CHAPTER XIII.
CONCLUSION.
The creatures described in the preceding pages range from very simple to highly complicated forms, and in describing them some attention has been paid to the general principles of classification. The step is a wide one from the little masses of living jelly that constitute Amoebae to the Rotifers, supplied with organs of sensation--eyes, feelers (calcars), and the long cilia in the Floscularians, which seem to convey impression like the whiskers of a cat--together with elaborate machinery for catching, grinding up, and digesting their prey, and which are also well furnished with respiratory and excretory apparatus, ovaries, &c. In the polypi and polyzoa may be observed those resemblances in appearance which induced early naturalists to group them together, and also the wide difference of organization which marks the higher rank to which the latter have attained. Amongst the ciliated infusoria important gradations and differences will also be noticed, some having only one sort of cilia, others two sorts, and others, again, supplied, in addition to cilia, with hooks and styles. No perfectly satisfactory classification of the infusoria has yet been devised, and the life history of a great many is still very imperfectly known. On the whole, the tendency of research is to place many of them higher than they used to stand after Ehrenberg's supposition of their having a plurality of distinct stomachs, &c., was given up. Balbiani and others have shown numerous cases of their forming their eggs by a process analogous to that of higher animals. Some really are, and others closely resemble, the larval conditions of creatures higher in the scale, and the contracted vesicle with its channel bears resemblance to what is called the "water vascular system" of worms.
Zoological classification depends very much on morphology, that is, the tracing of particular structures, or parts, through all their stages, from the lowest to the highest forms in which they are exhibited. In this way the swimming bladder of a fish is shown to be a rudimentary lung, though it has no respiratory functions, and Mr. Kitchen Parker has found in the imperfect skull of the tadpole a rudimentary appearance of bones belonging to the human ear. The comparative anatomist, after a wide survey of the objects before him, arranges them into groups. He asks what are the characteristic things to be affirmed concerning all the A's that cannot be said of all the B's; or of all the C's that marks their difference from the A's or the D's. Careful investigation upon these methods shows affinities where they were not previously expected--birds and reptiles being close relations, for example, instead of distant connections--and they lessen the value for purposes of classification of peculiarities that might have been deemed of the highest importance.
Professor Huxley divides the vertebrates into ITHYCOIDS, comprising fishes and amphibia, which, besides other characteristics, have gills at some period of their existence; SAUROIDS (reptiles and birds), which have no gills, and possess certain developmental characteristics in common; and, lastly, MAMMALS. The Insecta, Myriopoda, Arachnidae, and Crustacea, he remarks, "without doubt present so many characters in common as to form a very natural assemblage. All are provided with articulated limbs attached to a segmented body skeleton, the latter, like the skeleton of the limbs, being an 'exoskeleton,' or a bordering of that layer which corresponds with the outer part of the vertebrates. In others, at any rate in the embryonic condition, the nervous system is composed of a double chain of ganglia, united by longitudinal commissures, and the gullet passed between two of these commissures. No one of the members of these four classes is known to possess vibratile cilia. The great majority of these animals have a distinct heart, provided with valvular apertures, which are in communication with a peri-visceral cavity containing corpusculated blood." These four classes have constituted the larger group or "province" of _Articulata_ or _Arthropoda_. Professor Huxley thinks that, notwithstanding "the marked differences" between the Annelida (worms) and the preceding Arthropods (joint-foots), their resemblances outweighing them--"the characters of the nervous system, and the frequently segmented body, with imperfect lateral appendages of the Annelida, necessitates their assemblage with the Arthropoda in one great division, or sub-kingdom, of ANNULOSA."
Tracing analogies between the Echinodermata (sea urchins, star-fish, &c.) and the Scolecida (intestinal worms), he places them together as _Annuloida_.
Cephalopoda, Pteropoda, Pulmo-gasteropoda, and Branchio-gasteropoda, having resemblances of nervous system, and "all possessing that remarkable buccal apparatus, the Odontophore," are placed together by him as ODONTOPHORA. The Odontophores (tooth-bearers) are familiar to microscopists as the so-called _palates_ of mollusca. Placing with the above the lamellibranchial mollusks (mollusks with gills formed of lamellae or little plates), Ascidioida (ascidians), Brachiopoda (lamp-sheds), and Polyzoa, in spite of their differences, he forms another great group, ANNULOIDA.
