch-táhka.

=Friend=, sih-nánn (German, run together).

=Go= (v), tiuáhwanuck.

=God=, pachkátsch (_ach_ German guttural).

=Good=, tunahä.

=Great=, teüitschähs.

=Green=, same word as for blue.

=Gun=, tnáhku (_t_ and _u_ barely audible), or nahku.

=Hair=, u̍hchu (_ch_ guttural; _uh_ guttural sound; final _u_ very short).

=Hand=, éschu (_u_ barely audible).

=Head=, pá-chu (_ch_ guttural; the whole run together).

=Heart=, ui̍ssu (_u_ indistinct).

=Heat=, tah-weri̍stu (_u_ short; the whole run together).

=Horns= (of stag), warikaráhn.

=House= (hut), akáhn.

=Hunger=, tiriuatä̍.

=Hunt= (v), tiráhuisch-kaë̍hsch (_a_ and _e_ separated; _e_ and _h_ together).

=I=, náh-tu (_tu_ short; run together).

=Ice=, nachéhtu (_ch_ guttural; _u_ short and low).

=Island=, auáhk (_a_ and _u_ separated).

=Jar= (pot), kószsch.

=Knife=, nisi̍tsch.

=Laugh= (v), täwa̍chko (_ko_ short and low).

=Lead= (ball), nischtiúidu.

=Leg=, káhchu (_u_ barely audible).

=Life=, ti̍hko (_ko_ short and low).

=Lightning=, hunachtschipsch.

=Maize=, nä̍hschü (_schu_ very low and short).

=Man=, ui̍t-h (_h_ prolonged as an aspiration).

=Meal= (to eat?), teuah (_e_ and _u_ separated).

=Medicine=, tiua̍hruchi (_i_ and _u_ separated; _ti_ short; _ah_ with strong accent; _uch_ guttural).

=Medicine drum=, akadéhwuchnahch (_ch_ guttural; _wuch_ and _ahch_ very indistinct).

=Medicine pipe=, napàhruchti (_uch_ guttural).

=Moon=, pa̍.

=Morning=, hina̍chtit.

=Mother=, scha̍chti (German; _i_ indistinct).

=Mountain=, wáo-tiri̍huh.

=Mouth=, hah-ka̍u (_kau_ together, with the accent).

=Much=, tiráhnehun (_e_ full value; _un_ like _oun_ in French).

=Negro=, sa̍hnisch-kahtitt.

=Night=, uettekattih-si̍ha (_e_ full value; final _a_ short and low).

=Nose=, sini̍ht.

=One-eyed=, tschirikak-cho (_ch_ like a guttural breath).

=Partizan= (leader of a war party), däschtschi̍ta (German throughout).

=People= (folk), sa̍hnisch.

=Pipe= (tobacco), nauschkatsch (German throughout).

=Pouch= (for ammunition), ischtachkóhku (_ach_ guttural).

=Powder= (gun-powder), it-ka̍hn (_it_ barely audible; otherwise German).

=Pumpkin= (the fruit), neka̍hse (first _e_ full value; final _e_ ½).

=Quick=, pi̍sch.

=Quiver=, uachtáss (_ach_ low; _uach_ very low, in the throat).

=Rain=, uettasuhe (_e_ ½).

=Rattle= (sysyquoy, or gourd-rattle), atschihikúchtsch (_uch_ guttural).

=Red= (color), tippaha̍ht (_t_ barely audible).

=Red= (to paint red), tippaha̍hnu (_u_ barely audible).

=Revenge= (v), uëuittetut-kaui̍ht (_aui_ separated; likewise _ue_).

=River=, sahá-nin (German throughout).

=Saddle=, anari̍tschi-tauï (the whole low; _ta_ together; _a_, _u_, and _i_ separated).

=Scalp=, uittirah-hunnu (_nu_ very short and barely audible; _u_ and _it_ separated).

=Sick=, tenáhchehu (_ch_ guttural; _e_ full value).

=Small= (short), kakirihuh.

=Smoke=, tira̍h-uchschka̍ (_uch_ very short guttural; _schka_ very strong emphasis).

=Snow=, huna̍ho (_o_ short and low).

=Speak=, tihuáhwachtéhku (_u_ short and low; _ach_ guttural).

=Spirits= (distilled), séh-sannach (_ach_ guttural as in German).

=Star=, sakka̍h.

=Stingy=, tähui̍ss-ch (_ch_ guttural prolonged).

=Stirrup=, achkatatáu (_ach_ merely a guttural sound, nearly _ch_).

=Stone=, kanéh-tsch (_tsch_ merely hissed at end).

=Strong=, tetárach-tschisch (last word loud with emphasis; _ach_ guttural).

=Sun=, schakúhn (German).

=Sunflower= (helianthus), stschüpünáh-núhchu (_ch_ guttural).

=Sweet=, uettáh.

=Teeth=, a̍hna (_a_ barely audible, thus nearly _ahn_).

=Thunder=, uaruchte-teuachnáho (_e_ distinctly pronounced).

=Tobacco=, nahuischkáhn (_nah_ together; _uisch_ like _wisch_, merely a hiss).

=Tobacco-pouch=, nanochkóhku (_och_ guttural; _koh_ rather indistinct).

=Tomahawk= (with the pipe), katarátsch-nauschkatsch (German throughout).

=Tomahawk= (without the pipe), katarátsch.

=Tongue=, háhtu (_u_ barely audible).

=Toothache=, tikuchkaráhnu (_uch_ guttural; _nu_ short and low).

=Trail=, hatúhn.

=Ugly=, kakúchne (_ch_ rather indistinct; _e_ ½).

=Village=, etúhn.

=War=, na̍minakohn, i.e., to fight.

=War-club= (with the iron head), akachtáhka (_ach_ guttural).

=Wash=, tani̍h-karúhku (final _u_ short and low).

=Water=, stóh-cho (_st_ with the point of the tongue; _ch_ guttural).

=Weep= (v), titschi̍ck.

=White= (the color), tetschéh-schauatá (together).

=White-man=, sáhnisch-thaka.

=Wind=, tihútt.

=Winter=, hunáhka (_a_ merely a guttural aspirate).

=Wood=, náh-ku (_u_ low and short; run together).

=Wood= (piece of), natsch (German throughout; same word as for bow, but pronounced shorter).

=Yellow=, tirachkatáh (_ach_ German guttural).

=Yes=, haa (nasal).

_Names of Animals_

=Antelope= (general term), nanonatsch; the buck, arikatoch (_och_ guttural); doe, achkahuahtaesch.

=Bat=, wa̍hch.

=Bear= (black), mató.

=Bear= (grizzly), kúhnuch (_uch_ guttural).

=Beaver=, tschi̍ttuch (_uch_ guttural).

=Bighorn=, arikússu; usually arikúss.

=Buffalo= (bull), hoh-kúss; the cow, watahésch.

=Deer= (black-tailed), tahkati̍tt.

=Deer= (common), nochnuna̍hts (_noch_ barely audible).

=Dog=, chahtsch (_ch_ guttural, German throughout).

=Duck=, kúh-ha (_ha_ merely a breathing).

=Eagle= (bald-headed), ari̍chta (_ich_ German, with the point of the tongue).

=Eagle= (war), dä̍htach-ka̍ss (_ach_ guttural).

