CHAPTER XV

THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES (_continued_)

THE PEOPLES OF ARYAN SPEECH--European Trade Routes--"Aryan" Migrations--Indo-European Cradle--Indo-European Type--Date of Indo-European Expansion--Origin of Nordic Peoples--The _Cimbri_ and _Teutoni_--_The Bastarnae_--_The Moeso-Goths_--Scandinavia-- Modification of the Nordic Type--THE CELTO-SLAVS: Their Ethnical Position defined--Aberrant _Tyrolese_ Type--_Rhaetians_ and _Etruscans_--Etruscan Origins--The Celts--Definitions--Celts in Britain--The Picts--Brachycephals in Britain--Round Barrow Type--Alpine Type--Ethnic Relations--Formation of the English Nation--Ethnic Relations in Ireland--Scotland--and in Wales--Present Constitution of the British Peoples--The English Language--_The French Nation_--Constituent Elements--Mental Traits--_The Spaniards and Portuguese_--Ethnic Relations in Italy--_Ligurian_, _Illyrian_, and _Aryan Elements_--The Present _Italians_--Art and Ethics--_The Rumanians_--Ethnic Relations in Greece--_The Hellenes_--Origins and Migrations--The _Lithuanian_ Factor--_Aeolians_; _Dorians_; _Ionians_--The Hellenic Legend--The Greek Language--THE SLAVS-- Origins and Migrations--_Sarmatians_ and _Budini_--_Wends_, _Chekhs_, and _Poles_--The Southern Slavs--Migrations--_Serbs_, _Croats_, _Bosnians_--_The Albanians_--_The Russians_-- Panslavism--Russian Origins--_Alans_ and _Ossets_--Aborigines of the Caucasus--THE IRANIANS--Ethnic and Linguistic Relations-- _Persians_, _Tajiks_ and _Galcha_--_Afghans_--Lowland and Hill Tajiks--The Galchic Linguistic Family--Galcha and Tajik Types-- _Homo Europaeus_ and _H. Alpinus_ in Central Asia--THE HINDUS-- Ethnic Relations in India--Classification of Types--_The Kols_-- _The Dravidians_--Dravidian and Aryan Languages--The Hindu Castes--OCEANIA--_Indonesians_--_Micronesians_--_Eastern Polynesians_--Origins, Types, and Divisions--Migrations-- Polynesian Culture.

As the result of recent researches there is an end of the theory that bronze came in with the "Aryans," and it is from this standpoint that the revelation of an independent Aegean culture in touch with Babylonia and Egypt some four millenniums before the new era is of such momentous import in determining the ethnical relations of the historical, _i.e._ the present European populations.

Some idea of cultured relations in prehistoric times may be obtained from a review of the trade communications as indicated by archaeology during the Bronze Age which lasted through the whole of the third millennium down to the middle of the second. As we have seen, in the Nile valley, in Mesopotamia and in the Aegean area, remains characteristic of Bronze Age culture rest on a neolithic substratum, and a transitional stage, when gold and copper were the only metals known, often connects the two. From the time of this dawning of the Age of Metals, the inhabitants of the Nile Valley, of Crete, of Cyprus and of the mainland of Greece freely exchanged their products. Navigation was already flourishing, and the sea united rather than divided the insular and coastal populations. Gradually Egeo-Mykenaean civilisation extended from Crete and the Greek lands to the west, influencing Sicily directly, and leaving distinct traces in Southern Italy, Sardinia and the Iberian peninsula, while Iberia in its turn contributed to the development of Western Gaul and the British Isles. The knowledge of copper, and, soon after, that of bronze, spread by the Atlantic route to Ireland, while Central Europe was reached directly from the south. Thanks to the trade in amber, always in demand by the Mediterranean populations, there was a continuous trade route to Scandinavia, which thus had direct communication with Southern Europe. As civilisation developed, the lands of the north and west became exporters as well as importers, each developing a distinct industry not always inferior to the more precocious culture of the south[1194].

With trade communications thus stretching across Europe from south to north, and from east to extreme west, it would seem not improbable that movements of peoples were equally unrestricted, and this would account for the appearance on the threshold of history of various peoples formerly grouped together on account of their language, as "Aryan." J. L. Myres, however, is inclined to attribute "the coming of the North" to the same type of climatic impulse which induced the Semitic swarms described above (p. 489). After referring to the earliest occurrence of Indo-European names[1195], he continues "Before the time of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt there had been a very extensive raid of Indo-European-speaking folk by way of the Persian plateau, as far as the Syrian coastland and the interior of Asia Minor." These raids coincide with a new cultural feature of great significance. "It is of the first importance to find that it is in the dark period which immediately precedes the Eighteenth Dynasty revival--when Egypt was prostrate under mysterious 'Shepherd Kings,' and Babylon under Kassite invaders equally mysterious--that the civilized world first became acquainted with one of the greatest blessings of civilisation, the domesticated horse. The period of Arabian drought, which drove forth the 'Canaanite' emigrants, may have had its counterpart on the northern steppe, to provoke the migration of these horsemen." He adds, however, "our knowledge both of the extent of these droughts and of the chronology of both these migrations, is too vague for this to be taken as more than a provisional basis for more exact enquiry[1196]."

The attempt has often been made to locate the original home of the Indo-European people by an appeal to philology, and idyllic pictures have been drawn up of the "Aryan family" consisting of the father the protector, the mother the producer, and the children "whose name implied that they kept everything clean and neat[1197]." They were regarded as originally pastoral and later agricultural, ranging over a wide area with Bactria for its centre. With advancing knowledge of what is primitive in Indo-European this circumstantial picture crumbled to pieces, and Feist[1198] reduces all inferences deducible from linguistic palaeontology to the sole "argumentum ex silencio" (which he regards as distinctly untrustworthy in itself), that the "Urheimat" was a country in which in the middle of the third millennium B.C. such southern animals as lion, elephant, and tiger, were unknown. It was commonly assumed that the "Aryan cradle" was in Asia, and the suggestion of R. G. Latham in 1851 that the original home was in Europe was scouted by one of the most eminent writers on the subject--Victor Hehn--as lunacy possible only to one who lived in a country of cranks[1197]. But since this date, there has been a shifting of the "Urheimat" further and further west. O. Schrader[1199] places it in South Russia, G. Kossinna[1200] and H. Hirt[1201] support the claims of Germany, while K. Penka and many others go still further north, deriving both language and tall fair dolichocephalic speakers (proto-Teutons) from Scandinavia[1202].

F. Kauffmann[1203], noting the contrast between the cultures associated with pre-neolithic and with neolithic kitchen-middens, is prepared to attribute the former to aboriginal inhabitants, Ligurians, and, further north, Kvaens (Finns, Lapps), and the neolithic civilisation of Europe to Indo-Europeans. "Thus the neolithic Indo-Europeans would already have advanced as far as South Sweden in the Litorina period of the Baltic, during the oak-period."

On the other hand the discovery of Tocharish has inclined E. Meyer[1204] to reconsider an Asiatic origin, but the information as to this language is too fragmentary to be conclusive on this point. After reviewing the various theories Giles[1205] concludes "in the great plain which extends across Europe north of the Alps and Carpathians and across Asia north of the Hindu Kush there are few geographical obstacles to prevent the rapid spread of peoples from any part of its area to any other, and, as we have seen, the Celts and the Hungarians etc. have in the historical period demonstrated the rapidity with which such migrations could be made. Such migrations may possibly account for the appearance of a people using a _centum_ language so far east as Turkestan[1206]."

More acrimonious than the discussion of the original home is the dispute as to the original physical type of the Indo-European-speaking people. It was almost a matter of faith with Germans that the language was introduced by tall fair dolichocephals of Nordic type. On the other hand the Gallic school sought to identify the Alpine race as the only and original Aryans. The futility of the whole discussion is ably demonstrated by W. Z. Ripley in his protest against the confusion of language and race[1207]. Feist[1208] summarises our information as follows. All that we can say about the physical type of the "Urvolk" is that since the Indo-Europeans came from a northerly region[1209] (not yet identified) it is surmised that they belonged to the light-skinned people. The observation that mountain folk of Indo-Germanic speech in southern areas, such as the Ossets of the Caucasus, the Kurds of the uplands of Armenia and Irania, and the Tajiks of the western Pamirs not infrequently exhibit fair hair or blue eyes supports this view. Nevertheless, as he points out, brachycephals are not hereby excluded. His own conclusion, which naturally results from a review of the whole evidence, is that the "Urvolk" was not a pure race, but a mixture of different types. Already in neolithic times races in Europe were no longer pure, and in France "formed an almost inextricable medley" and Feist assumes with E. de Michelis[1210] that the Indo-Europeans were a conglomerate of peoples of different origins who in prehistoric times were welded together into an ethnic unity, as the present English have been formed from pre-Indo-European Caledonians (Picts and Scots), Celts, Roman traders and soldiers and later Teutonic settlers[1211].

The evidence that Indo-Europeans were already in existence in Mesopotamia, Syria and Irania about the middle of the second millennium B.C. has already been mentioned. About the same time the Vedic hymns bear witness to the appearance of the Aryans of Western India. The formation of an Aryan group with a common language, religion and culture is a process necessarily requiring considerable length of time, so that their swarming off from the Indo-European parent group must be pushed back to far into the third millennium. At this period there are indications of the settling of the Greeks in the southern promontories of the Balkan peninsula at latest about 2000 B.C., while Thracian and Illyrian peoples may have filled the mainland, though the Dorians occupied Epirus, Macedonia, and perhaps Southern Illyria. Indo-European stocks were already in occupation of Central Italy. It would appear therefore that the period of the Indo-European community, before the migrations, must be placed at the end of the Stone Ages, at the time when copper was first introduced. Thus it seems legitimate to infer that the expansion of the Indo-Europeans began about 2500 B.C. and the furthest advanced branches entered into the regions of the older populations and cultures at latest after the beginning of the second millennium[1212]. About 1000 B.C. we find three areas occupied by Indo-European-speaking peoples, all widely separated from each other and apparently independent. These are (1) the Aryan groups in Asia; (2) the Balkan peninsula together with Central and Lower Italy, and the Mysians and Phrygians of Asia Minor (possibly the Thracians had already advanced across the Danube); and (3) Teutons, Celts and Letto-Slavs over the greater part of Germany and Scandinavia, perhaps also already in Eastern France and in Poland. The following centuries saw the advance of Iranians to South Russia and further west, the pressing of the Phrygians into Armenia, and lastly the Celtic migrations in Western Europe.

From the linguistic and botanical evidence brought forward by the Polish botanist Rostafinski[1213] the ancestors of the Celts, Germans and Balto-Slavs must have occupied a region north of the Carpathians, and west of a line between Koenigsberg and Odessa (the beech and yew zone). The Balto-Slavs subsequently lost the word for beech and transferred the word for yew to the sallow and black alder (both with red wood) but their possession of a word for hornbeam locates their original home in Polesie--the marshland traversed by the Pripet but not south or east of Kiev.

