Part 10

In examining the Earth, then, as we have examined Mars, the Martian would find large yellow and reddish areas, extensive greenish areas, and, besides, large regions of varying shades of blue, possibly, occupying three-fourths of the Earth's surface. The yellow areas he would interpret as desert land, the greenish areas he might consider vegetation, but what would he make out of the larger regions of blue? This would certainly puzzle him, because, unfamiliar with oceans, he could not believe that such vast tracts could really be water. He would easily interpret the polar snow caps, and the waters at their edges, but the oceans would be impossible to solve. The suggestion, by some audacious interpreter, that this vast blue area was water, would be answered by showing that these so-called bodies of water bordered vast tracts of sandy deserts with no canals running into them for irrigation or navigation purposes. Even the polar snow caps would be doubted, because they seemed to extend far down into temperate latitudes; and on their recedence in summer, there would be seen no dark, bordering seas as the result of their melting. The vegetation, instead of unfolding at the north and gradually extending southward, would unfold in a contrary direction, appearing first in south temperate latitudes and developing northward. The perennial character of the vegetation in the tropics would puzzle him. Even if he recognized oases in the deserts of America and Africa, the results of Artesian wells or springs, he could not believe them to be vegetation; for he would detect no irrigating canals running into them. He would come to the conclusion that no creature could possibly exist on the Earth, as the tremendous force of gravitation with great atmospheric pressure would forbid the existence of any organic forms. The immense clouds veiling the surface must at times suffer condensation, and the impact of raindrops would, from their velocity and weight, smash everything in the way of life. Life, if it existed in forms supported by appendages, must have legs of iron to sustain its weight, and a crust like a turtle to be impervious to raindrops, and this would be contrary to all Martian analogy. The courses of rivers, if detected, would puzzle him from their irregularity, unless he dared to suggest that these long sinuous channels extending for thousands of miles were identical to the little rivulets he had studied near his own poles.

In fact, about the only feature outside the polar snow caps that he would instantly recognize, would be the great ice cap of the Himalayas. India, that vast region extending from latitude 35° nearly to the equator, with its great plains and sterile regions, with its overpowering heat, and a dense population, depends for the sustenance of many of its millions upon the thousands of miles of irrigating canals, fed from the melting snow caps of the Himalayas. India has no great lakes, but in the northern plains great rivers course their way to the sea. The Ganges and the Indus and their tributaries derive their waters from the melting glaciers, and from these, a most extensive irrigating system of canals and reservoirs draw their waters. As the heat increases the ice melts more rapidly, and so more water is supplied at just the time when it is most needed. The whole scheme is on so vast a scale that a Martian would recognize its meaning, though he would wonder at the tortuous outlines of the larger canals.

Flammarion has, in a similar manner, presented the arguments of Martian astronomers as to whether life exists anywhere but upon the planet Mars. He says, among other fancies, that the sapient Martian argues that houses could not be built on the Earth, on account of the violence with which building materials, such as bricks, blocks, etc., would drop, and thus endanger life. Believing that Mars is rightly balanced as to temperature, the Earth being so much nearer the Sun, would be too hot for life to exist. The Martian conceives himself to be supremely complete "even to the point that artists wishing to represent God in our sanctuaries have figured Him in the image of a Martian man." The Martian considers our year too short. In his reflections he says: "During the period in which one of us attains the middle age of fifty years those on Earth have become decrepit old men of ninety-four, if, indeed, they are not already dead."

Seriously, if there is an intelligence in Mars, it must have evolved along the same general lines as intelligence has developed on the Earth. Being an older planet, it must have outgrown many of the vagaries and illusions which still hamper man in his progress here. In the dim past, however, we can imagine some Martian astronomer with the enigma of our Earth before him, and the great vault of heaven with its thousands of riddles unanswered, consulting records and covering pages with mathematical formulæ to ascertain the precise spot upon which grew the bean stalk by which a Martian Jack ascended to encounter the giant. Indeed, the imagination can conjure up an infinite number of parallels. If Mars is an older sphere, we trust it has long outgrown the superstitions which still hamper man in his interpretation of the inexorable phenomena of Nature on this little planet. We may hope that they have finally reached that stage when a dictum similar to that of Huxley forms an engraved tablet in their temples of worship. These are his words: "Science is teaching the world that the ultimate court of appeal is observation and experiment, and not authority. She is teaching it to estimate the value of evidence; she is creating a firm and living faith in the existence of immutable moral and physical laws, perfect obedience to which is the highest possible aim of an intelligent being."

XVI

SCHIAPARELLI, LOWELL, PERROTIN, THOLLON

_Every age has its problem, by solving which humanity is helped forward._

HEINRICH HEINE.