=Elk= (general term), ua̍; the stag, ua̍-nukúss; the doe, uaua̍taesch.

=Fox= (gray), tschiwakóh-kussohtara̍huisch (_rah_ together; _u_ and _i_ separated).

=Fox= (prairie), tschiua̍hk (_ua_ separated, accent on _uahk_, abruptly ended).

=Fox= (red), tschiwakúh-kuss.

=Horse=, chawa̍hruchtä (_ch_ and _uch_ guttural).

=Moose=, wah-sucha̍rut (_ch_ guttural).

=Mule=, chawaka̍du (_du_ barely audible; _ch_ guttural).

=Otter=, tschita̍hpat, or tschittahpatte (_e_ ½).

=Skunk=, nimbi̍tt.

=Swan=, scha̍htu (_tu_ very short).

=Turtle=, tschi̍u-ha̍hn (_i_ and _u_ separated: _i_ accented; _hah_ very strong emphasis; the whole run together).

=Wolf= (gray), sziri̍tsch-tehunéhnoch (_e_ full value).

=Wolf= (prairie), pachka̍tsch (_ach_ guttural; same word as for god).

=Wolf= (white), sziri̍tsch-sta̍hka.

_Articles of Dress and Implements_

=Breechcloth=, mischa̍ch-kaë̍htu (_ach_ guttural; _ka_ and _eh_ separated; _tu_ short).

=Buffalo-robe=, sahóhtsch (German throughout).

=Hair-ornament= (the crow), nachkúch-katóch (_ch_ guttural).

=Head-dress= (the long hood of feathers), pachta̍hruka-wüe (_ach_ guttural; _wu_ and _e_ separated; _e_ ½).

=Leggings=, gógutsch (_go_ guttural; _o_ full; German throughout).

=Moccasins=, chútsch (_ch_ guttural).

=Necklace= (of bear's claws), kunúch-chwü̍tu (_ch_ guttural).

=Powder-horn=, pah-ri̍h-ku (_ku_ short).

=Sledge=, ta̍ruch-ta̍hsch (_uch_ guttural).

=Whip=, pi̍nnuch (_uch_ a strongly hissed, low guttural sound).

=Wolf-tail= (ornament for heel), ha̍chtit-kutawö̍ (_hach_ merely a guttural sound like _ch_).

_Numerals_

=One=, a̍chku (_u_ barely audible; _ku_ merely a guttural aspirate).

=Two=, pi̍ttcho (_o_ barely audible; _cho_ merely a guttural aspirate).

=Three=, ta̍h-uitt (_uitt_ very short and low; _tt_ barely audible).

=Four=, tschetéhsch (_e_ full value).

=Five=, si̍-huch (_huch_ low and short; an aspirate).

=Six=, tscha̍hpis (_pis_ short and low).

=Seven=, taui-scha̍hpis-uahn (the last two words run together; _a_ and _u_ separated).

=Eight=, tauischa̍hpis (_a_ and _u_ separated).

=Nine=, nochenéh-uahn (_ch_ guttural; first _e_ ½).

=Ten=, nochén (_ch_ guttural).

=Eleven=, pitkóche-nëuahn (first _e_ ½; _ne_ and _u_ separated; _ch_ guttural).

=Twelve=, pitchóchin (_ch_ guttural; _in_ German).

=Twenty=, uïta̍.

=Thirty=, sauï (_a_ and _u_ separated).

=Forty=, pitkonane-nonchen (_on_ French; _chen_ as above).

=Fifty=, here they begin again with ten and count to one hundred by tens; fifty is thus five times ten.

=Hundred=, schucktahn; i.e., all the tens.

_Names of Rivers_

=Bighorn=, Arikúss-okaháhn.

=Cannonball=, Natschi̍o-háu (_i_ accented; _i_ and _o_ separated; _hau_ pronounced together as in German).

=Grand=, Sáchkau-waháhn (_ach_ guttural; _au_ together as in German, but barely audible).

=Heart=, Tostschi̍ta.

=Knife=, Ésitsch-kaháhn.

=Little Bighorn=, Ariksúh (really Arikússu)-kaháh-schiripáss.

=Little Missouri= (upper), Okaháh-tschiripáss.

=Missouri=, Swarúchti (_uch_ guttural); or Hokaháh-ninn (_nin_ German), i.e., Medicine-water.

=Muddy= (upper), Hohrutschítt (_r_ with the point of the tongue; German throughout).

=Musselshell=, Skápedoch-saháhn (_och_ guttural; _e_ ½).

=Powder=, Kanáchtu-suhukaháhn (_ach_ guttural; German throughout).

=Rivière à Moreau=, Kadi̍h-kahi̍tt.

=Rivière au castor=, Zitech-saháhn (_zi_ German; _ech_ guttural; _e_ nearly the same as ü, and barely audible).

=Rivière au rempart=, Laráh-páhwi.

=Rocky Mountains=, Wagátti-stáhga (_ga_ German; _sta_ with point of the tongue).

=Square Butte creek= (Butte-carrée) Tschi̍h-issu (emphasis on the first word; the second word low; German throughout).

=Teton=, Sih-sawi̍h-tii; i.e., the stagnant water.

=Tongue=, Hatúhu-kaháhn (German, run together).

=White= (lower), Hokahach-kúss (_ach_ guttural).

=White-earth=, Horúss-tuhusscháhn (German throughout; _ch_ guttural).

=Yellowstone=, Wáh-hukaháhn.

_Names of Neighboring Tribes_

=Arrapahos=, Schahä̍.

=Assiniboins=, Pa̍hoak-sa̍.

=Blackfeet=, Chochkátit (_ch_ guttural; last _t_ barely audible).

=Crows=, Tuch-káh-ka (_uch_ guttural; _ka_ low and short).

=Dacotas=, Schaónn.

=Minnitarris=, Uïtatt-saháhn.

=Pahnis=, Tschi̍hrim (_ri_ very short).

FOOTNOTES:

[238] Written from the pronunciation of the Arikkara Indians themselves. The words are pronounced exactly as in German; _ch_ has almost always a guttural sound; _r_ is spoken with the point of the tongue. Mr. Gallatin remarks (_ibid._, p. 129) that up to this time there has been no vocabulary of this tribe; it is, therefore, gratifying to me to be able to fill this gap, at least to some extent.--MAXIMILIAN.

ASSINIBOIN[239]

=American= (an), Mi̍na-haske (_e_ ½; run together); i.e., Long Knife.

=Arm=, nistó.

=Arrow=, uahi̍ntepä (_pa_ short; _e_ ½).

=Bird=, sittekanne (_e_ only ½ in both cases).

=Black=, sáhpa.

=Blind=, chóncha (_ch_ guttural; _on_ French).

=Blood=, uä̍.

=Blue=, schunktóh (_o_ full).

=Bone=, hóh.

=Bow=, nta̍sipa (_n_ barely audible).

=Brave= (adj), uïuktschasch (German).

=Brook=, kachä̍ (_ch_ guttural).

=Brother=, mitschi̍nna.

=Child=, hokschinn.

=Cold= (adj), osni̍h.

=Dance= (v), uatschi̍we.

=Day=, ampa (_am_ French).

=Deaf=, nóge-wanintsche (_ge_ guttural; second word low).

=Devil= (evil spirit), uakan-schi̍dja (_an_ and _dj_ French and soft).