Although, owing to the absence of Teutonic inscriptions before the third or fourth century A.D. it is difficult to trace the Nordic peoples with any certainty during the Bronze or Early Iron Ages, yet the fairly well-defined group of Bronze Age antiquities, covering the basin of the Elbe, Mecklenburg, Holstein, Jutland, Southern Sweden and the islands of the Belt have been conjectured with much probability to represent early Teutonic civilisation. "Whether we are justified in speaking of a Teutonic race in the anthropological sense is at least doubtful, for the most striking characteristics of these peoples [as deduced from prehistoric skeletons, descriptions of ancient writers and present day statistics] occur also to a considerable extent among their eastern and western neighbours, where they can hardly be ascribed altogether to Teutonic admixture. The only result of anthropological investigation which so far can be regarded as definitely established is that the old Teutonic lands in Northern Germany, Denmark and Southern Sweden have been inhabited by people of the same type since the neolithic age if not earlier[1214]." This type is characterised by tall stature, long narrow skull, light complexion with light hair and eyes[1215].

During the age of national migrations, from the fourth to the sixth century, the territories of the Nordic peoples were vastly extended, partly by conquest, and partly by arrangement with the Romans. But these movements had begun before the new era, for we hear of the _Cimbri_ invading Illyricum, Gaul and Italy in the second century B.C. probably from Jutland[1216], where they were apparently associated with the _Teutoni_. Still earlier, in the third century B.C., the _Bastarnae_, said by many ancient writers to have been Teutonic in origin, invaded and settled between the Carpathians and the Black Sea. Already mentioned doubtfully by Strabo as separating the Germani from the Scythians (Tyragetes) about the Dniester and Dnieper, their movements may now be followed by authentic documents from the Baltic to the Euxine. Furtwaengler[1217] shows that the earliest known German figures are those of the Adamklissi monument, in the Dobruja, commemorating the victory of Crassus over the Bastarnae, Getae, and Thracians in 28 B.C. The Bastarnae migrated before the Cimbri and Teutons through the Vistula valley to the Lower Danube about 200 B.C. They had relations with the Macedonians, and the successes of Mithridates over the Romans were due to their aid. The account of their overthrow by Crassus in Dio Cassius is in striking accord with the scenes on the Adamklissi monument. Here they appear dressed only in a kind of trowsers, with long pointed beards, and defiant but noble features. The same type recurs both on the column of Trajan, who engaged them as auxiliaries in his Dacian wars, and on the Arch of Marcus Aurelius, here however wearing a tunic, a sign perhaps of later Roman influences. And thus after 2000 years are answered Strabo's doubts by modern archaeology.

Much later there followed along the same beaten track between the Baltic and Black Sea a section of the Goths, whom we find first settled in the Baltic lands in proximity to the Finns. The exodus from this region can scarcely have taken place before the second century of the new era, for they are still unknown to Strabo, while Tacitus locates them on the Baltic between the Elbe and the Vistula. Later Cassiodorus and others bring them from Scandinavia to the Vistula, and up that river to the Euxine and Lower Danube. Although often regarded as legendary[1218], this migration is supported by archaeological evidence. In 1837 a gold torque with a Gothic inscription was found at Petroassa in Wallachia, and in 1858 an iron spear-head with a Gothic name in the same script, which dates from the first Iron Age, turned up near Kovel in Volhynia. The spear-head is identical with one found in 1865 at Muenchenberg in Brandenburg, on which Wimmer remarks that "of 15 Runic inscriptions in Germany the two earliest occur on iron pikes. There is no doubt that the runes of the Kovel spear-head and of the ring came from Gothic tribes[1219]." These Southern Goths, later called Moeso-Goths, because they settled in Moesia (Bulgaria and Servia), had certain physical and even moral characters of the Old Teutons, as seen in the Emperor Maximinus, born in Thrace of a Goth by an Alan woman--very tall, strong, handsome, with light hair and milk-white skin[1220], temperate in all things and of great mental energy.

Before their absorption in the surrounding Bulgar and Slav populations the Moeso-Goths were evangelised in the fourth century by their bishop Ulfilas ("Wolf"), whose fragmentary translation of Scripture, preserved in the _Codex Argenteus_ of Upsala, is the most precious monument of early Teutonic speech extant.

To find the pure Nordic type at the present day we must seek for it in Scandinavia, which possesses one of the most highly individualised populations in Europe. The Osterdal, and the neighbourhood of Vaage in Upper Gudbrandsdal in Norway, and the Dalarna district in Sweden contain perhaps the purest Teutonic type in all Europe, the cephalic index falling well below 78. But along the Norwegian coasts there is a strong tendency to brachycephaly (the index rising to 82-3), combined with a darkening of the hair and eye colour (the type occurs also in Denmark), indicating an outlying lodgement of the Alpine race from Central Europe. The anthropological history of Scandinavia, according to Ripley, is as follows: "Norway has ... probably been peopled from two directions, one element coming from Sweden and another from the south by way of Denmark. The latter type, now found on the sea coast and especially along the least attractive portion of it, has been closely hemmed in by the Teutonic immigration from Sweden[1221]." Brachycephalic people already occupied parts of Denmark in the Stone Age[1222], and, according to the scanty information available, the present population is extremely mixed. One-third of the children have light hair and light eyes, and tall stature coincides in the main with fair colouring, but in Bornholm where the cephalic index is 80 there is a taller dark type and a shorter light type, the latter perhaps akin to the Eastern variety of the Alpine race[1223].

The original Nordic type is by no means universally represented among the present Germanic peoples. From the examination made some years ago of 6,758,000 school children[1224], it would appear that about 31 per cent. of living Germans may be classed as blonds, 14 as brunettes, and 55 as mixed; and further that of the blonds about 43 per cent. are centred in North, 33 in Central and 24 in South Germany. The brunettes increase, generally speaking, southwards, South Bavaria showing only about 14 per cent. of blonds, and the same law holds good of the long-heads and the round-heads respectively. To what cause is to be attributed this profound modification of this branch of the Nordic type in the direction of the south?

That the Teutons ranged in considerable numbers far beyond their northern seats is proved by the spread of the German language to the central highlands, and beyond them down the southern slopes, where a rude High German dialect lingered on in the so-called "Seven Communes" of the Veronese district far into the nineteenth century. But after passing the Main, which appears to have long formed the ethnical divide for Central Europe, they entered the zone of the brown Alpine round-heads[1225], to whom they communicated their speech, but by whom they were largely modified in physical appearance. The process has for long ages been much the same everywhere--perennial streams of Teutonism setting steadily from the north, all successively submerged in the great ocean of dark round-headed humanity, which under many names has occupied the central uplands and eastern plains since the Neolithic Age, overflowing also in later times into the Balkan Peninsula.

This absorption of what is assumed to be the superior in the inferior type, may be due to the conditions of the general movement--warlike bands, accompanied by few women, appearing as conquerors in the midst of the Alpines and merging with them in the great mass of brachycephalic peoples. Or is the transformation to be explained by de Lapouge's doctrine, that cranial forms are not so much a question of race as of social conditions, and that, owing to the increasingly unfavourable nature of these conditions, there is a general tendency for the superior long-heads to be absorbed in the inferior round-heads[1226].

The fact that dolichocephaly is more prevalent in cities and brachycephaly in rural areas has been interpreted in various ways. De Lapouge[1227] contended that in France the restless and more enterprising long-heads migrated from the rural districts in disproportionate numbers to the towns, where they died out. For the department of Aveyron he gives a table showing a steady rise of the cephalic index from 71.4 in prehistoric times to 86.5 in 1899, and attributes this to the dolichos gravitating chiefly to the large towns, as O. Ammon has also shown for Baden. L. Laloy summed up the results thus: France is being depopulated, and, what is worse, it is precisely the best section of the inhabitants that disappears, the section most productive in eminent men in all departments of learning, while the ignorant and rude _pecus_ alone increase.

These views have met with favour even across the Atlantic, but are by no means universally accepted. The ground seems cut from the whole theory by A. Macalister, who read a paper at the Toronto Meeting of the British Association, 1897, on "The Causes of Brachycephaly," showing that the infantile and primitive skull is relatively long, and that there is a gradual change, phylogenetic (racial) as well as ontogenetic (individual) toward brachycephaly, which is certainly correlated with, and is apparently produced by, cerebral activity and growth; in the process of development in the individual and the race the frontal lobes of the brain grow the more rapidly and tend to fill out and broaden the skull[1228]. The tendency would thus have nothing to do with rustic and urban life, nor would the round be necessarily, if at all, inferior to the long head. Some of de Lapouge's generalisations are also traversed by Livi[1229], Deniker[1230], Sergi[1231] and others, and the whole question is admirably summarised by W. Z. Ripley[1232].

But whatever be the cause, the fact must be accepted that _Homo Europaeus_ (the Nordics) becomes merged southwards in _Homo Alpinus_ whose names, as stated, are many. Broca and many continental writers use the name _Kelt_ or _Slavo-Kelt_, which has led to much confusion. But it merely means for them the great mass of brachycephalic peoples in Central Europe, where, at various times, Celtic and Slavonic languages have prevailed.

It is remarkable that in the Alpine region, especially Tyrol, where the brachy element comes to a focus, there is a peculiar form of round-head which has greatly puzzled de Lapouge, but may perhaps be accounted for on the hypothesis of two brachy types here fused in one. To explain the exceedingly round Tyrolese head, which shows affinities on the one hand with the Swiss, on the other with the Illyrian and Albanian, that is, with the normal Alpine, a Mongol strain has been suggested, but is rightly rejected by Franz Tappeiner as inadmissible on many grounds[1233]. De Ujfalvy[1234], a follower of de Lapouge, looks on the hyperbrachy Tyrolese as descendants of the ancient Rhaetians or Rasenes, whom so many regard as the parent stock of the Etruscans.

But Montelius (with most other modern ethnologists) rejects the land route from the north, and brings the Etruscans by the sea route direct from the Aegean and Lydia (Asia Minor). They are the Thessalian Pelasgians whom Hellanikos of Lesbos brings to Campania, or the Tyrrhenian Pelasgians transported by Antiklides from Asia Minor to Etruria, and he is "quite sure that the archaeological facts in Central and North Italy ... prove the truth of this tradition[1235]." Of course, until the affinities of the Etruscan language are determined, from which we are still as far off as ever[1236], Etruscan origins must remain chiefly an archaeological question. Even the help afforded by the crania from the Etruscan tombs is but slight, both long and round heads being here found in the closest association. Sergi, who also brings the Etruscans from the east, explains this by supposing that, being Pelasgians, they were of the same dolicho Mediterranean stock as the Italians (Ligurians) themselves, and differed only from the brachy Umbrians of Aryan speech. Hence the skulls from the tombs are of two types, the intruding Aryan, and the Mediterranean, the latter, whether representing native Ligurians or intruding Etruscans, being indistinguishable. "I can show," he says, "Etruscan crania, which differ in no respect from the Italian [Ligurian], from the oldest graves, as I can also show heads from the Etruscan graves which do not differ from those still found in Aryan lands, whether Slav, Keltic, or Germanic[1237]." Perhaps the difficulty is best explained by Feist's suggestion that the Etruscans were merely a highly civilised warlike aristocracy, spreading thinly over the conquered population by which they were ultimately absorbed[1238].