In previous pages allusion has been made to the distinguished character of the astronomers who have contributed to a knowledge of the surface markings of Mars. Testimony from astronomical sources has been quoted as to their keen-sightedness in this work which, as Sir Robert Ball has said, "indicates one of the utmost refinements of astronomical observation." That the reader may better understand the eminence of some of those whose names will forever be associated with the investigation of the surface features of Mars the following brief records are given.

The two astronomers most widely known in connection with the study of Mars are Professor Giovanni Schiaparelli and Professor Percival Lowell. Lowell had just graduated from Harvard, at the age of twenty-one, when Schiaparelli, at the age of forty-two, made his first great discovery of the _canali_ of Mars. Macpherson, in his valuable history of the "Astronomers of To-day," says of Schiaparelli: "His studies of meteoric astronomy, of Mars, Venus, and Mercury, of double stars and of stellar distribution, have given him a place second to none among living students of the heavens." From the same interesting book we gather the following facts: Schiaparelli was born in Sabigliano, in Piedmont, in 1835. He attended the usual schools in his native town and then entered the University of Turin as a student of mathematics and architecture. Before he was twenty years old he decided to devote himself to the study of astronomy. At the age of twenty-four he was an assistant in the celebrated Observatory of Pulkova. When the kingdom of Italy was organized he became an assistant in the Brera Observatory, Milan. He became suddenly famous at the age of twenty-seven by the discovery of a new asteroid. In 1862 he became Director of the Observatory. Schiaparelli's first great discovery was the relationship between comets and meteoric showers. In 1872 he was accorded the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society for his various astronomical discoveries. Professor Simon Newcomb gives him high praise when he says: "Among the individual observers Schiaparelli may be assigned the first place in view of his long continued study of the planets under a fine Italian sky, the conscientious minuteness of his examinations, and his eminence as an investigator." Schiaparelli's researches into the relation of comets and meteors "were developed in 1873, in his remarkable work 'Le Stelle Cardenti,' which is, according to Sir Norman Lockyer, one of the greatest contributions to astronomical literature which the nineteenth century has produced." Macpherson closes his interesting memoir of Schiaparelli by saying: "His devotion to astronomy, his singularly accurate observations and his wonderful discoveries have secured for him an exalted position among the greatest astronomers of modern times." For a further appreciation of the work of Schiaparelli the reader is referred to Macpherson's "Astronomers of To-day." In this brief sketch the reader may judge of the eminent character of one who insists that the lines in Mars are a persistent feature of its surface, whatever one's interpretation of them may be.

Percival Lowell was born in Boston in 1855. He was graduated from Harvard in 1876, and prepared for his graduating thesis an essay on the Nebular Hypothesis. Lowell is a many-sided man. Early interested in mathematics, he became one of the founders of the Mathematical and Physical Society of Boston. A visit to Japan, where he lived a number of years, resulted in the writing of three interesting books: "The Soul of the Far East," 1886; "Noto," 1891; and "Occult Japan," 1894. During his residence in Japan he was chosen foreign Secretary and adviser to the Korean Special Commission, then about to visit the United States, which he accompanied. On his return to Korea he was the guest of the Korean Government, and this experience prompted him to write "A Korean Coup d' État," 1894, and his well-known volume, "Choson, the Land of the Morning Calm," 1885. On his return to America he undertook an eclipse expedition to Tripoli with Professor Todd. His early interest in astronomical subjects was now fully awakened, and the red planet, which he had observed in boyhood with a small telescope from the roof of his father's house, aroused his interest on account of the heated discussions over Schiaparelli's discoveries. With an impetuosity and enthusiasm which characterizes all his work, he set about to secure a proper region and a sufficient elevation for an observatory site. This was found in northern Arizona at an elevation of over 7,000 feet. Here, then, was established the Lowell Observatory with a twenty-four inch refractor made by Clark especially for this Observatory, the last, and, according to the maker's words, the best telescope he had ever made. Lowell insisted that the location of an observatory was a much more important factor than the size of the instrument, and says: "When this is recognized, as it eventually will be, it will become the fashion to put up observatories where they may see rather than be seen." It may be said with truth that, for the first time in the history of astronomy, an observatory has been erected and fitted for the special purpose of studying the surface features of Mars. During unfavorable oppositions Lowell has turned his attention to the other planets, notably Mercury and Venus, with the result of adding many new and interesting details concerning these bodies. Three volumes of quarto memoirs and many bulletins from the Lowell Observatory attest to his industry. He has been fortunate in securing talented assistants, and their contributions may be found in the various publications of the Observatory. The character and importance of Lowell's work may be understood by stating that the "British Nautical Almanac" is to adopt for the future the value of the position of the axis of Mars, and the tilt of the planet's equator to its ecliptic, which was furnished by Professor Lowell in compliance with a request.