The Actinozoa (anemonies, &c.) and the Hydrozoa (polyps) constitute the COELENTERA of Frey and Leuckart. "In all these animals," says Professor Huxley, "the substance of the body is differentiated into those histological elements which have been termed cells, and the latter are previously disposed in two layers, one external and one internal, constituting the ectoderm and endoderm. Among animals which possess this histological structure the Coelenterata stand alone in having an alimentary canal, which is open at its inner end and communicates freely by this aperture with the general cavity of the body," and "all (unless the Ctenophora should prove a partial exception to the rule) are provided with very remarkable organs of offence or defence, called thread-cells or nematocysts." In describing the Polyps we have given illustrations of these weapons.
The remaining classes, which have been roughly associated as _Protozoa_, must evidently be rearranged. Sponges, Rhizopods (Amoebae, &c.), and Gregarines, have strong resemblances, but recent researches may place the former higher. The Infusoria comprehend creatures too various to remain under one head, and very many of them too highly organized to be called "protozoons," or first life-forms.
Those who wish to pursue this subject further may consult Professor Huxley's 'Elements of Comparative Anatomy,' from which the preceding quotations have been taken.
A system of classification founded upon anatomical and developmental considerations frequently differs considerably from one we might arrive at if all the creatures were arranged according to the perfection of their faculties and the extent and accuracy of their relations to the external world. Such a classification would not in any way supersede the former, but it would prove very instructive and offer many valuable suggestions. Some years since, Professor Owen proposed to divide the Vertebrates according to the perfection of their brains, but other anatomists did not find his divisions sufficiently coincident with facts. Very little has been done towards an exact science of human phrenology. The difficulties remain pretty much as they were many years ago, and our comparative phrenology, if we may use such a term, is in a very imperfect state. When we come to the lower animals we do not know what peculiarities of the brain of an ant make it the recipient of a higher instinct, or give its possessor greater capacities for dealing with new and unexpected difficulties than are possessed by most other insects, and if any reader has a marine aquarium, and will make a few experiments in taming prawns, and watching their proceedings, he will discover symptoms of intelligence beyond what the structure of the creature would have led him to expect.
Animals usually possess some one leading characteristic to which their general structure is subordinated. Man stands alone in having the whole of his organization conformed to the demands of a thinking, ruling brain. To pass at once to the other extreme, we observe in the lower infusoria a restless locomotion, probably subservient to respiration, but utterly inconsistent with a well developed life of relation, or with manifestations of thought. The life of an animalcule may be summed up as a brief and restricted, but vigorous organic energy, and if the amount of change which a single creature can make in the external world, is inconceivably small, the labours of the entire race alter the conditions of a prodigious amount of matter. Microscopic vegetable life is an important agent in purifying water from the taint of decomposing organisms. By evolving oxygen it brings putrescent particles under the influence of a species of combustion, which, though slow, is as effectual as that which a furnace could accomplish. In this way minute moulds burn up decaying wood.
Microscopic animal life helps the regenerative process, and, together with the minute vegetable life, restores to the organic system myriads of tons of matter, which death and decay would have handed over to the inorganic world. In a very small pond or tank the quantity of this kind of work is soon appreciable, and if we reflect on the amazing amount of water all over the globe, including seas and oceans, which swarm with infusoria, the total effect produced in a single year must seem considerable, even when compared with that portion of the earth's crust that is subject to alteration from all other causes put together. If we add to the labour of the Infusoria those of other creatures whose organization can only be discovered by the microscope, and take in the foraminifera, polyps, polyzoa, &c., we shall have to record still larger obligations to minute forms of living things. The coral polyp builds reefs that constitute the chief characteristic of certain regions in the Pacific; foraminifera are forming or helping to form strata of considerable extent, while diatoms are making deposits many feet in thickness, composed of myriads of their silicious shells, or adding their contributions of silex, very large in the aggregate, to all sedimentary rocks. Testimony of this kind of work is found by the navigator who examines the ice in arctic seas, and it comes up with soundings from the ocean depths.
On the surface of the earth the amount of change produced is equally remarkable, although it leaves less permanent traces behind. As a rule no decomposition of organized matter takes place, no death of plants or animals, without infusorial life making its appearance, and disposing of no small portion of the spoil. Even in our climate the mass of matter thus annually affected is very large; but what must it not be in moist tropical lands, where every particle seems alive, and the race of life and death goes on at a speed, and to an extent scarcely conceivable by those who have not witnessed it.