=Die= (v), ti̍nktä (_t_ separated from _i_, and barely indicated).

=Door=, tióhpa.

=Dream= (v), ui̍-hamana (_hamana_ short and low).

=Drink= (v), me̍nat-ki̍nte (first _e_ ½; _te_ short and low).

=Dumb=, non-chäk-kpah (_on_ French; _ch_ guttural).

=Ear=, nóhge (_g_ guttural).

=Earth=, manká.

=Enemy=, toͣge (_o_ between _a_ and _o_; _e_ ½).

=Englishman=, Uasiáh-maschidju (_j_ French; second word low and without emphasis).

=Evening=, chtaiétu (_ch_ guttural).

=Eye=, nischta̍.

=Father=, atä̍.

=Feather=, hen (_n_ French; the whole nasal).

=Fire=, pähte (_e_ barely audible).

=Fish=, hogan (_an_ French; _g_ guttural).

=Flesh=, tanó (_o_ short).

=Forest=, tschon-tanke (_on_ French; _tanke_ German; _e_ ½).

=Frenchman=, Uaschi̍dju (_j_ French and soft; final _u_ short).

=Friend=, koná (_a_ short).

=Go= (v), honktáu (_au_ pronounced together).

=God= (the creator), uakán-tang-e (_an_ French; _e_ ½; the whole pronounced together; _tange_ lower than the first word).

=Good=, uaschtä̍ (_ta_ cut short with emphasis).

=Great= (tall), hanska (_an_ French).

=Green=, tóh (_o_ full).

=Gun=, tschótange (German throughout; _e_ ½).

=Hair=, pahá.

=Hand=, nampä̍.

=Head=, páh.

=Healthy=, tä̍hdja (_dj_ French; _a_ short).

=Heart=, tschantä̍.

=Heat=, oni̍nitta.

=Horns=, tahä̍; the name of the animal is added, e.g., tatánka-tahä̍, buffalo horns.

=House= (of the white-man), uaschi̍-dutti (_dutti_ without emphasis).

=Hunger=, oah-tink-täch (_ach_ guttural; the whole pronounced together).

=Hunt= (v), eiámeia (_ia_ together; the whole short).

=I=, meiä̍ (_ia_ together).

=Ice=, tscháh.

=Island=, uï̍ta (_ta_ short).

=Jar= (pot), wóhan-pe-ä (_an_ French; the whole pronounced together).

=Knife=, mi̍hna (_na_ short).

=Laugh= (v), ncháh (_ch_ guttural).

=Lead= (ball), mandassú (_an_ French).

=Leg=, hussänn.

=Life= (n), uintschone (German throughout; _e_ ½).

=Lightning=, uaki̍än-tua̍mpi (_n_ and _am_ French; _pi_ short).

=Man=, uïtschá (_ui_ separated).

=Meal= (to eat?), wótinkä (_o_ full; _ta_ short and low).

=Moon=, hayétu-hiáye (_e_ ½).

=Morning=, háhkena (_kena_ even and rather low).

=Mother=, iná (_a_ short).

=Mountain=, chä̍ (guttural).

=Mouth=, ih.

=Much=, o̍hta (_oh_ full).

=Negro=, hatsáhpa.

=Night=, kpása.

=Nose=, póhge (_o_ full; _g_ guttural; _e_ ½).

=One-eyed=, schtakeba (_e_ ½).

=Pipe= (tobacco), tschanú-hupa (_hupa_ low).

=Powder= (gun-powder), tschachni̍.

=Quick=, kontschüe (_on_ French; _schue_ short and rapid).

=Red=, scháh.

=Revenge= (v), aóin-tsï̍a (_in_ German; _i_ and _a_ separated).

=River=, sih-uatpáh-tanga (_tanga_ low; the whole pronounced rapidly together).

=Sick=, uaiasa.

=Small= (short?), tschihk-at.

=Smoke= (n), schóhta.

=Snow=, uáh.

=Speak= (v), i-á.

=Spirits= (distilled; i.e., literally fire-water), meni̍h-pä̍ht (run together).

=Star=, uitschachpe (_ch_ guttural; _e_ ½).

=Stingy=, uate̍china (_ch_ guttural; _china_ short).

=Stone=, i̍ng-a (run together and nasal).

=Strong=, menih-han (_an_ French).

=Sun=, hanuï (_an_ French; _u_ and _i_ separated).

=Teeth=, hi̍h.

=Thunder=, uaki̍an (_i_ and _a_ separated; _n_ French).

=Tobacco=, tschandi̍.

=Tomahawk=, tschanúpa-tschachpä (_ach_ guttural).

=Tongue=, tschä-ji̍ (_ji_ short and French).

=Trail=, tskankú.

=Ugly=, schi̍djä (_j_ French; _e_ short).

=Village= (camp), uïntschóti (_ti_ short).

=War=, ketschi̍sawe (_awe_ short and low).

=Warmth=, tschäki̍.

=Wash= (v), jujaje (_jaje_ French; _e_ ½).

=Water=, meni̍h (_e_ ½).

=Weep= (v), tschä̍a (_tscha_ together).

=White= (the color), ska̍la (_sk_ with the point of the tongue).

=Widow=, uïtaschnau (nasal; _nau_ pronounced together).

=Wind=, katä̍.

=Winter=, uaniä̍to.

=Woman=, huï̍na (_hui_ nasal; _na_ short).

=Wood=, tschán (_an_ French).

=Yellow=, si̍h (soft).

=Yes=, hán (French).

_Numerals_

=One=, ua̍ntscha (_an_ French).

=Two=, nompa (_om_ French).

=Three=, ja̍mene (_ne_ short).

=Four=, tópa (_o_ full).

=Five=, sa̍hpta.

=Six=, schahkpe (_e_ ½).

=Seven=, schagoë.

=Eight=, schaknóga (_a_ short).

=Nine=, namptschúnak (_n_ French).

=Ten=, uïktschemane (final _e_ ½).

=Eleven=, akéhuaji (_ji_ French; short).

=Twelve=, akéh-nómpa (_om_ French).

=Twenty=, tschimna-nómpa.

=Twenty-one=, tschimna-nómpa akéh-uaji: and so on in the same way.

=Hundred=, opan-uache (_an_ French; _e_ full value; _opan_ with emphasis and loud; the whole indistinct and rapid).

* * * * *

=I eat=, woáht-atsch (_woa_ almost like _uoa_).

=You eat=, uaiáta.

=He eats=, juht-atsch.

=We eat=, wóh-untáhpi (_untahpi_ without emphasis).

=You eat=, uitáta-hetsch (together).

=They eat=, wóht-atsch (together).

=I shall eat=, héianko-toh-uauat-atsch (the whole pronounced together).

=I would eat=, jenk-uaua-tschinkte.

=I have eaten=, uauáht-atsch.

=Eating=, uanóh-uóhmantucke (_e_ ½).

=Eat= (imperative) uóhtam (_o_ full).

_Names of Animals_

=Antelope=, tatógana.

=Bear= (black), ui̍nketschenna (_ke_ barely audible; _na_ likewise).

=Bear= (grizzly), mató.

=Beaver=, tsápe (_e_ ½).

=Bighorn=, hä̍hktschischka.

=Buffalo=, tatánga.

=Dog=, schónka (_on_ French).

=Elk=, choiá (_ch_ guttural).