Mr. Lowell is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; Member of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain; American Philosophical Society; Société Astronomique de France; American Astronomical and Astrophysical Society; Astronomische Gesellschaft; Société Belge d'Astronomie; Fellow of the American Geographical Society; Honorary Member Sociedad Astronomica de Mexico; and others.

In 1904 he was awarded the Janssen medal of the Astronomical Society of France for his researches on Mars.

Mr. Macpherson, in his memoir on Lowell, says that "Mr. Lowell, by his unwearied devotion to astronomy, has already gained for himself an enduring reputation."

M. Henry Perrotin and his assistant, M. Thollon, have been quoted in previous pages as having markedly confirmed the discoveries of Schiaparelli. Through the courtesy of Professor Lowell I am enabled to present the likenesses of these two astronomers. I am indebted to the exhaustive work of Miss Agnes M. Clerke, entitled the "History of Astronomy during the Nineteenth Century," for the following memoranda of some of the work accomplished by these men. Perrotin made a series of observations on Venus fully confirming Schiaparelli's inference of synchronous rotation and revolution: "A remarkable collection of drawings made by Mr. Lowell in 1896 appeared decisive in favor of the views of Schiaparelli." In other words, Venus, like the Moon, presents the same face to the Sun in its revolution about that luminary. Perrotin has made important observations on the rings of Saturn; his double-star measurements are also considered work of the highest character.

Thollon has made many spectroscopic studies, among which were delicate experiments showing the lateral displacement of lines in the solar spectrum arising from the Sun's rotation. In the Annals of the Nice Observatory he published a great atlas consisting of thirty-three maps, exhibiting in quadruplicate a subdivision of the solar spectrum under varied conditions of weather and zenith distance. He also studied the spectrum of the great comet of 1882, and by the displacement of its lines estimated that the comet was receding from the Earth at the rate of from sixty-one to seventy-six kilometers per second. The Leland prize was awarded to Thollon for a hand drawing he made of the prismatic spectrum obtained with bisulphide of carbon prisms of high dispersive power.

The character and reputation of these men, as well as others who have been quoted in these pages, must be weighed against the few who, not content with denying the existence of the _canali_ in Mars, have in strong language abused those who accept them as veritable markings on the planet's surface.

XVII

LAST WORDS

_The uniformity of the course of Nature will appear as the ultimate major premise of all inductions._

JOHN STUART MILL.

The final question is, do the lines as depicted and described by various observers exist on the surface of Mars? Those who have made the greatest addition to our knowledge of the character of these lines, and have constructed maps based on Martian latitude and longitude are accredited on other grounds as being endowed with remarkable acuteness of vision coupled with persistence and painstaking care in observation. The most successful work has been accomplished with instruments of fine definition in regions of steady atmosphere and high altitude, or at intervals of clarity and steadiness in regions otherwise unfavorable. Finally, and most convincing of all, Mr. Lowell's assistant, Mr. Lampland, after many attempts has succeeded in photographing the more conspicuous linear markings. _The lines do exist essentially as figured by Schiaparelli and Lowell._ It now rests with the objectors to suggest any better interpretation of the markings of Mars than that they are the results of intelligent effort.

The mediæval attitude of some astronomers regarding this question recalls the story of Scheiner, a Jesuit brother, who, independently of Galileo and Fabricius, discovered spots on the Sun. Eager with enthusiasm he informed his Superior of his remarkable discovery and begged to be allowed to publish it to the world. The Superior replied, "Go, my son; tranquilize yourself and rest assured that what you take for spots on the Sun are the faults of your glasses or of your eyes." This happened three hundred years ago, and yet to-day a few astronomers of this class still survive.

If one will calmly reason about the matter, let him consider a parallel case of interpretation. He digs out from the ground a fragment of stone; its somewhat symmetrical shape suggests to him the idea that it may be a rude stone implement. If he wishes to know what kind of rock it is and its geological age, he refers it to a geologist; if he wishes to know its composition, he asks a mineralogist, who, if necessary, will analyze it for him. If, however, he is curious to know whether its peculiar, fractured surface is due to frost or other natural agency, or whether it is the work of some rude savage, he inquires of an archæologist, who alone will be able to tell him whether it is a worked stone or natural fragment. He will probably tell him whether it was shaped by paleolithic man, and whether it is a rough stone implement or a core, _reject_ or chip. So with the study of Mars, as we have already pointed out, there are certain matters of information about the planet which the astronomer alone can impart, while the superficial markings are just as certainly to be interpreted by another class of students who may or not be familiar with astronomical methods.