Thus, if we look at the world of minute forms which the microscope reveals, there opens before us a spectacle of boundless extent. We see life manifested by the specks of jelly containing particles not aggregated into structure, and we see it gradually ascending in complexities of organization. In creatures whose habits and appearance seem most remote from our own, we find the elementary developments of the organs and powers that constitute our glory, and give us our power. Such studies assist us to conceive of the universe as a Cosmos, or Beautifully Organized Whole; and, although we cannot tell the object for which a single portion received its precise form, we trace everywhere relations of structure to means of existence and enjoyment, and are led to the conviction that all the actions and arrangements of the organic or inorganic worlds are due to a definite direction and co-ordination of a few simple forces, which implicitly and unerringly obey the dictates of an Omniscient Mind.
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BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT SCIENTIFIC MEN AND ANALYSIS OF OLD AND NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF NATURAL PHENOMENA and Diagrams of Optical, Mechanical, and other principles as required by the subject matter of the papers published in the work.
NATURAL HISTORY occupies a prominent position among the various subjects dealt with, including HOME RECREATIONS, of which the love of Nature may be said to be the basis. The Management of Collections of Living Animals, the Preparation of Specimens by Taxidermy, and the arrangement of Cabinets of Insects, Birds, Shells, Plants, etc., etc.
EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY AND RECREATIONS IN CHEMISTRY are introduced with a view to explain principles and give a zest to study.
RECREATIVE SCIENCE is in all respects popular in tone and attractive in its subjects. It is compiled by writers of the highest eminence in the several departments of Scientific Knowledge. In a word, it is a Record of Discovery, Observation, and Intellectual Progress. An Instructor in First Principles, and an Exhibitor of the Accomplishments of Research.
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THE MICROSCOPE
A Popular Description of some of the most Beautiful and Instructive Objects for Exhibition.
With Directions for the Arrangement of the Instruments and the Collection and Mounting of Objects.
BY THE HON. MRS. WARD.
"This elegant book deserves at our hands especial commendation for many reasons. There is no book that we know of that we would more willingly place in the hands of a beginner to create an interest in the science of Microscopy. The Illustrations are beautiful, coloured to represent nature, and all original. To our readers we cannot give better advice than to become purchasers of the book--they will not regret the outlay."--_Electrician._
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Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 12 beautifully coloured full-page Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.
THE TELESCOPE A FAMILIAR SKETCH
COMBINING A SPECIAL NOTICE OF OBJECTS COMING WITHIN THE RANGE OF A SMALL TELESCOPE
With a Detail of the most Interesting Discoveries which have been made with the assistance of powerful Telescopes, concerning the Phenomena of the Heavenly Bodies.
BY THE HON. MRS. WARD.
"It is with pleasure that we direct the reader's attention to a little gem lately published by the Hon. Mrs. WARD. One of the most admirable little works on one of the most sublime subjects that has been given to the world. The main design of the book is to show how much may be done in astronomy with ordinary powers and instruments. We have no hesitation in saying that we never saw a work of the kind that is so perfect. The illustrations are admirable, and are all original."--_Western Daily Press._
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COUNTRY WALKS OF A NATURALIST WITH HIS CHILDREN.
BY THE REV. W. HOUGHTON, M.A., F.L.S.
"A fresher, pleasanter, or more profitable book than this has rarely issued from the press."--_Art Journal._
"Contrives to furnish a large amount of interesting natural history in brief compass and in a picturesque and engaging manner."--_Pall Mall Gazette._
"It is wonderful what a very large amount of most instructive matter connected with the animal and plant world the writer has condensed into a small compass."--_Land and Water._
"This pretty little volume forms one of the best little books on popular Natural History, and is admirably adapted as a present to the young"--_Birmingham Daily Journal._
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Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 8 beautifully coloured full-page Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.
SEA-SIDE WALKS OF A NATURALIST WITH HIS CHILDREN.
BY THE REV. W. HOUGHTON, M.A., F.L.S.
"The wonders of the sea-shore are detailed in an easy, pleasant and lucid style."--_Examiner._
"The book is very attractive, and its usefulness is enhanced by its many careful illustrations."--_Daily Telegraph._
"Families visiting the sea-side should provide themselves with this convenient and instructive work."--_The Queen._
"It is pleasingly written, and the scientific information is correct and well selected."--_Athenaeum._
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Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 8 beautifully coloured full-page Plates and 90 Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.