The migrations of the Celts preceded those of the Teutonic peoples to whom they were probably closely related in race as in language[1239]. At the beginning of the historical period Celts are found in the west of Germany in the region of the Rhine and the Weser. Possibly about 600 B.C. they occupied Gaul and parts of the Iberian peninsula, subsequently crossing over into the British Isles. In Italy they came into conflict with the rising power of Rome, and, after the battle of the Allia (390 B.C.) occupied Rome itself. Descents were also made into the Danube valley and the Balkans, and later (280 B.C.) into Thessaly. At the height of their power they extended from the north of Scotland to the southern shores of Spain and Portugal, and from the northern coasts of Germany to a little south of Senegaglia. To the west their boundary was the Atlantic, to the east, the Black Sea[1240].

Unfortunately the indiscriminate use of the term Celt has led to much confusion. For historians and geographers the Celts are the people in the centre and west of Europe referred to by writers of antiquity under the names of _Keltoi_, _Celtae_, _Galli_ and _Galatae_. But many anthropologists, especially on the continent, regard Celts and Gauls as representing two well-determined physical types, the former brachycephalic, with short sturdy build and chestnut coloured hair (Alpine type), and the latter dolichocephalic with tall stature, fair complexion and light hair (Nordic type). Linguists, ignoring physical characters, class as Celts those people who speak an Indo-European language characterised in particular by the loss of p and by the modifications undergone by mutation of initial consonants, while for many archaeologists the Celts were the people responsible for the spread of the civilisation of the Hallstatt and La Tene periods, that is of the earlier and later Iron Age[1241].

It is not surprising therefore that it has been proposed to drop the word Celt out of anthropological nomenclature, as having no ethnical significance. But this, says Rice Holmes[1242], "is because writers on ethnology have not kept their heads clear." And in particular one point has been overlooked. "Just as the French are called after one conquering people, the Franks; just as the English are called after one conquering people, the Angles; so the heterogeneous Celtae of Transalpine Gaul were called after one conquering people; and that people were the Celts, or rather a branch of the Celts in the true sense of the word. The Celts, in short, were the people who introduced the Celtic language into Gaul, into Asia Minor, and into Britain; the people who included the victors of the Allia, the conquerors of Gallia Celtica, and the conquerors of Gallia Bel['g]ica; the people whom Polybius called indifferently Gauls and Celts; the people who, as Pausanius said, were originally called Celts and afterwards called Gauls. If certain ancient writers confounded the tall fair Celts who spoke Celtic with the tall fair Germans who spoke German the ancient writers who were better informed avoided such a mistake.... Let us therefore restore to the word 'Celt' the ethnical significance which of right belongs to it."

It is not certain at what date the Celtic tribes effected settlements in Great Britain, but it is held by many that the earliest invasions were not prior to the sixth or possibly even the fifth century. At the time of the Roman conquest the Celts were divided into two linguistic groups, _Goidelic_, represented at the present day by Irish, Manx and Scotch Gaelic, and _Brythonic_, including Welsh, Cornish and Breton. These groups must have been virtually identical save in two particulars. In Brythonic the labial velar q became p (a change which apparently took place before the time of Pytheas), whilst in Goidelic the sound remained unaltered. q is retained in the earlier ogham inscriptions, but by the end of the seventh century it had lost the labial element, appearing in Old Irish as c. Thus O. Irish _cenn_, head, as in Kenmare, Kintyre, Kinsale, equates with Brythonic _pen_, as in Penryn (Cornwall), Penrhyn (Wales), Penkridge (Staffordshire), Penruddock, Penrith and many others. The two groups are therefore distinguished as the Q Celts and the P Celts[1243]. From the fact that Goidelic retained the q it has been commonly assumed that the Goidels were separated from the main Celtic stock at a time before the labialisation had taken place, but many scholars maintain that the parent Goidelic was evolved in Ireland, and was carried from that island to Man and Scotland in the early centuries of our era[1244].

From an anthropological point of view, the Picts are if possible more difficult to identify than the Celts. But the question is not between tall fair long-heads and short dark round-heads, but between short dark long-heads (neolithic aborigines) and Celts. The Pictish question is summed up by Rice Holmes[1245] and the various theories have been more recently reviewed by Windisch[1246] giving a valuable summary of earlier writings. On the one hand it is maintained as "the most tenable hypothesis that the Picts were non-Aryans, whom the first Celtic migrations found already settled here ... descendants of the Aborigines[1247]." Windisch[1248] at the other extreme, regards them as late comers into North Britain, when Scotland was already occupied by Brythonic tribes. But the geographical distribution of the Picts in historical times suggests rather a people driven into mountainous regions by successive conquerors, than the settlements of successful invaders. Also it is not improbable that the language of the Bronze Age lingered in these wilder districts, and this would account for the fact that St Columba had to employ an interpreter in his relations with the Picts; though this is explained by others on the assumption that Pictish was Brythonic. The linguistic evidence is however extremely slight, only a few words presumably Pictish having survived and these through Celtic writers. "The one absolutely certain conclusion to which the student of ethnology can come is that the name of the Picts has not been proved to be of pre-Aryan origin[1249]." "For me," continues Rice Holmes (p. 417), "the Picts were a mixed people comprising descendants of the neolithic aborigines, of the Round Barrow Race, and of the Celtic invaders--a mixed people who [or at least whose aristocracy] spoke a Celtic dialect."

Before attempting a survey of the ethnology of Britain it is necessary to ascertain what ethnic elements the area contained before the arrival of the Celts. The neolithic inhabitants, the short, dark dolichocephals of Mediterranean type have already been described (Ch. XIII.). Their remains are associated with the characteristic forms of sepulchral monuments the dolmens and the long barrows. But towards the end of the Stone Age a brachycephalic race was already penetrating into the islands. This appears to have been a peaceful infiltration, at any rate in certain districts, where remains of the two types are found side by side and there is evidence of racial intermixture. The brachycephals introduced a new form of sepulture, making their burial mounds circular instead of elongated, whence Thurnam's convenient formula, "long barrow, long skull; round barrow, round skull." But the earlier view that there was a definite transition from long heads, neolithic culture and long barrows, to round heads, bronze culture and round barrows can no longer be maintained. "It is often taken for granted that no round barrows were erected in Britain before the close of the Neolithic Age, and that the earliest of the brachycephalic invaders whose remains have been found in them landed with bronze weapons in their hands[1250]." But there is abundant evidence that the brachycephalic element preceded the knowledge of metals, and a number of round barrows in Yorkshire and further north show no trace of bronze.

Nevertheless the majority of the round barrows belong to the Bronze Age, and the physical type of their builders is sufficiently well marked. The stature is remarkably tall, attaining a height of 1.763 m. or over 5 ft. 9 ins. The skull is brachycephalic with an average index of about 80. It is also characterised by great strength and ruggedness of outline, with (often) a sloping forehead, prominent supraciliary ridges, and a certain degree of prognathism.

According to Rolleston's description "The eyebrows must have given a beetling and probably even formidable appearance to the upper part of the face, whilst the boldly outstanding and heavy cheekbones must have produced an impression of raw and rough strength. Overhung at its root, the nose must have projected boldly forward." And Thurnam adds "the prominence of the large incisor and canine teeth is so great as to give an almost bestial expression to the skull[1251]."

Although this type is conveniently called the Round Barrow type, or even the Round Barrow Race, the round barrows also contain remains of a different racial character. The skull form shows a more extreme brachycephaly, with an index of 84 or 85, and exhibits none of the rugged features associated with the true Round Barrow type. On the contrary, of the two typical groups, one from round barrows in Glamorganshire, and the other from short cists in Aberdeenshire not one of the skulls is prognathous, the supraciliary ridges are but slightly developed, the cheek bones are not prominent, the face is both broad and short and the lower jaw is small. But the greatest contrast is in the height, which averages in the two groups, 1.664 m. and 1.6 m. respectively, _i.e._ 5 ft. 5-3/4 ins. and 5 ft. 3 ins. All these characters connect this type closely with the Alpine type on the continent.

These round-headed peoples have been the subject of much discussion ably summarised and criticised by Rice Holmes, whose conclusion perhaps best represents the view now taken of their affinities and origins.

"The great mistake that has been made in discussing the question is the not uncommon assumption that the brachycephalic immigrants who buried their dead in round barrows arrived in Britain at one time, and came from one place. Some of them certainly appeared before the end of the Neolithic Age: others may have introduced bronze implements or ornaments; others doubtless came, in successive hordes, during the course of the Bronze Age. Some of those who belonged to the Grenelle race [Alpine type], who certainly came from Eastern Europe and possibly from Asia, and whose centre of dispersion was the Alpine region, may have started from Gaul; others could have traced their origin to some Rhenish tribe; and I am inclined to believe that those who belonged to the characteristic rugged Round Barrow type crossed over, for the most part, from Denmark or the out-lying islands[1252]."

After the passage of the Romans, who mingled little with the aborigines and made, perhaps, but slight impression on the speech or type of the British populations, a great transformation was effected in these respects by the arrival of the historical Teutonic tribes. Hand in hand with the Teutonic invasions went a lust for expansion on the part of the peoples in Ireland. Settlements were effected by them in South Wales and Anglesey, the Isle of Man and Argyll, probably also in North Devon and Cornwall. For many generations the south and east of England were the scenes of fierce struggles, during which the Romano-British civilisation perished. Only in more inaccessible districts, such as the fen country, may a British population have survived, though Celtic languages are not yet dislodged from their mountain strongholds in Wales and Scotland, and lingered for many centuries in Strathclyde and Cornwall. After the strengthening of the Teutonic element by the arrival of the Scandinavians and Normans, all very much of the same physical type, no serious accessions were made to this composite ethnical group, which on the east side ranged uninterruptedly from the Channel to the Grampians. Later the expansion was continued northwards beyond the Grampians, and westwards through Strathclyde to Ireland, while now the spread of education and the development of the industries are already threatening to absorb the last strongholds of Celtic speech in Wales, the Highlands, and Ireland.