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It was quite natural that astronomers, the most conservative of all classes of observers, should have doubted the first announcement of Schiaparelli of the startling discovery of the _canali_ marking the face of the planet, the more so as year after year went by and yet with the utmost efforts of astronomers nothing of the nature of Schiaparelli's lines could be seen.

What added greatly to the doubt about the lines, and at the same time strengthened the idea that the lines were illusory, was the subsequent announcement by Schiaparelli--undeterred by the universal skepticism--that at times the lines appeared double. What more convincing evidence could be offered than that the phenomenon was purely subjective?

A few astronomers expressed their doubts in a courteous though hesitating manner. Professor Young, in his valuable text-book, "Elements of Astronomy" (1890), in correctly reporting Schiaparelli's discovery says: "He is so careful and experienced an observer that his results cannot be lightly rejected; and yet it is not easy to banish a vague suspicion of some error or illusion, partly because his observations have thus far received so little confirmation from others, and partly because his 'canals' are so difficult to explain. They can hardly be _rivers_, because they are quite straight; nor can they be _artificial_ water-ways since the narrowest of them are forty or fifty miles wide. To add to the mystery, he finds that at certain times many of them become _doubled_,--the two which replace the former single one running parallel to each other for hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of miles, with a space of 200 or 300 miles between them. He thinks that this _gemination_ of the canals follows the course of the planet's seasons."

The overpowering belief that this world alone sustained creatures of intelligence formed an obstructive barrier to any and all attempts made to uphold--at least by analogy--the idea of intelligence in other worlds. One cannot but regret that some philosopher had not, years before Schiaparelli's time, expressed the conviction that Mars might perhaps be more favorable to the existence of intelligent life than our own world, and with this conviction proceed to formulate the conditions which must of necessity exist: namely, that the planet being a much older world than ours, its waters had mostly vanished by chemical combination with the rocks and otherwise. Following this assumption, the philosopher might have insisted that in the last extremity the melting snow caps would be utilized by the supposed intelligences to furnish water for potable and irrigating purposes. The philosopher might have superadded to this idea the prediction that, when telescopes were strong enough and eyes were keen enough, evidence of the truth of this supposition would be found in canals of some sort and that such lines should be carefully sought for. Fancy the exultation of Schiaparelli when at last he found the lines precisely as indicated. Such an announcement from so distinguished an astronomer would have been hailed with acclaim. Alas! for the conservatism of astronomers, such powers of prevision are sadly wanting. Le Verrier's prediction of an outer planet was a matter of dead certainty. The perturbations of Uranus could not be accounted for except by the assumption of an outside body, and had it not been for the characteristic reserve of English astronomers, Adams might have had the full credit. So rare are predictions of this nature in the history of astronomy that this instance will probably be quoted to the end of time. The masses, still ignorant of the certainty of mathematical astronomy, regard the prediction of an eclipse as in the nature of a prophecy. The liberal attitude of naturalists stands in marked contrast, and the history of their work is filled with examples of prediction and repeated confirmations. Until the middle of the last century--grounded in the belief of special creation--how wonderfully rapid was the conversion of naturalists to the theory of evolution after Darwin had offered his rational views on the subject. The existence of forms was predicted, based on the idea of evolution, and these have been found again and again. Our museums display in their cases remains of fossil animals which complete many series undreamed of in pre-Darwinian days. This wonderful work has been accomplished without resort to algebraic formulæ, and yet when mathematics can be applied, as it is in the law of variation, quantitative studies in heredity, and statistical methods generally, it is promptly seized upon by the biologist.

* * * * *

To one unconvinced of the existence of some signs of intelligent activity in Mars the suggestions that have been made to account for certain appearances in the planet will seem absurd. If, on the other hand, he finds himself in agreement with those who believe the markings are the result of intelligent effort, then he is justified in using the various artificial markings of the surface of the Earth as standards of comparison in explaining the many curious markings of Mars. Indeed, he is compelled to do so, just as would be demanded of him if he should stand on some high mountain peak in some hitherto unexplored region of Africa and should minutely scan the hazy stretch of plains below. Large white spots in equatorial regions which could not possibly be snow-covered hills, might be masses of white flowers or cloth-covered areas for the better cultivation of certain plants. Lines that dimly stretched across the surface might be rivers, cañons, rifts, or bands of irrigation, according to their character.

As we compare the circular markings on the Moon with our terrestrial craters and fissures, and cracks on its surface with similar fissures on the Earth, so we are forced to compare the markings on the surface of Mars with what seems analogous to them on the surface of our own Earth.