FIELD FLOWERS A HANDY BOOK FOR THE RAMBLING BOTANIST, SUGGESTING WHAT TO LOOK FOR AND WHERE TO GO IN THE OUTDOOR STUDY OF BRITISH PLANTS.
BY SHIRLEY HIBBERD, F.R.H.S.
"It will serve as an excellent introduction to the practical study of wild flowers."--_The Queen._
"We cannot praise too highly the illustrations which crowd the pages of this handbook; the coloured plates are especially attractive, and serve to bring before us very distinctly the most prominent flowers of the field, the heaths, and the hedgerows."--_Examiner._
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Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, cloth gilt, illustrated with 8 beautifully coloured Plates and 40 Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.
THE FERN GARDEN HOW TO MAKE, KEEP, AND ENJOY IT OR, FERN CULTURE MADE EASY.
BY SHIRLEY HIBBERD, F.R.H.S.
CONTENTS.
FERNS IN GENERAL FERN COLLECTING HOW TO FORM AN OUTDOOR FERNERY CULTIVATION OF ROCK FERNS CULTIVATION OF MARSH FERNS FERNS IN POTS THE FERN HOUSE THE FERNERY AT THE FIRESIDE MANAGEMENT OF FERN CASES THE ART OF MULTIPLYING FERNS BRITISH FERNS CULTIVATION OF GREENHOUSE STOVE FERNS SELECT GREENHOUSE FERNS SELECT STOVE FERNS TREE FERNS FERN ALLIES
GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
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THE CANARY
ITS VARIETIES, MANAGEMENT, AND BREEDING WITH PORTRAITS OF THE AUTHOR'S OWN BIRDS.
BY THE REV. FRANCIS SMITH.
CONTENTS.
A PLEA FOR THE CANARY ORIGIN OF OUR OWN CANARIA THE WILD CANARY OUR LIZARDS OUR YORKSHIRE SPANGLES OUR NORWICH YELLOWS OUR LONDON FANCY BIRDS OUR BELGIANS OUR GREEN BIRDS OUR CINNAMONS OUR TURNCRESTS THE DOMINIE AND THE GERMANS PREPARATIONS FOR BREEDING NEST BOXES AND NESTS OUR FIRST BIRDS OUR MISFORTUNES OUR INFIRMARY ON CAGES
GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
Post 8vo, cloth gilt, with Woodcut Illustrations, price 5s.
THE ROSE BOOK A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CULTURE OF THE ROSE.
COMPRISING
The Formation of the Rosarium; the Characters of Species and Varieties; Modes of Propagating, Planting, Pruning, Training, and Preparing for Exhibition; and the Management of Roses in all Seasons.
BY SHIRLEY HIBBERD, F.R.H.S.
CONTENTS.
THE FAMILIES OF WILD ROSES THE FAMILIES OF CULTIVATED ROSES SUMMER ROSES FORMING THE ROSARIUM CULTURE OF ROSES IN THE OPEN GROUND AUTUMN PLANTING SPRING PLANTING PRUNING, DISBUDDING, AND SEASONAL MANAGEMENT CLIMBING ROSES PILLAR ROSES YELLOW ROSES ROSES IN POTS ROSES IN BEDS ROSES IN GREAT TOWNS TEA ROSES IN TOWNS VARIOUS MODES OF PROPAGATING SELECT LISTS OF ROSES REMINDERS OF MONTHLY WORK IN ROSE GARDEN HINTS TO BEGINNERS
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BOOKS FOR YOUNG NATURALISTS
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NESTS AND EGGS OF FAMILIAR BIRDS.
Described and Illustrated with an account of the Haunts and Habits of the Feathered Architects, and their Times and Modes of Building.
BY H. G. ADAMS.
GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, gilt edges, Illustrated with 8 beautifully coloured Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.
BEAUTIFUL BUTTERFLIES DESCRIBED AND ILLUSTRATED.
With an Introductory chapter, containing the History of a Butterfly through all its Changes and Transformations. A Description of its Structure in the Larva, Pupa, and Imago states, with an Explanation of the scientific terms used by Naturalists in reference thereto, with observations upon the Poetical and other associations of the Insect.
BY H. G. ADAMS.
GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, gilt edges, Illustrated with 8 beautifully coloured Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.
BEAUTIFUL SHELLS THEIR NATURE, STRUCTURE, AND USES FAMILIARLY EXPLAINED.
With Directions for Collecting, Clearing and Arranging them in the Cabinet.