Thanks to its isolation in the extreme west, Ireland had been left untouched by some of the above described ethnical movements. It is doubtful whether Palaeolithic man ever reached this region, and but few even of the round-heads ranged so far west during the Bronze Age[1253]. The land oscillations during post-Glacial times appear to have been practically identical over an area including northern Ireland, the southern half of Scotland, and northern England. There was a period of depression followed by one of elevation. The Larne beach-deposits prove that Neolithic man was in existence from almost the beginning of the deposition of that series until after its conclusion. The estuarine clays of Belfast Lough correspond to the depression, and the Neolithic period extended from at least near the top of the lower estuarine clay to the beach-deposit of yellow sand which overlies it, or possibly till later. It is to this period of elevation that the Neolithic sites among the sand dunes of North Ireland belong; those of Whitepark Bay and Portstewart, for example, extend to the maximum elevation. A slight movement of subsidence of about five feet in recent times has left the surface as we now find it. The implements found in the Larne gravels correspond to some extent with those of Danish kitchen-middens; this was not a dwelling site but a quarry-shop or roughing-out place, the serviceable flakes being taken away for further manipulation; it thus belongs to the earliest phase of neolithic times. The sandhill sites were occupied, continuously and occasionally, during neolithic times, through the Bronze Age, and into the Iron and Christian periods[1254]. Nina F. Layard has recently studied the Larne raised beach and exposed a new section. She states that "Taken as a whole the flints certainly do not correspond at all closely either to the Palaeoliths or Neoliths so far found in England.... Some are strongly reminiscent of well-known drift type.... Again, there are shapes that bear a closer resemblance to some of the earliest Neolithic types[1255]." She believes that, from their rolled condition, they were derived from another source.

F. J. Bigger[1256] described some kitchen-middens at Portnafeadog, near Roundstone, Connemara, which yielded stone hammers but no worked flints, pottery or metal-ware. The chief interest of this paper is due to the fact that it is the first record of the occurrence of vast quantities of the shells of _Purpura lapillus_, all of which were broken in such a manner that the animal could easily be extracted. There can be no doubt that the purple dye was manufactured here in prehistoric times[1257]. W. J. Knowles[1258] suggests from the close resemblance--in fact identity--of a great number of neolithic objects in Ireland with palaeolithic forms in France (Saint-Acheul, Moustier, Solutre, La Madeleine types), that the Irish objects bridge over the gap between the two ages, and were worked by tribes from the continent following the migration of the reindeer northwards. These peoples may have continued to make tools of palaeolithic types, while at the same time coming under the influence of the neolithic culture gradually arriving from some southern region. The astonishing development of this neolithic culture in the remote island on the confines of the west, as illustrated in W. C. Borlase's sumptuous volumes[1259], is a perpetual wonder, but is rendered less inexplicable if we assume an immense duration of the New Stone Age in the British Isles. The Irish dolmen-builders were presumably of the same long-headed stock as those of Britain[1260], and they were followed by Celtic-speaking Goidels who may have come directly from the continent[1261], and there is evidence in Ptolemy and elsewhere of the presence of Brythonic tribes from Gaul in the east. Since these early historic times the intruders have been almost exclusively of Teutonic race, and Viking invaders from Norway and Denmark founded the earliest towns such as Dublin, Waterford and Limerick. Now all alike, save for an almost insignificant and rapidly dwindling minority, have assumed the speech of the English and Lowland Scotch intruders, who began to arrive late in the 12th century, and are now chiefly massed in Ulster, Leinster, and all the large towns. The rich and highly poetic Irish language has a copious medieval literature of the utmost importance to students of European origins.

In Scotland few ethnical changes or displacements have occurred since the colonisation of portions of the west by Gaelic-speaking Scottic tribes from Ireland, and the English (Angle) occupation of the Lothians. The Grampians have during historic times formed the main ethnical divide between the two elements, and brooklets which can be taken at a leap are shown where the opposite banks have for hundreds of years been respectively held by formerly hostile, but now friendly communities of Gaelic and broad Scotch speech. Here the chief intruders have been Scandinavians, whose descendants may still be recognised in Caithness, the Hebrides, and the Orkney and Shetland groups. Faint echoes of the old Norrena tongue are said still to linger amongst the sturdy Shetlanders, whose assimilation to the dominant race began only after their transfer from Norway to the Crown of Scotland.

Since 1901 the researches of Gray and Tocher[1262] on the pigmentation of some 500,000 school children of Scotland have increased our information as to racial distribution. The average percentage of boys with fair hair is nearly 25 for the whole of the country, and when this is compared with 82 in Schleswig Holstein "we are driven to the conclusion that the pure Norse or Anglo-Saxon element in our population is by no means predominant. There is evidently also a dark or brunette element which is at least equal in amount and probably greater than that of the Norse element" (p. 380). Pure blue eyes for the whole of Scotland average 14.7 per cent., which may be compared with 42.9 in Prussia. The greatest density for fair hair and eyes is to be found in the great river valleys opening on to the German Ocean, and also in the Western Isles. The Tweed, Forth, Tay and Don all show indications of settlements of a blonde race "probably due to Anglo-Saxon invasions," but the maximum is to be found at the mouth of the Spey. The high percentage here and in the Hebrides and opposite coasts, the authors trace to Viking invasions. The percentage of dark hair for boys and girls is 25.2 as compared with 1.3 in Prussian school children, the maximum density as we should expect being in the west. Jet black hair (1.2%) has its maximum density in the central highlands and wild west coast. Beddoe[1263] commenting on Gray and Tocher's results calculates an even higher percentage of black hair (over 2%) "either within or astride of the Highland frontier. Except Paisley, there is not a single instance south of the Forth, nor one between the Spey and the Firth of Tay. Surely there is something 'racial' here." Beddoe's map, constructed from Gray and Tocher's statistics, clearly indicates the distribution of racial types.

The work carried on in Wales for a number of years by H. J. Fleure and T. C. James[1264] has produced some extremely interesting results. The chief types (based on measurements and observations of head, face, nose, skin, hair and eye colour, stature, etc.) fall into the following groups.

1. "The fundamental type is certainly the long-headed brunet of the moorlands and their inland valleys. He is universally recognised as belonging to the Mediterranean race of Sergi and as dating back in this country to early Neolithic times." The cephalic index is about 78, with high colouring, dark hair and eyes, and stature rather below the average. A possible mixture of earlier stocks is shown in a longer-headed type (c.i. about 75), with well-marked occiput, very dark hair and eyes, swarthy complexion, and average stature (about 1690 mm. = 5 ft. 6-1/2 ins.). Occasionally in North Wales the occurrence of lank black hair, a sallow complexion and prominent cheekbones suggests a "Mongoloid" type; and a type with small stature, black, closely curled hair and a rather broad nose has negroid reminiscences. The Plynlymon moorlands contain a "nest" of extreme dolichocephaly and an unusually high percentage of red hair.

2. Nordic-Alpine type, with cephalic index mainly between 76 and 81. This group includes (_a_) a "local version of the Nordic type" occurring at Newcastle Emlyn and in South and South-West Pembrokeshire with fair hair and eyes, usually tall stature and great strength of brow, jaw and chin; (_b_) a heavier variant on the Welsh border, often with cephalic index above 80, and extremely tall stature; (_c_) the Borreby or Beaker-Maker type, broad-headed and short-faced with darker pigmentation, probably a cross between Alpine and Nordic, characteristic of the long cleft from Corwen _via_ Bala to Tabyllyn and Towyn.

3. Dark bullet-headed short thick-set men of the general type denoted by the term Alpine or more exactly perhaps by the term Cevenole are found, though not commonly, in North Montgomeryshire valleys.

4. Powerfully built, often intensely dark, broad-headed, broad-faced, strong and square jawed men are characteristic of the Ardudwy coast, the South Glamorgan coast, Newquay district (Cardiganshire) and elsewhere.

The authors observe that Type 1 with its variations contributes "considerable numbers to the ministries of the various churches, possibly in part from inherent and racial leanings, but partly also because these are the people of the moorlands. The idealism of such people usually expresses itself in music, poetry, literature and religion rather than in architecture, painting and plastic arts generally. They rarely have a sufficiency of material resources for the latter activities. These types also contribute a number of men to the medical profession.... The successful commercial men, who have given the Welsh their extraordinarily prominent place in British trade (shipping firms for example) usually belong to types 2 or 4, rather than to 1, as also do the majority of Welsh members of Parliament, though there are exceptions of the first importance. The Nordic type is marked by ingenuity and enterprise in striking out new lines. Type 2 (_c_) in Wales is remarkable for governmental ability of the administrative kind as well as for independence of thought and critical power" (p. 119).

We have now all the elements needed to unravel the ethnical tangle of the present inhabitants of the British Isles. The astonishing prevalence everywhere of the moderately dolicho heads is at once explained by the absence of brachy immigrants except in the Bronze period, and these could do no more than raise the cephalic index from about 70 or 72 to the present mean of about 78. With the other perhaps less stable characters the case is not always quite so simple. The brunettes, representing the Mediterranean type, certainly increase, as we should expect, from north-east to south-west, though even here there is a considerable dark patch, due to local causes, in the home shires about London[1265]. But the stature, almost everywhere a troublesome factor, seems to wander somewhat lawlessly over the land.

Although a short stature more or less coincides with brunetteness in England and Wales, and the observations in Ireland are too few to be relied on, no such parallelism can be traced in Scotland. The west (Inverness and Argyllshire), though as dark as South Wales, shows an average stature of 1.73 m. to 1.74 m. (5 ft. 8 ins. to 5 ft. 8-1/2 ins.), which is higher than the average for the whole of Britain. And South-west Scotland, where the type is fairly dark, contains the tallest population in Europe, if not in the world. Ripley suggests either that "some ethnic element of which no pure trace remains, served to increase the stature of the western Highlanders without at the same time conducing to blondness; or else some local influences of natural selection or environment are responsible for it[1266]"; and he hints also that the linguistic distinction between Gaels and Brythons may have been associated with physical variation.

The English tongue need not detain us long. Its qualities, illustrated in the noblest of all literatures, are patent to the world[1267], indeed have earned for it from Jacob Grimm the title of _Welt-Sprache_, the "World Speech." It belongs, as might be anticipated from the northern origin of the Teutonic element in Britain, to the Low German division of the Teutonic branch of the Aryan family. Despite extreme pressure from Norman French, continued for over 200 years (1066-1300), it has remained faithful to this connection in its inner structure, which reveals not a trace of Neo-Latin influences. The phonetic system has undergone profound changes, which can be only indirectly and to a small extent due to French action. What English owes to French and Latin is a very large number, many thousands, of words, some superadded to, some superseding their Saxon equivalents, but altogether immensely increasing its wealth of expression, while giving it a transitional position between the somewhat sharply contrasted Germanic and Romance worlds.