=Fox= (gray), tohk-hanne (_e_ short).

=Fox= (red), schonga-schanne (_e_ ½).

=Horse=, schón-atanga (_schon_ with emphasis; _n_ French; _atanga_ low).

=Mountain goat= (white), schunkä̍-ukänne (_e_ ½).

=Otter=, peta̍n (_an_ French; _e_ short and ½).

=Skunk=, manka̍h.

=Wolf=, schunk-tógitsche (_e_ ½).

FOOTNOTES:

[239] Written from the pronunciation of the half-breed interpreter, Halcro.--MAXIMILIAN.

BLACKFOOT[240]

=American= (an), Omakstoä; i.e., Long Knife.

=Arm=, ot-tiss.

=Arrow=, a̍pse (_e_ distinctly pronounced).

=Bird=, pehkseü (final _u_ barely audible).

=Black=, sicksinámm.

=Blind=, náh-pesti (_e_ ½; _pesti_ short).

=Blood=, ahah-pane (_pane_ short; _e_ ½).

=Bone=, ochkinn (_och_ guttural).

=Bow=, spikenn-áhmai (_mai_ German and together; _sp_ with the point of the tongue).

=Boy= (small boy), sa-kú-man-pö (_an_ French; _o_ distinctly pronounced); usually pronounced sachkó-ma-pö (_ach_ guttural).

=Brave= (a trusty man), iehkitappeh (_ie_ German).

=Brook=, asséh-tachtay (_tach_ guttural and very short).

=Brother= (elder), nehs.

=Brother= (younger), niskánn.

=Chief= (n), nachkóhzis (_ach_ guttural; _zis_ low); or ninau (_au_ together, and German).

=Child=, póh-ka.

=Dance= (n), paskáhn.

=Day=, kristikui (_kui_ together).

=Deaf=, sanastóke (_e_ distinctly pronounced).

=Die= (v), ä̍nih (accent on _a_); i.e., he is dead.

=Door=, kitsi̍mm.

=Dream= (v), papokahn.

=Drink= (v), simih.

=Drink= (imperative), simii̍tt.

=Dumb=, katä̍h-puie; i.e., one who does not speak.

=Ear=, ochtóhkiss (_och_ guttural).

=Earth=, ksáchkum (_ach_ guttural; the whole German).

=Eat this=, auáttoht (_au_ together).

=Enemy=, kachtumm.

=Englishman=, Suiápä.

=Evening= (towards evening), attakui (_ui_ together).

=Eye=, o-abs-pih (_oabs_ together; German).

=Father=, ninnah.

=Feather=, mami̍nn.

=Fire=, sti̍h (_st_ with the point of the tongue).

=Fish=, mami̍h.

=Flesh=, ehksakuy (German; _uy_ together).

=Forehead=, oh-niss.

=Forest=, atsoahskoi (_koi_ German and together).

=Frenchman=, Náhpi-kuäcks.

=Friend=, this word is wanting; my kinsman, nézichkáoah (_zich_ guttural; _kaoah_ short).

=Girl= (small girl), ah-ké-kuann (German).

=Go=, ätapoh; i.e., he has gone; the infinitive is wanting.

=Go= (imperative), estapóht (_e_ barely audible).

=God=, their god is the sun.

=Good=, achséh (_ach_ guttural).

=Great= (tall, used of men), espitáh.

=Green=, kómonä.

=Gun=, náhmay (German).

=Hair=, same word as for head.

=Hand=, o̍h-ke-ti̍ss (_i_ almost like _u_ umlaut).

=Head=, oh-tu-kuáhn (_kua_ together).

=Healthy=, katäkiuaht; i.e., he has no sickness.

=Heart=, uskitsi-pachpé (second _i_ barely audible; _ach_ guttural).

=Heat= (it is hot), kristotisséh (_tis_ very short).

=Horn=, ohtsihkinnah; the name of the animal is always added.

=House= (their lodges), moiéhs.

=Hunger=, nitóh-nontsi (_on_ French).

=Hunt= (v), sáhme (_e_ distinctly pronounced).

=I=, nistó.

=Ice=, sahkukotoh.

=Kettle= (iron), äski̍.

=Knife=, stoa̍nn (_st_ with the point of the tongue).

=Laugh= (v), ajimih (_ji_ German).

=Lead= (musket ball), uaksopánn (_uak_ together).

=Leg=, ohchkatt (_ohch_ guttural).

=Live= (he still lives), sa̍keh-tapéh; i.e., he is still in the world.

=Man=, nahpe (_e_ distinctly pronounced).

=Meal= (to eat?), oyé-ü (final _u_ barely audible).

=Moon=, kokui-éta-úawakah (_ui_ pronounced together).

=Morning=, skonna̍h-tonni̍h.

=Mother=, nikrist.

=Mountain=, messtäck.

=Mouth=, ma-å-ih (pronounced together).

=Much=, akajimm (German).

=Negro=, siksahpä-kuä̍nn; i.e., a black Frenchman.

=Night=, kohkui (_ui_ together).

=Nose=, ohkrississ.

=Old= (an old man), náhpe, or nahpi (final _e_ or _i_ short).

=One-eyed=, apa̍u (_au_ together as in German).

=People= (two young people in love), neta̍kka.

=Pipe= (tobacco), akuï-nima̍hn (German).

=Powder= (gun-powder), satsóhpats (German).

=Quick= (go quickly; hasten), kipanétsit.

=Red=, ahsa̍hn.

=Revenge= (I have taken revenge), nitäht-skitáh.

=River=, omachkéh-táchtay (German throughout; _ach_ guttural); i.e., a large river.

=Sick=, pastimmä̍hsi, or aiochtokúh (_och_ guttural).

=Small=, enakutsi (_kutsi_ very short, almost _tsi_).

=Smoke= (n), sahtsi̍h.

=Snow=, kóhn.

=Speak= (v), äpuiéh (_ieh_ pronounced together).

=Spirits= (distilled), sti̍och-keh (_och_ guttural; _st_ with the point of the tongue).

=Star=, kakatóhs (German throughout).

=Stingy=, sickimisi̍h.

=Stone= (rock, or cliff), o̍hkotock.

=Strong=, miskapéh; i.e., a strong man; miss, a strong horse.

=Sun=, nantóhs (_an_ French; otherwise German).

=Sweet=, the word does not occur; they say, good to eat, achséh (_ach_ guttural).

=Teeth=, ochpéhkinn (_och_ guttural).

=Thunder=, kristikúmm.

=Tobacco=, pistáchkan (_ach_ together).

=Tomahawk=, kaksáhkin (German).

=Tongue=, matsinnih.

=Track= (trail), ochsokui (_och_ guttural; _ui_ together); a word is added to tell whether of men or a certain animal.

=Trail=, ochsokui (_och_ guttural; _ui_ together).

=Ugly= (not good), pachkápe (_ach_ guttural; _e_ full value).

=War= (to go out to war), sohóh.

=Wash= (v), siskiochsatis (German; _och_ guttural).

=Water=, ochkéh (_och_ German guttural).

=Weep=, auáhsann.

=Widow=, this word is wanting; they say in general, a woman who has no husband, náhmakeü (final _u_ barely audible).

=Wind=, suppúy (_sup_ almost like _sep_; the whole German).

=Winter=, this word is wanting; they say, the cold, stuyä̍h (German; _st_ with the point of the tongue).