Descriptions of the most remarkable Species, and of the creatures which inhabit them, and explanations of the meaning of their scientific names, and of the terms used in Conchology.
BY H. G. ADAMS.
GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, gilt edges, Illustrated with 8 beautifully coloured Plates and Wood Engravings, price 3s. 6d.
HUMMING BIRDS, DESCRIBED AND ILLUSTRATED.
With an introductory Sketch of their Structure, Plumage, Haunts, Habits, etc.
BY H. G. ADAMS.
GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
NEW EDITION OF THE WORKS OF ANNA LISLE.
This elegant edition, large crown 8vo, is handsomely bound in cloth, gilt edges, suitable for presentation, and Illustrated by the leading artists of the day.
In One Volume, large crown 8vo, Illustrated, price 6s.
SELF AND SELF-SACRIFICE OR, NELLY'S STORY.
BY ANNA LISLE.
"A very beautiful story, with characters well drawn, scenery vividly described, and interest admirably sustained. The tendency of the volume is not only unexceptionable, but excellent in a Christian point of view. We have seldom seen a book in which the best and highest aim is so manifest without the attractiveness of the tale being at all lessened by the embodiment of religious principles."--_Eclectic Review._
"The story is so delightful, and the whole spirit of the book so pure, that it compels our admiration."--_Daily News._
"Since 'Currer Bell' we have read nothing more genuine, nor more touching. 'Nelly's Story' has power to carry the reader right through with it, and can hardly fail to impress a moral of inestimable importance."--_Carlisle Journal._
"Admirably written, pervaded throughout by fine, correct, and wholesome sentiments."--_Morning Post._
"Its excellent moral tone, and keen observation, are sure to render the book widely popular."--_John Bull._
"'Nelly's Story' is a good one. It is one of the best we have read for a long time."--_Bucks Advertiser._
"Abounding in interest. We can hardly conceive a more suitable gift-book."--_Lady's Newspaper._
"Will be welcomed, read, and talked about."--_Gentleman's Magazine._
"'Nelly's Story' is told in such a good and pleasant way, and withal is so useful and world-like, that we trust it may bring to its authoress the fame that she is well able to support."--_Tait's Magazine._
"We recognise and proclaim in the authoress of this thrilling tale a quality beyond mere ability--genius of a very high order. We claim for Anna Lisle a place amongst the most distinguished writers of her age. The story is a brilliant effort of refined and sanctified imagination throughout, quite as fascinating as anything in the way of story, whether told by Scott, Stowe, Dickens, or Currer Bell."--_Sentinel._
In One Volume, large crown 8vo, Illustrated, price 5s.
QUICKSANDS A TALE.
BY ANNA LISLE.
"It is a thoroughly woman's book. We can fairly say that we have seldom met with a graver or more striking warning against the consequences of over eagerness about worldly position and advantages, more forcibly and, at the same time, gracefully conveyed."--_Literary Gazette._
"Contains a great deal of quiet and powerful writing. Marty, the maid of Mrs. Grey, might pass for a creation of Dickens. The moral of 'Quicksands' is at once comprehensive and striking."--_Weekly Mail._
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GIFT BOOKS FOR BOYS.
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INVENTION AND DISCOVERY A COLLECTION OF INTERESTING ANECDOTES.
BY RALPH AND CHANDOS TEMPLE.
"Has a point and object, and a good one--nicely worked out."--_Saturday Review._
"We can recommend this book as a Christmas present, and one which has given us no small pleasure."--_Literary Churchman._
"Exceedingly well-timed. A volume which should be added to every working-man's club in England."--Notes and Queries.
"Exhibits a conscientious regard for accuracy."--_Athenaeum._
"The tendency is to instil the principle of self-help and the advantage of earnest purpose."--_Bell's Messenger._
GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.
Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, Illustrated with 8 full-page Wood Engravings, price 2s. 6d.
ENTERPRISE AND ADVENTURE A COLLECTION OF INTERESTING ANECDOTES.
BY RALPH AND CHANDOS TEMPLE.
"Very handsomely got up. The 'Temple Anecdotes' will be one of the most popular of Christmas books."--_Standard._
"A sensible, well-written book."--_Globe._
"We know of no work which will make a more acceptable present than this extremely handsome and really useful book."--_Era._
"As a present for boys, nothing can be better."--_Daily News._
"The anecdotes are told with a clearness and simplicity that cannot fail to give pleasure."--_Spectator._
GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, Paternoster Row, London.