Amongst the Romance peoples, that is, the French, Spaniards, Portuguese, Italians, Rumanians, many Swiss and Belgians, who were entirely assimilated in speech and largely in their civil institutions to their Roman masters, the paramount position, a sort of international hegemony, has been taken by the French nation since the decadence of Spain under the feeble successors of Philip II. The constituent elements of these Gallo-Romans, as they may be called, are much the same as those of the British peoples, but differ in their distribution and relative proportions. Thus the Iberians (Aquitani, Pictones, and later Vascones), who may perhaps be identified with the neolithic long-heads[1268], do not appear ever to have ranged much farther north than Brittany, and were Aryanised in pre-Roman times by the P-speaking Celts everywhere north of the Garonne. The prehistoric Teutons again, who had advanced beyond the Rhine at an early period (Caesar says _antiquitus_) into the present Belgium, were mainly confined to the northern provinces. Even the historic Teutons (chiefly Franks and Burgundians) penetrated little beyond the Seine in the north and the present Burgundy in the east, while the Vandals, Visigoths and a few others passed rapidly through to Iberia beyond the Pyrenees.

Thus the greater part of the land, say from the Seine-Marne basin to the Mediterranean, continued to be held by the Romanised mass of Alpine type throughout all the central and most of the southern provinces, and elsewhere in the south by the Romanised long-headed Mediterranean type. This great preponderance of the Romanised Alpine masses explains the rapid absorption of the Teutonic intruders, who were all, except the Fleming section of the Belgae, completely assimilated to the Gallo-Romans before the close of the tenth century. It also explains the perhaps still more remarkable fact that the Norsemen who settled (912) under Rollo in Normandy were all practically Frenchmen when a few generations later they followed their Duke William to the conquest of Saxon England. Thus the only intractable groups have proved to be the Basques[1269] and the Bretons, both of whom to this day retain their speech in isolated corners of the country. With these exceptions the whole of France, save the debateable area of Alsace-Lorraine, presents in its speech a certain homogeneous character, the standard language (_langue d'oil_[1270]) being current throughout all the northern and central provinces, while it is steadily gaining upon the southern form (_langue d'oc_[1270]) still surviving in the rural districts of Limousin and Provence.

But pending a more thorough fusion of such tenacious elements as Basques, Bretons, Auvergnats, and Savoyards, we can scarcely yet speak of a common French type, but only of a common nationality. Tall stature, long skulls, fair or light brown colour, grey or blue eyes, still prevail, as might be expected, in the north, these being traits common alike to the prehistoric Belgae, the Franks of the Merovingian and Carlovingian empires, and Rollo's Norsemen. With these contrast the southern peoples of short stature, olive-brown skin, round heads, dark brown or black eyes and hair. The tendency towards uniformity has proceeded far more rapidly in the urban than in the rural districts. Hence the citizens of Paris, Lyons, Bordeaux, Marseilles and other large towns, present fewer and less striking contrasts than the natives of the old historical provinces, where are still distinguished the loquacious and mendacious Gascon, the pliant and versatile Basque, the slow and wary Norman, the dreamy and fanatical Breton, the quick and enterprising Burgundian, and the bright, intelligent, more even-tempered native of Touraine, a typical Frenchman occupying the heart of the land, and holding, as it were, the balance between all the surrounding elements.

In Spain and Portugal we have again the same ethnological elements, but also again in different proportions and differently distributed, with others superadded--proto-Phoenicians and later Phoenicians (Carthaginians), Romans, Visigoths, Vandals, and still later Berbers and Arabs. Here the Celtic-speaking mixed peoples mingled in prehistoric times with the long-headed Mediterraneans, an ethnical fusion known to the ancients, who labelled it "Keltiberian[1271]." But, as in Britain, the other intruders were mostly long-heads, with the striking result that the Peninsula presents to-day exactly the same uniform cranial type as the British Isles. Even the range (76 to 79) and the mean (78) of the cephalic index are the same, rising in Spain to 80 only in the Basque corner. As Ripley states, "the average cephalic index of 78 occurs nowhere else so uniformly distributed in Europe" except in Norway, and this uniformity "is the concomitant and index of two relatively pure, albeit widely different, ethnic types--Mediterranean in Spain, Teutonic in Norway[1272]."

In other respects the social, one might almost say the national, groups are both more numerous and perhaps even more sharply discriminated in the Peninsula than in France. Besides the Basques and Portuguese, the latter with a considerable strain of negro blood[1273], we have such very distinct populations as the haughty and punctilious Castilians, who under an outward show of pride and honour, are capable of much meanness; the sprightly and vainglorious Andalusians, who have been called the Gascons of Spain, yet of graceful address and seductive manners; the morose and impassive Murcians, indolent because fatalists; the gay Valencians given to much dancing and revelry, but also to sudden fits of murderous rage, holding life so cheap that they will hire themselves out as assassins, and cut their bread with the blood-stained knife of their last victim; the dull and superstitious Aragonese, also given to bloodshed, and so obdurate that they are said to "drive nails in with their heads"; lastly the Catalans, noisy and quarrelsome, but brave, industrious, and enterprising, on the whole the best element in this motley aggregate of unbalanced temperaments. The various aspects of Spanish temperament are regarded by Havelock Ellis[1274] as manifestations of an aboriginally primitive race, which, under the stress of a peculiarly stimulating and yet hardening environment, has retained through every stage of development an unusual degree of the endowment of fresh youth, of elemental savagery, with which it started. This explains the fine qualities of Spain and her defects, the splendid initiative, and lack of sustained ability to carry it out, the importance of the point of honour and the glorification of the primitive virtue of valour.

In Italy the past and present relations, as elucidated especially by Livi and Sergi, may be thus briefly stated. After the first Stone Age, of which there are fewer indications than might be expected[1275], the whole land was thickly settled by dark long-headed Mediterranean peoples in neolithic times. These were later joined by Pelasgians of like type from Greece, and by Illyrians of doubtful affinity from the Balkan Peninsula. Indeed C. Penka[1276], who has so many paradoxical theories, makes the Illyrians the first inhabitants of Italy, as shown by the striking resemblance of the _terramara_ culture of Aemilia with that of the Venetian and Laibach pile-dwellings. The recent finds in Bosnia also[1277], besides the historically proved (?) migration of the Siculi from Upper Italy to Sicily, and their Illyrian origin, all point in the same direction. But the facts are differently interpreted by Sergi[1278], who holds that the whole land was occupied by the Mediterraneans, because we find even in Switzerland pile-dwellers of the same type[1279].

Then came the peoples of Aryan speech, Celtic-speaking Alpines from the north-west and Slavs from the north-east, who raised the cephalic index in the north, where the brachy element, as already seen, still greatly predominates but diminishes steadily southwards[1280]. They occupied the whole of Umbria, which at first stretched across the peninsula from the Adriatic to the Mediterranean, but was later encroached upon by the intruding Etruscans on the west side. Then also some of these Umbrians, migrating southwards to Latium beyond the Tiber, intermingled, says Sergi, with the Italic (Ligurian) aborigines, and became the founders of the Roman state[1281]. With the spread of the Roman arms the Latin language, which Sergi claims to be a kind of Aryanised Ligurian, but must be regarded as a true member of the Aryan family, was diffused throughout the whole of the peninsula and islands, sweeping away all traces not only of the original Ligurian and other Mediterranean tongues, but also of Etruscan and its own sister languages, such as Umbrian, Oscan, and Sabellian.

At the fall of the empire the land was overrun by Ostrogoths, Heruli, and other Teutons, none of whom formed permanent settlements except the Longobards, who gave their name to the present Lombardy, but were themselves rapidly assimilated in speech and general culture to the surrounding populations, whom we may now call Italians in the modern sense of the term.

When it is remembered that the Aegean culture had spread to Italy at an early date, that it was continued under Hellenic influences by Etruscans and Umbrians, that Greek arts and letters were planted on Italian soil (_Magna Graecia_) before the foundation of Rome, that all these civilisations converged in Rome itself and were thence diffused throughout the West, that the traditions of previous cultural epochs never died out, acquired new life with the Renascence and were thus perpetuated to the present day, it may be claimed for the gifted Italian people that they have been for a longer period than any others under the unbroken sway of general humanising influences.

These "Latin Peoples," as they are called because they all speak languages of the Latin stock, are not confined to the West. To the Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, with the less known and ruder Walloon of Belgium and Romansch of Switzerland, Tyrol, and Friuli, must be associated the _Rumanian_ current amongst some nine millions of so-called "Daco-Rumanians" in Moldavia and Wallachia, _i.e._ the modern kingdom of Rumania. The same Neo-Latin tongue is also spoken by the _Tsintsars_ or _Kutzo-Vlacks_[1282] of the Mount Pindus districts in the Balkan Peninsula, and by numerous Rumanians who have in later times migrated into Hungary. They form a compact and vigorous nationality, who claim direct descent from the Roman military colonists settled north of the Lower Danube by Trajan after his conquest of the Dacians (107 A.D.). But great difficulties attach to this theory, which is rejected by many ethnologists, especially on the ground that, after Trajan's time, Dacia was repeatedly swept clean by the Huns, the Finns, the Avars, Magyars and other rude Mongolo-Turki hordes, besides many almost ruder Slavic peoples during the many centuries when the eastern populations were in a state of continual flux after the withdrawal of the Roman legionaries from the Lower Danube. Besides, it is shown by Roesler[1283] and others that under Aurelian (257 A.D.) Trajan's colonists withdrew bodily southwards to and beyond the Hemus to the territory of the old Bessi (Thracians), _i.e._ the district still occupied by the Macedo-Rumanians. But in the 13th century, during the break-up of the Byzantine empire, most of these fugitives were again driven north to their former seats beyond the Danube, where they have ever since held their ground, and constituted themselves a distinct and far from feeble branch of the Neo-Latin community. The Pindus, therefore, rather than the Carpathians, is to be taken as the last area of dispersion of these valiant and intelligent descendants of the Daco-Romans. This seems the most rational solution of what A. D. Xenopol calls "an historic enigma," although he himself rejects Roesler's conclusions in favour of the old view so dear to the national pride of the present Rumanian people[1284]. The composite character of the Rumanian language--fundamentally Neo-Latin or rather early Italian, with strong Illyrian (Albanian) and Slav affinities--would almost imply that Dacia had never been Romanised under the empire, and that in fact this region was _for the first time_ occupied by its present Romance speaking inhabitants in the 13th century[1285]. The nomadic life of the Rumanians is in itself, as Peisker points out[1286], a refutation of their descent from settled Roman colonists, and indicates a Central Asiatic origin. The mounted nomads grazed during the summer "on most of the mountains of the Balkan peninsula, and took up their winter quarters on the sea-coasts among a peasant population speaking a different language. Thence they gradually spread, unnoticed by the chroniclers, along all the mountain ranges, over all the Carpathians of Transylvania, North Hungary, and South Galicia, to Moravia; towards the north-west from Montenegro onwards over Herzegovina, Bosnia, Istria, as far as South Styria; towards the south over Albania far into Greece.... And like the peasantry among which they wintered (and winter) long enough, they became (and become) after a transitory bilingualism, Greeks, Albanians, Servians, Bulgarians, Ruthenians, Poles, Slovaks, Chekhs, Slovenes, Croatians ... a mobile nomad stratum among a strange-tongued and more numerous peasant element, and not till later did they gradually take to agriculture and themselves become settled."