=Woman=, ah-ké.

=Wood=, mehsti̍ss.

=Yellow=, otachkui (_ach_ guttural; _ui_ together).

=Yes=, a̍h.

_Numerals_

=One=, séh.

=Two=, náhtoka.

=Three=, nohóka.

=Four=, nehsohúi (_ui_ together).

=Five=, nehsitó.

=Six=, nau (_u_ and _a_ separated; _u_ indistinct).

=Seven=, äkitsikkům.

=Eight=, nahnisuji̍m (German throughout).

=Nine=, pehksúh.

=Ten=, kehpúh.

=Twenty=, náhtsipo.

=Thirty=, nehépu (_e_ distinctly pronounced).

=Forty=, nehsi̍ppu.

=Fifty=, nehsitsi̍ppu.

=Sixty=, nä̍hpu.

=Seventy=, äkitsikki̍ppu.

=Eighty=, nahnisi̍ppu.

=Ninety=, pähksi̍ppu.

=Hundred=, käpippu.

=Thousand=, kipipi̍ppi.

_Names of Animals_

=Antelope=, auokáhs (_au_ short and together).

=Bear= (black), si̍ku-kiä̍yu (German throughout).

=Bear= (grizzly), a̍poch-kiäyu (_och_ guttural).

=Beaver=, kéhstake (_e_ pronounced distinctly).

=Bighorn=, ä̍mach-ki̍kinägs; plural, ä̍mach-ki̍kinä; from ämach, meaning large horns.

=Buffalo= (bull), stomi̍ck.

=Dog=, emitá.

=Elk=, purnokä̍hstomick.

=Horse=, purnakö̍mitä (_mita_ short).

=Moose=, sikitisuh.

=Mountain goat= (white), apumachkikiná (_mach_ German guttural).

=Otter=, emonä̍hs.

=Skunk=, a̍hpikaieh (_ah_ accented; _pi_ short).

=Wolf= (common gray), sikkapéhs.

=Wolf= (prairie), sehnipa̍h.[241]

FOOTNOTES:

[240] Written from the pronunciation of the interpreter Berger, and several Blackfoot Indians.--MAXIMILIAN.

_Comment by Ed._ For Berger, see our volume xxiii, p. 23, note 11.

[241] The words from the Blackfoot language given by Gallatin (_ibid._, p. 373), are for the most part, incorrectly written. We find, for instance, that in the word _pistachkan_ the copyist avoided the guttural sound and wrote _pistarkan_. I must also remark here that Townsend in his _Narrative of a Journey across the Rocky Mountains to the Columbia River_, speaks in very exaggerated terms of the Blackfoot Indians. This is due to the fact that his information came from trappers and fur hunters who usually have the greatest respect for those Indians who are their bitterest enemies. On the other hand, what Townsend says of the injustice of the fur hunters towards these Indians is thoroughly justified.--MAXIMILIAN.

_Comment by Ed._ Townsend's Narrative is published in our volume xxi.

CHAYENNE (Shyenne of the Anglo-Americans)[242]

=Arrow=, mah-hóss.

=Axe=, jóh-ie-wúch (German throughout; _uch_ guttural).

=Bad=, iháwa-süwa (very short).

=Bow=, máh-tachk (run together; _ch_ guttural).

=Bullet=, wihóh-imáh-husch (the last three syllables are run together).

=Cherries=, máhmenuss.

=Chief= (leader), wi̍h-hu (_hu_ short; _u_ between _o_ umlaut and _u_).

=Child=, kaichkúnn (_ich_ guttural).

=Day=, wawóhn.

=Far= (distant), háh-iss.

=Father=, ni̍ho-ä̍h.

=Fire=, hoi̍sta.

=Fire= (to kindle a fire), dä̍cho-ihä̍s (_ch_ guttural).

=God=, okúhme (_e_ ½).

=Good=, ipáua (_a_ and _u_ separated; final _e_ very short).

=Great= (of bodies), hiáh-est (_hi_ together; _ah_ together; _est_ distinctly pronounced).

=Gun=, mah-ah-tán (run together; _ma_ short).

=Head=, mi̍hk (_k_ with a peculiar breathing).

=Kettle= (of metal), máï-taï-tó.

=Knife=, wó-tach-ke (_ach_ guttural; _ke_ very short).

=Left-handed person=, náhbuchs (_uch_ guttural; _s_ audible).

=Little=, o̍ch-kumm (_och_ guttural).

=Man=, itán.

=Man= (old), waháhkis (_kis_ low).

=Man= (young), cassuáhä.

=Mother=, nachkuä̍ (_ach_ guttural).

=Much=, iháhstuch (_uch_ guttural).

=Near=, kách-kiss (German; _ach_ guttural).

=On that side= (of the river), o̍hhä-hohúmm.

=On this side= (of the river), o̍hhä-hastó.

=One-eyed= (a one-eyed man), o̍kinn.

=Pipe= (tobacco), hióchko (_och_ guttural; _ko_ almost like _ke_, _e_ ½).

=Poor= (to be poor), staminóhha (_st_ with the point of the tongue; _ha_ very short; the whole run together).

=Powder= (gun-powder), páï.

=River=, o̍h-hä (pronounced as if _oh-o-a_).

=Rocky Mountains=, Húh-hunáu (_nau_ together).

=Small= (of bodies), i̍kokesta (all syllables equal).

=Sun=, ischä̍.

=Water=, má-pe (_ma_ nasal; _pe_ short; _e_ full value; the two syllables run together).

=Weep= (v), i̍h-acháh (_ih_ with emphasis; _ch_ guttural).

=Wife=, hi-i̍h-u (run together).

=Woman= (old), machta-máh-hä (_ach_ guttural; the whole run together).

* * * * *

=Comrade, I am going to sleep=, húa-manna-aus (German throughout; _u_ and _a_ separated; accent on _u_; _aus_ together).

=Comrade, let us smoke=, húa-hi̍hputt.

=Comrade, take care of the kettle=, hóa-niomů̈st-nomostetúnn.

=Give to me=, ni̍sta (_ta_ short).

=I have finished=, ihi̍hs (with strong emphasis; abruptly ended).

_Names of Animals_

=Antelope=, wóh-ka (run together; _ka_ lower).

=Bear= (grizzly), náchku (_ach_ guttural).

=Buffalo= (bull), hottúe (_u_ and _e_ separated).

=Buffalo= (calf), wohksá (_sa_ short).

=Buffalo= (cow), issiwóhn.

=Dog=, chotónn (_ch_ guttural).

=Elk=, mo-úi (_ui_ together).

=Hedge-hog=, ichtú-messi̍mm (_ich_ German with the point of the tongue; _e_ ½).

=Horse=, woindohámm (_oi_ separated).

=Mule=, akéhm.

=Wolf=, hoh-ni̍ (_ni_ short).

_Names of Indian Tribes_

=Arikkaras=, O̱̤̠̍hnunnu (short).

=Awatichay= (village) [Minnitarri], Amatsichá.

=Crows=, Hóh-otann.

=Dacotas=, O̱̤̠̍hohma.

=Mandans=, Wi̍hwatann.

=Minnitarris=, Honúhn.

=Minnitarris= (the small village) [Ahwahnaway], Hahpeiu (_e_ full value; _peiu_ short and separated into two syllables).