The Pelasgians and Minoan civilisation have been briefly discussed above (Ch. XIII.). Later problems in Greek ethnology are still under dispute. Sergi, who regards the proto-Aryans as round-headed barbarians of Celtic, Slav, and Teutonic speech, makes no exception in favour of the Hellenes. These also enter Greece not as civilisers, but rather as destroyers of the flourishing Mykenaean culture developed here, as in Italy, by the Mediterranean aborigines. But in course of time the intruders become absorbed in the Pelasgic or eastern branch of the Mediterraneans, and what we call Hellenism is really Pelasgianism revived, and to some extent modified by the Aryan (Hellenic) element.

If it may be allowed that at their advent the Hellenes were less civilised than the native Aegeans on whom they imposed their Aryan speech, whence and when came they? By Penka[1287], for whom the Baltic lands would be the original home not merely of the Germanic branch but of all the Aryans, the Hellenic cradle is located in the Oder basin between the Elbe and the Vistula. As the Doric, doubtless the last Greek irruption into Hellas, is chronologically fixed at 1149 B.C., the beginning of the Hellenic migrations may be dated back to the 13th century. When the Hellenes migrated from Central Europe to Greece, the period of the general ethnic dispersion was already closed, and the migratory period which next followed began with the Hellenes, and was continued by the Itali, Gauls, Germans, etc. The difficulties created by this view are insurmountable. Thus we should have to suppose that from this relatively contracted Aryan cradle countless tribes swarmed over Europe since the 13th century B.C., speaking profoundly different languages (Greek, Celtic, Latin, etc.), all differentiated since that time on the shores of the Baltic. The proto-Aryans with their already specialised tongues had reached the shores of the Mediterranean long before that time and, according to Maspero[1288], were known to the Egyptians of the 5th dynasty (3990-3804 B.C.) if not earlier. Allowing that these may have rather been pre-Hellenes (Pelasgians), we still know that the Achaeans had traditionally arrived about 1250 B.C. and they were already speaking the language of Homer.

"The indications of archaeology and of legend agree marvellously well with those of the Egyptian records," says H. R. Hall[1289], "in making the Third Late Minoan period one of incessant disturbance.... The whole basin of the Eastern Mediterranean seems to have been a seething turmoil of migrations, expulsions, wars and piracies, started first by the Mycenaean (Achaian) conquest of Crete, and then intensified by the constant impulse of the Northern iron-users into Greece." Herodotus speaks of the great invasion of the Thesprotian tribes from beyond Pindus, which took place probably in the 13th century B.C.[1290] As a result "an overwhelming Aryan and iron-using population was first brought into Greece. The earlier Achaian (?) tribes of Aryans in Thessaly, who had perhaps lived there from time immemorial, and had probably already infiltrated southwards to form the mixed Ionian population about the Isthmus, were scattered, only a small portion of the nation remaining in its original home, while of the rest part conquered the South and another part emigrated across the sea to the Phrygian coast. Of this emigration to Asia the first event must have been the war of Troy.... The Boeotian and Achaian invasion of the South scattered the Minyae, Pelasgians, and Ionians. The remnant of the Minyae emigrated to Lemnos, the Pelasgi and Ionians were concentrated in Attica and another body of Ionians in the later Achaia, while the Southern Achaeans pressed forward into the Peloponnese[1291]."

It is evident from the national traditions that the proto-Greeks did not arrive _en bloc_, but rather at intervals in separate and often hostile bands bearing different names. But all these groups--Achaeans, Danai, Argians, Dolopes, Myrmidons, Leleges and many others, some of which were also found in Asia Minor--retained a strong sense of their common origin. The sentiment, which may be called racial rather than national, received ultimate expression when to all of them was extended the collective name of Hellenes (Sellenes originally), that is, descendants of Deucalion's son Hellen, whose two sons Aeolus and Dorus, and grandson Ion, were supposed to be the progenitors of the Aeolians, Dorians, and Ionians. But such traditions are merely reminiscences of times when the tribal groupings still prevailed, and it may be taken for granted that the three main branches of the Hellenic stock did not spring from a particular family that rose to power in comparatively recent times in the Thessalian district of Phthiotis. Whatever truth may lie behind the Hellenic legend, it is highly probable that, at the time when Hellen is said to have flourished (about 1500 B.C.), the Aeolic-speaking communities of Thessaly, Arcadia, Boeotia, the closely-allied Dorians[1292] of Phocaea, Argos, and Laconia, and the Ionians of Attica, had already been clearly specialised, had in fact formed special groups before entering Greece. Later their dialects, after acquiring a certain polish and leaving some imperishable records of the many-sided Greek genius, were gradually merged in the literary Neo-Ionic or Attic, which thus became the [Greek: koine dialektos], or current speech of the Greek world.

Admirable alike for its manifold aptitudes and surprising vitality, the language of Aeschylus, Thucydides, and the other great Athenians outlived all the vicissitudes of the Byzantine empire, during which it was for a time banished from Southern Greece, and even still survives, although in a somewhat degraded form, in the Romaic or Neo-Hellenic tongue of modern Hellas. Romaic, a name which recalls a time when the Byzantines were known as "Romans" throughout the East, differs far less from the classical standard than do any of the Romance tongues from Latin. Since the restoration of Greek independence great efforts have been made to revive the old language in all its purity, and some modern writers now compose in a style differing little from that of the classic period.

Yet the Hellenic race itself has almost perished on the mainland. Traces of the old Greek type have been detected by Lenormant and others, especially amongst the women of Patras and Missolonghi. But within living memory Attica was still an Albanian land, and Fallmerayer has conclusively shown that the Peloponnesus and adjacent districts had become thoroughly Slavonised during the 6th and 7th centuries[1293]. "For many centuries," writes the careful Roesler, "the Greek peninsula served as a colonial domain for the Slavs, receiving the overflow of their population from the Sarmatian lowlands[1294]." Their presence is betrayed in numerous geographical terms, such as _Varsova_ in Arcadia, _Glogova_, _Tsilikhova_, etc. Nevertheless, since the revival of the Hellenic sentiment there has been a steady flow of Greek immigration from the Archipelago and Anatolia; and the Albanian, Slav, Italian, Turkish, Rumanian, and Norman elements have in modern Greece already become almost completely Hellenised, at least in speech. Of the old dialects Doric alone appears to have survived in the Tsaconic of the Laconian hills. The Greek language has, however, disappeared from Southern Italy, Sicily, Syria, and the greater part of Egypt and Asia Minor, where it was long dominant.

To understand the appearance of SLAVS in the Peloponnesus we must go back to the Eurasian steppe, the probable cradle of these multitudinous populations. Here they have often been confused with the ancient Sarmatae, who already before the dawn of history were in possession of the South Russian plains between the Scythians towards the east and the proto-Germanic tribes before their migration to the Baltic lands. But even at that time, before the close of the Neolithic Age, there must have been interminglings, if not with the western Teutons, almost certainly with the eastern Scythians, which helps to explain the generally vague character of the references made by classical writers both to the Sarmatians and the Scythians, who sometimes seem to be indistinguishable from savage Mongol hordes, and at others are represented as semi-cultured peoples, such as the Aryans of the Bronze period might have been round about the district of Olbia and the other early Miletian settlements on the northern shores of the Euxine.

Owing to these early crossings Andre Lefevre goes so far as to say that "there is no Slav race[1295]," but only nations of divers more or less pure types, more or less crossed, speaking dialects of the same language, who later received the name of Slavs, borne by a prehistoric tribe of _Sarmatians_, and meaning "renowned," "illustrious[1296]." Both their language and mythologies, continues Lefevre, point to the vast region near Irania as the primeval home of the Slav, as of the Celtic and Germanic populations. The Sauromatae or Sarmatae of Herodotus[1297], who had given their name to the mass of Slav or Slavonised peoples, still dwelt north of the Caucasus and south of the _Budini_ between the Caspian, the Don and Sea of Azov; "after crossing the Tanais (Don) we are no longer in Scythia; we begin to enter the lands of the Sauromatae, who, starting from the angle of the Palus Moeotis (Sea of Azov), occupy a space of 15 days' march, where are neither trees, fruit-trees, nor savages. Above the tract fallen to them the Budini occupy another district, which is overgrown with all kinds of trees[1298]." Then Herodotus seems to identify these Sarmatians with the Scythians, whence all the subsequent doubts and confusion. Both spoke the same language, of which seven distinct dialects are mentioned, yet a number of personal names preserved by the Greeks have a certain Iranic look, so that these Scythian tongues seem to have been really Aryan, forming a transition between the Asiatic and the European branches of the family.

The probable explanation is that the Scythians[1299] were a horde which came down from Upper Asia, conquered an Iranian-speaking people, and in time adopted the speech of its subjects. E. H. Minns[1300] suggests that the settled Scythians represent the remains of the Iranian population, and the nomads the conquering peoples. These were displaced later by the Sarmatians, and Scythia becomes merely a geographical term. Skulls dug up in Scythic graves throw no light on racial affinities, some being long, and some short, but in customs there is a close analogy with the Mongols, though, as Minns points out, "the natural conditions of steppe-ranging dictated the greater part of them."

Both Slav and Germanic tribes had probably in remote times penetrated up the Danube and the Volga, while some of the former under the name of _Wends_ (Venedi[1301]), appear to have reached the Carpathians and the Baltic shores down the Vistula. The movement was continued far into medieval times, when great overlappings took place, and when numerous Slav tribes, some still known as Wends, others as _Sorbs_, _Croats_, or _Chekhs_, ranged over Central Europe to Pomerania and beyond the Upper Elbe to Suabia. Most of these have long been Teutonised, but a few of the _Polabs_[1302] survive as Wends in Prussian and Saxon Lausatz, while the Chekhs and _Slovaks_ still hold their ground in Bohemia and Moravia, as the _Poles_ do in Posen and the Vistula valley, and the _Rusniaks_ or _Ruthenes_ with the closely allied "Little Russians," in the Carpathians, Galicia, and Ukrania.

It was from the Carpathian[1303] lands that came those _Yugo-Slavs_ ("Southern Slavs") who, under the collective name of Sorbs (Serbs, Servians), moved southwards beyond the Danube, and overran a great part of the Balkan peninsula and nearly the whole of Greece in the 6th and 7th centuries. They were the Khorvats[1304] or Khrobats[1304] from the upland valleys of the Oder and Vistula, whom, after his Persian wars, Heraclius invited to settle in the wasted provinces south of the Danube, hoping, as Nadir Shah did later with the Kurds in Khorasan, to make them a northern bulwark of the empire against the incursions of the Avars and other Mongolo-Turki hordes. Thus was formed the first permanent settlement of the Yugo-Slavs in Croatia, Istria, Dalmatia, Bosnia, and the Nerenta valley in 680, under the five brothers Klukas, Lobol, Kosentses, Mukl, and Khrobat, with their sisters Tuga and Buga. These were followed by the kindred Srp (Sorb) tribes from the Elbe, who left their homes in Misnia and Lusatia, and received as their patrimony the whole region between Macedonia and Epirus, Dardania, Upper Moesia, the Dacia of Aurelian, and Illyria, _i.e._ Bosnia and Servia. The lower Danube was at the same time occupied by the _Severenses_, "Seven Nations," also Slavs, who reached to the foot of the Hemus beyond the present Varna. Nothing could stem this great Slav inundation, which soon overflowed into Macedonia (Rumelia), Thessaly, and Peloponnesus, so that for a time nearly the whole of the Balkan lands, from the Danube to the Mediterranean, became a Slav domain--parts of Illyria and Epirus (Albania) with the Greek districts about Constantinople alone excepted.

Hellas, as above seen, has recovered itself, and the _Albanians_[1305], direct descendants of the ancient Illyrians, still hold their ground and keep alive the last echoes of the old Illyrian language, which was almost certainly a proto-Aryan form of speech probably intermediate, as above-mentioned, between the Italic and Hellenic branches. They even retain the old tribal system, so that there are not only two main sections, the northern _Ghegs_ and the southern _Toshks_, but each section is divided into a number of minor groups[1306], such as the Malliesors (Klementi, Pulati, Hoti, etc.) and Mirdites (Dibri, Fandi, Matia, etc.) in the north, and the Toxides (whence Toshk) and the Yapides (Lapides) in the south. The southerners are mainly Orthodox Greeks, and in other respects half-Hellenised Epirotes, the northerners partly Moslem and partly Roman Catholics of the Latin rite. From this section came chiefly those Albanians who, after the death (1467) of their valiant champion, George Castriota (_Scanderbeg_, "Alexander the Great"), fled from Turkish oppression and formed numerous settlements, especially in Calabria and Sicily, and still retain their national traditions.

In their original homes, located by some between the Bug and the Dnieper, the Slavs have not only recovered from the fierce Mongolo-Turki and Finn tornadoes, by which the eastern steppes were repeatedly swept for over 1500 years after the building of the Great Wall, but have in recent historic times displayed a prodigious power of expansion second only to that of the British peoples. The _Russians_ (Great, Little, and White Russians), whose political empire now stretches continuously from the Baltic to the Pacific, have already absorbed nearly all the Mongol elements in East Europe, have founded compact settlements in Caucasia and West Siberia, and have thrown off numerous pioneer groups of colonists along all the highways of trade and migration, and down the great fluvial arteries between the Ob and the Amur estuary. They number collectively over 100 millions, with a domain of some nine million square miles. The majority belong to Deniker's Eastern race[1307] (a variety of the Alpine type), being blond, sub-brachycephalic and short, 1.64 m. (5 ft. 4-1/2 ins.). The Little Russians in the South on the Black Mould belt are more brachycephalic and have darker colouring and taller stature. The White Russians in the West between Poland and Lithuania are the fairest of all.

We need not be detained by the controversy carried on between Sergi and Zaborowski regarding a prehistoric spread of the Mediterranean race to Russia[1308]. The skulls from several of the old Kurgans, identified by Sergi with his Mediterranean type, have not been sufficiently determined as to date or cultural periods to decide the question, while their dolicho shape is common both to the Mediterraneans and to the proto-Aryans of the North European type[1309]. To this stock the proto-Slavs are affiliated by Zaborowski and many others[1310], although the present Slavs are all distinctly round-headed. Ripley asks, almost in despair, what is to be done with the present Slav element, and decides to apply "the term _Homo Alpinus_ to this broad-headed group wherever it occurs, whether on mountains or plains, in the west or in the east[1311]."

We are beset by the same difficulties as we pass with the _Ossets_ of the Caucasus into the Iranian and Indian domains of the proto-Aryan peoples. These Ossets, who are the only aborigines of Aryan speech in Caucasia, are by Zaborowski[1312] identified with the Alans, who are already mentioned in the 1st century A.D. and were Scythians of Iranian speech, blonds, mixed with Medes, and perhaps descendants of the Massagetae. We know from history that the Goths and Alans became closely united, and it may be from the Goths that the Osset descendants of the Alans (some still call themselves Alans) learned to brew beer. Elsewhere[1313] Zaborowski represents the Ossets as of European origin, till lately for the most part blonds, though now showing many Scythian traits. But they are not physically Iranians "despite the Iranian and Asiatic origin of their language," as shown by Max Kowalewsky[1314]. On the whole, therefore, the Ossets may be taken as originally blond Europeans, closely blended with Scythians, and later with the other modern Caucasus peoples, who are mostly brown brachys. But Ernest Chantre[1315] allies these groups to their brown and brachy Tatar neighbours, and denies that the Ossets are the last remnants of Germanic immigrants into Caucasia.

We have therefore in the Caucasus a very curious and puzzling phenomenon--several somewhat distinct groups of aborigines, mainly of de Lapouge's Alpine type, but all except the Ossets speaking an amazing number of non-Aryan stock languages. Philologists have been for some time hard at work in this linguistic wilderness, the "Mountain of Languages" of the early Arabo-Persian writers, without greatly reducing the number of independent groups, while many idioms traceable to a single stem still differ so profoundly from each other that they are practically so many stocks. Of the really distinct families the more important are:--the _Kartweli_ of the southern slopes, comprising the historical Georgian, cultivated since the 5th century, the Mingrelian, Imeritian, Laz of Lazistan, and many others; the _Cherkess_ (Circassian), the _Abkhasian_ and _Kabard_ of the Western and Central Caucasus; the _Chechenz_ and _Lesghian_, the _Andi_, the _Ude_, the _Kubachi_ and _Duodez_ of Daghestan, _i.e._ the Eastern Caucasus. Where did this babel of tongues come from? We know that 2500 years ago the relations were much the same as at present, because the Greeks speak of scores of languages current in the port of Dioscurias in their time. If therefore the aborigines are the "sweepings of the plains," they must have been swept up long before the historic period. Did they bring their different languages with them, or were these specialised in their new upland homes? The consideration that an open environment makes for uniformity, secluded upland valleys for diversity, seems greatly to favour the latter assumption, which is further strengthened by the now established fact that, although there are few traces of the Palaeolithic epoch, the Caucasus was somewhat thickly inhabited in the New Stone Age.

Crossing into Irania we are at once confronted with totally different conditions. For the ethnologist this region comprises, besides the tableland between the Tigris and Indus, both slopes of the Hindu-Kush, and the Pamir, with the uplands bounded south and north by the upper courses of the Oxus and the Sir-darya. Overlooking later Mongolo-Turki encroachments, a general survey will, I think, show that from the earliest times the whole of this region has formed part of the Caucasic domain; that the bulk of the indigenous populations must have belonged to the dark, round-headed Alpine type; that these, still found in compact masses in many places, were apparently conquered, but certainly Aryanised in speech, in very remote prehistoric times by long-headed blond Aryans of the IRANIC and GALCHIC branches, who arrived in large numbers from the contiguous Eurasian steppe, mingled generally with the brachy aborigines, but also kept aloof in several districts, where they still survive with more or less modified proto-Aryan features. Thus we are at once struck by the remarkable fact that absolute uniformity of speech, always apart from late Mongol intrusions, has prevailed during the historic period throughout Irania, which has been in this respect as completely Aryanised as Europe itself; and further, that all current Aryan tongues, with perhaps one trifling exception[1316], are members either of the Iranic or the Galchic branch of the family. Both Iranic and Galchic are thus rather linguistic than ethnic terms, and so true is this that a philologist always knows what is meant by an Iranic language, while the anthropologist is unable to define or form any clear conception of an Iranian, who may be either of long-headed Nordic or round-headed Alpine type. Here confusion may be avoided by reserving the historic name of PERSIAN[1317] for the former, and comprising all the Alpines under the also time-honoured though less known name of TAJIKS.

Khanikoff has shown that these Tajiks constitute the primitive element in ancient Iran. To the true Persians of the west, as well as to the kindred Afghans in the east, both of dolicho type, the term is rarely applied. But almost everywhere the sedentary and agricultural aborigines are called Tajiks, and are spoken of as _Parsivan_, that is, _Parsizaban_[1318], "of Persian speech," or else _Dihkan_[1318], that is, "Peasants," all being mainly husbandmen "of Persian race and tongue[1319]." They form endless tribal, or at least social, groups, who keep somewhat aloof from their proto-Aryan conquerors, so that, in the east especially, the ethnic fusion is far from complete, the various sections of the community being still rather juxtaposed than fused in a single nationality. When to these primeval differences is added the tribal system still surviving in full vigour amongst the intruding Afghans themselves, we see how impossible it is yet to speak of an Afghan nation, but only of heterogeneous masses loosely held together by the paramount tribe--at present the _Durani_ of Kabul.

The Tajiks are first mentioned by Herodotus, whose _Dadikes_[1320] are identified by Hammer and Khanikoff with them[1321]. They are now commonly divided into Lowland, and Highland or Hill Tajiks, of whom the former were always Parsivan, whereas the Hill Tajiks did not originally speak Persian at all, but, as many still do, an independent sister language called Galchic, current in the Pamir, Zerafshan and Sir-darya uplands, and holding a somewhat intermediate position between the Iranic and Indic branches.

This term Galcha, although new to science, has long been applied to the Aryans of the Pamir valleys, being identified with the _Calcienses populi_ of the lay Jesuit Benedict Goez, who crossed the Pamir in 1603, and describes them as "of light hair and beard like the Belgians." Meyendorff also calls those of Zerafshan "Eastern Persians, Galchi, Galchas." The word has been explained to mean "the hungry raven who has withdrawn to the mountains," probably in reference to those Lowland Tajiks who took refuge in the uplands from the predatory Turki hordes. But it is no doubt the Persian _galcha_, a peasant or clown, then a vagabond, etc., whence _galchagi_, rudeness.

As shown by J. Biddulph[1322], the tribes of Galchic speech range over both slopes of the Hindu-Kush, comprising the natives of Sarakol, Wakhan, Shignan, Munjan (with the Yidoks of the Upper Lud-kho or Chitral river), Sanglich, and Ishkashim. To these he is inclined to add the Pakhpus and the Shakshus of the Upper Yarkand-darya, as well as those of the Kocha valley, with whom must now be included the Zerafshan Galchas (Maghians, Kshtuts, Falghars, Machas and Fans), but not the Yagnobis. All these form also one ethnic group of Alpine type, with whom on linguistic grounds Biddulph also includes two other groups, the Khos of Chitral with the Siah Posh of Kafiristan, and the Shins (Dards), Gors, Chilasi and other small tribes of the Upper Indus and side valleys, all these apparently being long-heads of the blond Aryan type. Keeping this distinction in view, Biddulph's valuable treatise on the Hindu-Kush populations may be followed with safety. He traces the Galcha idioms generally to the old Baktrian (East Persia, so-called "Zend Avesta"), the Shin however leaning closely to Sanskrit, while Khowar, the speech of the Chitrali (Khos), is intermediate between Baktrian and Sanskrit. But differences prevail on these details, which will give occupation to philologists for some time to come.