=Pahnis=, Hóh-ni-tánn.

=Ruhptare= [Mandan village], Wóh-ah (run together).

FOOTNOTES:

[242] Written from the pronunciation of a Mandan Indian. The Chayennes call their nation Istayú (German pronunciation). Gallatin says (_ibid._, p. 124) that they formerly lived on the Red River near Lake Winipik [Winnipeg]. They were driven out by the Sioux, according to Mc Kenzie, and now live at the sources of Chayenne River, a branch of the Missouri. What Gallatin states regarding the signatures of the treaty in the Dacóta language is something which repeatedly occurs, since there are frequently no interpreters for little-known nations, and recourse must be had to the translation of other Indians. I shall instance a similar case in connection with the Mandan language, where the signatures of a treaty were translated into the Minnitarri language by Charbonneau.--MAXIMILIAN.

CROW (Corbeau)[243]

=Arm=, a̍hdä.

=Arrow=, annúhtä.

=Bow=, mannáchi-iahsä (the last word even and lowered in tone).

=Child=, wah-káh-tä (run together).

=Eye=, ischtä̍.

=Fire=, biddä̍ (short).

=God= (the ruler of life), búattä (_u_ and _a_ separated; _ta_ short).

=Hair=, ichsi̍e (_ich_ German with the point of the tongue; _si_ and _e_ separated; _e_ ½ and short; _i_ with strong accent).

=Hand=, ischsä̍.

=Head=, a̍nschua (_an_ French; _sch_ and _u_ separated; _a_ short).[244]

=Man=, matsä̍.

=Moon=, minitásia (_sia_ short and low; _i_ and _a_ a little separated).

=Mouth=, i̍h-a (_a_ very short and ½; pronounced together).

=Pipe= (tobacco), i̍impsä (accent on the first _i_; separated from the second _i_).

=Star=, ichkä̍.

=Sun=, achá-se (run together; _se_ distinctly pronounced but short).

=Tomahawk=, mani̍htsip-ihpse (_an_ French; _e_ distinctly pronounced).

=Water=, minä̍.

=White-man=, máeste-schi̍hrä; literally yellow-eye.

=Woman= (wife), mi̍a (_mi_ run together; _a_ separated; the whole short).

FOOTNOTES:

[243] Written from the pronunciation of a Crow Indian. They pronounce the words in the manner of the Minnitarri; _ch_ is guttural, _r_ is spoken with the point of the tongue unless there is an exception noted. According to Donald Mc Kenzie who lived among the Crows (Gallatin, _ibid._, p. 125), they number some three hundred lodges and three thousand souls. This seems to me to be a correct estimate.--MAXIMILIAN.

_Comment by Ed._ Gallatin doubtless intends Kenneth (not Donald) Mc Kenzie, for whom see our volume xxi, p. 45, note 25.

[244] According to Captain Bonneville, it is called _popo_ in the Crow language; this does not agree with my experience.--MAXIMILIAN.

_Comment by Ed._ This refers to Washington Irving, _Rocky Mountains; or Scenes, Incidents and Adventures in the Far West_ (Philadelphia, 1837).

DACOTA (Sioux) of the band of the Yanktonans[245]

=American=, Mi̍na-haska (_haska_ nasal); i.e., Long Knife.

=Arm=, istó.

=Arrow=, uahi̍tpe (_ua_ nasal).

=Beard=, putä-hin (_n_ French; _hin_ nasal).

=Bird=, sitká (_s_ soft).

=Black=, sáhpa.

=Blind=, ischtá-chon-gä (_ch_ guttural; _on_ French; _g_ in the roof of the mouth; _chonga_ nasal and without emphasis).

=Blood=, uä̍h.

=Blue= (also green), tóh.

=Bone=, huh-huh.

=Bow=, itáh-sipa (_itah_ with emphasis; _si_ very short; _pa_ without emphasis).

=Brave= (adj), uadi̍take (_uadi_ with emphasis; _e_ ½ or a little more; _take_ lower and without emphasis).

=Brook=, uathpanne (_e_ short).

=Brother=, tschi̍-ä (emphasis on the first syllable).

=Child=, okschiókapa.

=Cold=, sni̍h.

=Dance= (v), uatschi̍.

=Day=, hanposka (_an_ French).

=Deaf=, nóchät-pá.

=Die= (dead), táh.

=Door=, thiópa (_i_ and _o_ somewhat separated).

=Dumb= (v), ihéschni (_ni_ short).

=Dream= (v), uihamana (_ui_ together; _hamana_ short and rapid).

=Drink= (v), uatkan (_an_ French).

=Ear=, nónchä (_on_ French; emphasis on _non_; _ch_ guttural; low and short).

=Earth=, manká (_an_ French).

=Enemy=, tohk-ha.

=Englishman=, Sakedaschi (_e_ short; _i_ barely audible).

=Evening=, chta-ié-tu (_chta_ guttural; _ie_ together; _tu_ short).

=Eye=, ischtá; one-eyed, pschtat-pä̍.

=Father=, atä̍; i.e., my father.

=Feather=, uï̍-iak-ha (_ha_ guttural; _iakha_ low and short).

=Fight= (n), ketschehsap (first _e_ short).

=Fire=, pä̍hta.

=Fish=, rochan (very guttural; _an_ French).

=Flesh=, tadó.

=Fog=, pó (_o_ full).

=Forest=, tchán (_an_ French).

=Frenchman=, Uaschi̍djo (_jo_ French and very short).

=Friend= (comrade), koͣdá (great friend); or ketschi̍uah (friend).

=Go= (v), máhni (_ni_ short).

=God= (the creator), uakán-tanka (_an_ French nasal); i.e., great spirit.[246]

=Good=, uaschtä̍ (_ua_ almost like _wa_; run together).

=Great=, hánska (_an_ French).

=Green=, tóh (_o_ rather full).

=Gun=, mansak-han (_an_ French; the whole run together).

=Hair=, pihi̍.

=Hand=, napä.

=Head=, páh.

=Healthy=, uaschtä̍; or uaiá-saschni (last word short and low); i.e., not sick.

=Heart=, tschåtä̍.

=Heat=, didi̍tach (_ach_ German guttural).

=Horns= (antlers; and horns of all animals in general), hä; the name of the animal is added.

=House= (lodge), tihpi.

=Hunger=, wóta-wacheda (all syllables of second word even).

=Hunt= (v), uïheni (_e_ short; the whole indistinct, short, nasal, and run together).

=I=, miä̍.

=Ice=, tschága (_g_ in the roof of the mouth).

=Island=, uï̍hta (_u_ and _i_ separated; _ta_ short).

=Jar= (pot), tschä̍ga (_g_ guttural; _ga_ short).

=Knife=, mi̍hna (_na_ short).

=Laugh= (v), icháh (_ch_ guttural).

=Lead= (metal), mansassuh (_an_ French).

=Leg=, húh.

=Lightning=, uakán-hädi̍(_an_ French; _hadi_ short).

=Live= (life?), uanickt.

=Lodge or tent= (of leather), wakä̍a.

=Man=, uïtscha.[247]

=Meal=(to eat?), wóhta (_ta_ short).

=Moccasin=, hánpa (French).

=Moon=, hahépi-uïh (first word rather nasal).

=Morning=, hi̍h-hanna (emphasis on _hih_; _hanna_ low and short).

=Mother=, inan (_an_ French).

=Mountain=, chä (_ch_ guttural).

=Mouth=, ih.

=Much=, ö̍hta (_o_ full; _ta_ short).

=Negro=, uaschi̍tschu-sáhpa (run together).

=Night=, hanhöp (_an_ French).

=Nose=, póhchä (_ch_ guttural; _a_ short).

=Pipe= (tobacco), schandúh-hupa (_hupa_ short and low, without emphasis).

=Powder=, tschachedi̍ (_ch_ guttural).

=Quick=, kohán (_an_ French).

=Red=, duhta.

=Revenge= (v), itoh-kidjuh (emphasis on first word; _j_ French; second word lower).

=River=, uathpá; the Missouri, Uathpá-mnischoschá; i.e., the river with muddy water.

=Sick=, uaiasa (short).

=Small=, tihstina.

=Smoke= (n), schóhta (_o_ full; _ta_ short).

=Snow=, uáh.

=Speak= (v), jáh (_i_ and _a_ separated).

=Spirits= (distilled), meni̍h-uakán (_an_ French); i.e. divine, or medicine water.

=Star=, tscháchpi (_ach_ guttural).

=Stingy=, ocha̍n-schitscha (_ochan_ with emphasis; second word without emphasis; the whole short and run together).

=Stone=, ihia (emphasis on _i_; nasal).

=Strong=, waschahke (_e_ ½; _ke_ short).

=Sun=, uï̍h.

=Sweet=, skúia (_sk_ with the point of the tongue).

=Teeth=, i̍h.

=Thunder=, uaki̍n-a (_n_ French, nasal; _a_ short).

=Tobacco=, tschandi̍h (_an_ French).

=Tomahawk=, onspä̍-tschanupa (final word without emphasis and lower).

=Toothache=, ih-asan (_asan_ French).

=Trader=, wópäton-uïtschásta (_o_ full; _on_ French; last word short).

=Trail=, tschankuh.

=Ugly=, schi̍dja (_ja_ French).

=Village=, otón-a (_on_ French; _a_ short; the whole nasal).

=War=, suiá (_s_ soft).

=Warmth=, päti̍schka.

=Wash= (v), waiújaja (_jaja_ French, without emphasis, and low; _iu_ German).

=Water=, meni̍h.

=Weep= (v), tschä̍a (final _a_ short).

=White=, skáh.

=Widow=, juá-sitscha (_j_ and _u_ separated).

=Wind=, tatä̍h.

=Winter=, uani̍ete (_u_ and _a_ separated; _e_ very short in both cases).

=Woman=, uïïa (_ui_ nasal).

=Wood=, tschan (_an_ French).

=Yellow=, si̍h (softly pronounced).

=Yes=, ha̍n (French nasal).

_Numerals_

=One=, wántscha (_an_ French).

=Two=, nómpa (_om_ French).

=Three=, jámen (_men_ German and low).

=Four=, tópa (_o_ full).

=Five=, sáhptan (_s_ very soft; _an_ French).

=Six=, scháhkpe (_pe_ short; _e_ ½).

=Seven=, schakoï (_o_ and _i_ separated).

=Eight=, schákedoch (German).

=Nine=, nahptschi̍-uanká (_uan_ nasal; _n_ French; last word without emphasis, nasal, and low; the whole run together and short).

=Ten=, uïktschémna (_u_ and _i_ separated; _na_ short).

=Twenty=, numm.

=Twenty-one=, uïktschemna-nom-sommuaji (the whole run together and short; _ji_ French).

=Thirty=, jamen.

=Forty=, toop; or toom.

=Fifty=, sáhpta.

=Sixty=, scháhkpe.

=Seventy=, schakoï.

=Eighty=, schakedoch.

=Ninety=, nahptschiuanká.

=Hundred=, opánuachä (_an_ French; _u_ and _a_ separated; _ch_ guttural; the whole run together and short; _uacha_ nasal).

=Thousand=, iktó-panuachä (_an_ French; the whole run together and short).

* * * * *

=I eat=, uauáhta (_u_ and _a_ separated).

=You eat=, uayáta (German).

=He eats=, uóhtä (_u_ and _o_ like _w_; _o_ full; _ta_ short).

=We eat=, o̍ntape (in pronouncing _tape_ the voice falls; _pe_ distinctly pronounced).

=They eat=, uóhtapä (_o_ full).

=I shall eat=, uauáhtäkta (_u_ and _a_ separated; _takta_ low and without emphasis).

=I have eaten=, uauáhta.

=I had eaten=, hähan-uauáhta (_an_ French).

=I would eat=, hähan-uauáhta-net-schetscha (last word short and rapid).

=Eat= (imperative), uóhta-io (together; _o_ full).

=Eating=, uóh-tä-sa (_sa_ short).

_Names of Animals_

=Antelope=, tatóhka; or tatókana (_na_ rather inaudible).

=Bear=, (black), uachánk-sitscha (emphasis on _chank_; _sitscha_ low).

=Bear= (grizzly), mantó (_an_ French).

=Beaver=, tscháhpa (_pa_ short).

=Bighorn=, kihská.

=Buffalo= (bull), tatánka; cow, ptäh; calf, ptäh-sidja (_j_ French); the general word is that for cow.

=Dog=, schónka (_on_ French).

=Elk=, upán (_pan_ nasal; _an_ French); this is the general word.

=Elk= (stag), acháhka (_ch_ guttural).

=Horse=, schónka-uakán (_on_ and _an_ French): erratum says read i̍hia.

=Otter=, ptán (_an_ French).

=Skunk=, mankáh (_an_ French, very short, and barely audible; _kah_ loud and with emphasis).

=Turkey= (wild), sisitscha-kanka (_s_ soft; _kan_ in the throat).

=Wolf=, schuk-tóketscha-tanka.

=Wolf= (prairie), mi̍htschak-si̍h.

FOOTNOTES:

[245] Gallatin writes "Dahcota;" but I think that it is more correct to write Dacóta. He divides the Sioux into a northern and a southern group; and includes in the latter division eight tribes, the Quappas, or Arkansas at the mouth of the Arkansa river, the Osages, the Kansas, the Ayowäs (Jowas), the Missouris, Otos, Omáhas, and Puncas, since they speak dialects of the Dacóta language (Gallatin, _ibid._, p. 127).--MAXIMILIAN.

[246] Not _wakatunka_, as Vail says. This name is composed of two words; and, therefore, is not to be written as one. The first word, _uakan_, less correctly _wakan_, is the expression for god, divine, supernatural; the second, _tanka_, not _tunka_, means great. Vail and others also very often write _uakan_, incorrectly _wah-kon_. The Dacóta words which I give here are written from the pronunciation of the half-breed interpreter, Ortubize.--MAXIMILIAN.

_Comment by Ed._ This reference is to Eugene A. Vail, _Notice sur les Indiens de l'Amerique du Nord_ (Paris, 1840).

[247] Mr. Gallatin (_ibid._, p. 195) thinks that the word _uitschá_ is an abbreviation of _uitschasta_. I cannot decide the question with certainty. The singular number, man, was always given to me as _uitscha_; _uitschasta_ seems to me to be the plural, or a general term, as for instance, in the word _uitschasta-iuta_, man eater.--MAXIMILIAN.

DACOTA of the Teton Tribe

=Antelope=, tatóhkana.

=Bear= (black), wåchánk-sitscha (the first word with emphasis).

=Bear= (grizzly), matóh.

=Comb=, ipáhks.

=Day= (the day breaks), àm-pa-inam-pä (_am_ French; _pa_ short).

=Elk=, upán (_an_ French and rather long); the stag, hächáhka.

=Fish-hook=, hoï̍tzua (_o_ and _i_ separated).

=Fish-line=, hachóhta (_ch_ guttural).

=Hoop= (of wood), sankodeska.

=Hoop= (game of), sankodeska-kutépi.

=Moccasins=, hán-pa (_an_ French).

=Morning= (early), a̍m-pa (_am_ French).

=Prairie dog=, pispi̍sa.

=Rattle= (sysyquoy, gourd rattle), tascháhka.

=Shield=, oahát-sanka (first word with emphasis; last word low and without emphasis).

=Water=, meni̍h.[248]

FOOTNOTES:

[248] The variations in the different tribes of the Dacótas seem to be very insignificant.--MAXIMILIAN.

FALL INDIANS, or Grosventres of the Prairies[249]

=Antelope=, hottewianinay (_ay_ German).

=Arm=, nah-köth (the syllables separated).

=Arrow=, nennitch (_ch_ with the point of the tongue and not guttural).

=Bear= (black), uatániss.

=Bear= (grizzly), uosse (_uo_ like _wo_; _e_ very short).

=Beaver=, hábass (_a_ almost like _a_ umlaut, but ½ and short).

=Bighorn=, hottéh.

=Black=, wå-atåh-nits (_wa_ short; _atah-nits_ a little lisped).

=Blood=, mah-ahtz.

=Bow=, nemáth (_e_ ½).

=Buffalo= (bull), enáhkiä (_e_ barely audible; _kia_ like _kie_, short and ½).

=Buffalo= (cow), bü̍h.

=Child=, tä̍yalle (all syllables cut rather short and separated; _e_ ½).

=Day=, e̍hse (_eh_ long; _se_ very short).

=Deer= (black-tailed), bü̍he-i (_e_ ½; _i_ short).

=Deer= (common), låsikge (_ge_ German; _e_ ½).

=Dog=, hótewi.

=Ear=, nenottónnü (_ton_ with emphasis; _e_ ½).

=Earth=, meth-auuch (_au_ together; _auuch_ very short).

=Elk=, uósseh.

=Eye=, ne-séh-seh (_ne_ short and ½; accent on the first _seh_).

=Fire=, esittah (_e_ very short).

=Foot=, nesse-estan (_se_ short and ½; _tan_ French and distinct).

=God=, mehåa (_e_ short; the two _a_'s separated).

=Hair=, näwi-táss (_tass_ with emphasis).

=Hand=, nah-kettinach (rather indistinct).

=Head=, nöth-ah (indistinct; _ah_ separated).

=Heart=, nö̍ttah.

=Hot=, be-ke-néh-se (_be_ rather longer; _ke_ short; _neh_ very long; _se_ short).

=Ice=, wå-awuh.

=Leg=, na-áhtz (_na_ short and ½; _ahtz_ long).

=Man=, neni̍tta (_e_ and _a_ short).

=Moon=, kahå-hássa (together).

=Mountain goat= (white), otteh-nozi̍bi (_zibi_ short).

=Mouth=, nö̍t-ti (_ti_ rather lower).

=Night=, taiké-ee (_ee_ separated and distinctly pronounced).

=Nose=, nä-es (_es_ ½ and low).

=Pipe= (tobacco), eht-tsá.

=Rain=, a-sá-nitz (lisped).

=Snow=, i̍h-i (_ih_ very long; _i_ short).

=Star=, a̍to (_o_ almost like _o_ umlaut).

=Sun=, ehsi̍ss.

=Tomahawk=, aha-loss.

=Water=, netse (_e_ very short).

=Wolf=, kïati̍ssa (indistinct).

=Woman=, e̍sta (_es_ lisped).

FOOTNOTES:

[249] Written from their pronunciation. They call their tribe, Ä̍hni-ninn. Gallatin (_ibid._, p. 125) speaks of them in connection with the Minnitarris. He calls them the Rapid, Fall, or Paunch Indians; and remarks quite correctly, that from the latest information their language is wholly different from those of the Minnitarris and Blackfeet (_ibid._, p. 132).--MAXIMILIAN.

FLATHEADS of the Rocky Mountains[250]

=Arrow=, tah-pu-minn.

=Bear=, semachann (_ch_ guttural).

=Beaver=, skaló.

=Bow=, soh-nónn; same word as for gun.

=Buffalo=, zotúnn (soft low, and indistinct; _o_ full).

=Child=, skochkússa (_ch_ guttural; _sa_ low and indistinct).

=Deer=, zinechkóhch (_ch_ guttural; the whole indistinct and low).

=Dog=, nachketsä (_e_ short).

=Ear=, tchäh-sä̍uonn.

=Earth=, sopúth.

=Elk=, chton-skutsiss (_ch_ guttural; the whole indistinct and low).

=Eye=, ehsuetst.

=Fire=, stehchke (_st_ with the point of the tongue; _ch_ guttural; final _e_ ½).

=Foot=, tah-essi̍nn (_e_ ½).

=God=, inuméhcho (_i_ like _e_; _ch_ guttural).

=Head=, estáchk (_es_ soft; _ch_ guttural).

=Man=, taiskáltomo (little emphasis and low).

=Moon=, ehs-pach-kann (low and in the roof of the mouth).

=Mouth=, onuchuaye (_ch_ guttural; final _e_ ½).

=Pipe= (tobacco), simä̍h-noch (_simah_ short; _noch_ guttural; little emphasis).

=Star=, skoch-koiomm (low and run together; _och_ guttural).

=Sun=, ehs-pach-kann (low and in the roof of the mouth).

=Tomahawk=, soh-nónn.

=Water=, saotuch (low; _ch_ guttural).

=Woman=, semääm (_e_ ½; _a_ and _a_ separated).

FOOTNOTES:

[250] Written from the pronunciation of the Blackfoot chief, Ninoch-Kiä̍iu. The Flatheads live in the Rocky mountains; and according to the missionary, Parker, number only eight hundred souls. They are said to speak the same language as the Ponderas [Pend d'Oreille] and Spokein [Spokan] Indians. The custom of flattening the head by pressure is not found among them, at least at present (Townsend, _op. cit._, p. 175); but this is done by several tribes on the Columbia as is stated also in _Astoria_. All travellers who have visited this people bear witness to their upright and noble conduct, as well as to their piety. Like the Nez-Percés, of whom the same is said, they have borrowed a number of Christian usages and beliefs, among them the conscientious observance of Sunday (see _Adventures of Captain Bonneville_, p. 248; and Ross Cox). They are reputed to be brave warriors; of this I was assured by the Blackfoot Indians themselves, who are often at war with them and are their bitterest enemies, and who also showed me many trophies taken from them.--MAXIMILIAN.

_Comment by Ed._ Samuel Parker, _Journal of an Exploring Tour beyond the Rocky Mountains_ (Ithaca, N. Y., 1838). See also our volume xxi, p. 335, note 112; Washington Irving, _Astoria_ (Philadelphia, 1836); Ross Cox, _Adventures upon the Columbia River_ (London, 1831); and our