Speaking generally, all the Galchas of the northern slopes (most of Biddulph's first group) are physically connected with all the other Lowland and Hill Tajiks, with whom should also probably be included Elphinstone's[1323] southern Tajiks dwelling south of the Hindu-Kush (Kohistani, Berraki, Purmuli or Fermuli, Sirdehi, Sistani, and others scattered over Afghanistan and northern Baluchistan). Their type is pronouncedly Alpine, so much so that they have been spoken of by French anthropologists as "those belated Savoyards of Kohistan[1324]." De Ujfalvy, who has studied them carefully, describes them as tall, brown or bronzed and even white, with ruddy cheeks recalling the Englishman, black or chestnut hair, sometimes red and even light, smooth, wavy or curly, full beard, brown, ruddy or blond (he met two brothers near Penjakend with hair "blanc comme du lin"); brown, blue, or grey eyes, never oblique, long, shapely nose slightly curved, thin, straight lips, oval face, stout, vigorous frame, and round heads with cephalic index as high as 86.50. This description, which is confirmed by Bonvalot and other recent observers, applies to the Darwazi, Wakhi, Badakhshi, and in fact all the groups, so that we have beyond all doubt an eastern extension of the Alpine brachycephalic zone through Armenia and the Bakhtiari uplands to the Central Asiatic highlands, a conclusion confirmed by the explorations of M. A. Stein in Chinese Turkestan and the Pamirs (1900-8)[1325]. Indeed this Asiatic extension of the Alpine type inclines v. Luschan[1326] to regard the European branch as one offshoot, and the high and narrow ("Hittite") nosed type as another, or rather as a specialised group, of which the Armenians, Persians, Druses, and other sectarian groups of Syria and Asia Minor represent the purest examples. According to his summary of this complicated region "All Western Asia was originally inhabited by a homogeneous melanochroic race, with extreme hypsi-brachycephaly and with a 'Hittite' nose. About 4000 B.C. began a Semitic invasion from the south-east, probably from Arabia, by people looking like the modern Bedawy. Two thousand years later commenced a second invasion, this time from the north-west, by xanthrochroous and long-headed tribes like the modern Kurds, half savage, and in some way or other, perhaps, connected with the historic Harri, Amorites, Tamehu and Galatians[1327]."

But the eventful drama is not yet closed. Arrested perhaps for a time by the barrier of the Hindu-Kush and Suliman ranges, proto-Aryan conquerors burst at last, probably through the Kabul river gorges, on to the plains of India, and thereby added another world to the Caucasic domain. Here they were brought face to face with new conditions, which gave rise to fresh changes and adaptations resulting in the present ethnical relations in the peninsula. There is good reason to think that in this region the leavening Aryan element never was numerous, while even on their first arrival the Aryan invaders found the land already somewhat thickly peopled by the aborigines[1328].

The marked linguistic and ethnical differences between Eastern and Western Hindustan have given rise to the theory of two separate streams of immigration, perhaps continued over many centuries[1329]. The earlier entered from the north-west, bringing their herds and families with them, whose descendants are the homogeneous and handsome populations of the Punjab and Rajputana. Later swarms entered by way of the difficult passes of Gilgit and Chitral, a route which made it impossible for their women to accompany them. "Here they came in contact with the Dravidians; here by the stress of that contact caste was evolved; here the Vedas were composed and the whole fantastic structure of orthodox ritual and usage was built up.... The men of the stronger race took to themselves women of the weaker, and from these unions was evolved the mixed type which we find in Hindustan and Bihar[1330]."

An attempt to analyse the complicated ethnic elements contained in the vast area of India was made by H. H. Risley[1331], who recognised seven types, his classification being based on theories of origin.

1. The TURKO-IRANIAN type, including the _Baloch_, _Brahui_, and _Afghans_ of Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier Provinces, all Muhammadans, with broad head, long prominent nose, abundant hair, fair complexion and tall stature.

2. INDO-ARYAN type in the Punjab, Rajputana and Kashmir, with its most conspicuous members the _Rajputs_, _Khatri_ and _Jats_ in all but colour closely resembling the European type and showing little difference between upper and lower social strata. Their characteristics are tall stature, fair complexion, plentiful hair on face, long head, and narrow prominent nose.

3. ARYO-DRAVIDIAN or Hindustani type in the United Provinces, parts of Rajputana, Bihar, and Ceylon, with lower stature, variable complexion, longish head, and a nose index exactly corresponding to social station.

4. SCYTHO-DRAVIDIAN of Western India, including the _Maratha Brahmans_, _Kunbi_, and _Coorgs_, of medium stature, fair complexion, broad head with scanty hair on the face, and a fine nose.

5. DRAVIDIAN, generally regarded as representing the indigenous element. The characteristics are fairly uniform from Ceylon to the Ganges valley throughout Madras, Hyderabad, the Central Provinces, Central India and Chota Nagpur, and the name is now used to include the mass of the population unaffected by foreign (Aryan, Scythian, Mongoloid) immigration. The _Nairs_ of Malabar and the _Santal_ of Chota Nagpur are typical representatives. The stature is short, complexion very dark, almost black, hair plentiful with a tendency to curl, head long and nose very broad[1332].

6. MONGOLO-DRAVIDIAN or Bengali type of Bengal and Orissa, showing fusion with Tibeto-Burman elements. The stature is medium, complexion dark, and head conspicuously broad, nose variable.

7. MONGOLOID of the Himalayas, Nepal, Assam, and Burma, represented by the _Kanet_ of Lahoul and Kulu, the _Lepcha_ of Darjiling, the _Limbu_, _Murmi_ and _Gurung_ of Nepal, the _Bodo_ of Assam and the _Burmese_. The stature is short, the complexion dark with a yellowish tinge, the hair on the face scanty. The head is broad with characteristic flat face and frequently oblique eyes.

This classification while more or less generally adopted in outline is not allowed to pass unchallenged, especially with regard to the theories of origin implied. Concerning the brachycephalic element of Western India Risley's belief that it was the result of so-called "Scythian" invasions is not supported by sufficient evidence. "The foreign element is certainly Alpine, not Mongolian, and it may be due to a migration of which the history has not been written[1333]." Ramaprasad Chanda[1334] goes further and traces the broad-headed elements in both "Scytho-Dravidians" (Gujaratis, Marathas and Coorgs) and "Mongolo-Dravidians" (Bengalis and Oriyas) to one common source, "the _Homo alpinus_ of the Pamirs and Chinese Turkestan," and attempts to reconstruct the history of the migration of the Alpine invaders from Central Asia over Gujarat, Deccan, Bihar and Bengal. His conclusions are supported by the reports of Sir Aurel Stein of the _Homo Alpinus_ type discovered in the region of Lob Nor, dating from the first centuries A.D. This type "still supplies the prevalent element in the racial constitution of the indigenous population of Chinese Turkestan, and is seen in its purest form in the Iranian-speaking tribes near the Pamirs[1335]."

But any scheme of classification must be merely tentative, subject to modification as statistics of the vast area are gradually collected. And W. Crooke[1336], while acknowledging the value of Risley's scheme[1337] points out the need of caution in accepting measurements of skull and nose forms applied to the mixed races and half-breeds which form the majority of the people. "The race migrations are all prehistoric, and the amalgamation of the races has continued for ages among a people to whom moral restraints are irksome and unfamiliar. The existing castes are quite a modern creation, dating only from the later Buddhist age." "The present population thus represents the flotsam and jetsam collected from many streams of ethnical movement, and any attempt to sort out the existing races into a set of pigeon-holes, each representing a defined type of race, is, in the present state of our knowledge, impossible[1338]."

In features, says Dalton, the Kols[1339] show "much variety, and I think in a great many families there is a considerable admixture of Aryan blood. Many have high noses and oval faces, and young girls are at times met with who have delicate and regular features, finely-chiselled straight noses, and perfectly formed mouths and chins. The eyes, however, are seldom so large, so bright, and gazelle-like as those of pure Hindu maidens, and I have met strongly marked Mongolian features. In colour they vary greatly, the copper tints being about the most common [though the Mirzapur Kols are very dark]. Eyes dark brown, hair black, straight or wavy [as all over India]. Both men and women are noticeable for their fine, erect carriage and long, free stride[1340]."

The same variations are found among the Dravidians, where, as should be expected, there are many aberrant groups showing divergences in all directions, as amongst the _Kurumba_ and _Toda_ of the Nilgiris, the former approximating to the Mongol, the latter to the Aryan standard. W. Sikemeier, who lived amongst them for years, notes that "many of the Kurumbas have decided Mongoloid face and stature, and appear to be the aborigines of that region[1341]." The same correspondent adds that much nonsense has been written about the Todas, who have become the trump card of popular ethnographists. "Being ransacked by European visitors they invent all kinds of traditions, which they found out their questioners liked to get, and for which they were paid." Still the type is remarkable and strikingly European, "well proportioned and stalwart, with straight nose, regular features and perfect teeth," the chief characteristic being the development of the hairy system, less however than amongst the Ainu, whom they so closely resemble[1342]. From the illustrations given in Thurston's valuable series one might be tempted to infer that a group of proto-Aryans had reached this extreme limit of their Asiatic domain, and although W. H. R. Rivers has cleared away the mystery and established links between the Todas and tribes of Malabar and Travancore, the problem of their origin is not yet entirely solved[1343].

The Dravidians occupy the greater part of the Deccan, where they are constituted in a few great nations--Telugus (Telingas), Tamils (numbers of whom have crossed into Ceylon and occupied the northern and central parts of that island, working in the coffee districts), Kanarese, and the Malayalim of the west coast. These with some others were brought at an early date under Aryan (Hindu) influences, but have preserved their highly agglutinating Dravidian speech, which has no known affinities elsewhere, unless perhaps with the language of the Brahuis, who are regarded by many as belated Dravidians left behind in East Baluchistan.

But for this very old, but highly cultivated Dravidian language, which is still spoken by about 54 millions between the Ganges and Ceylon, it would no longer be possible to distinguish these southern Hindus from those of Aryan speech who occupy all the rest of the peninsula together with the southern slopes of the Hindu-Kush and parts of the western Himalayas. Their main divisions are the Kashmiri, many of whom might be called typical Aryans; the Punjabis with several sub-groups, amongst which are the Sikhs, religious sectaries half Moslem half Hindu, also of magnificent physique; the Gujaratis, Mahratis, Hindis, Bengalis, Assamis, and Oraons of Orissa, all speaking Neo-Sanskritic idioms, which collectively constitute the Indic branch of the Aryan family. Hindustani or Urdu, a simplified form of Hindi current especially in the Doab, or "Two waters," the region between the Ganges and Jumna above Allahabad, has become a sort of _lingua franca_, the chief medium of intercourse throughout the peninsula, and is understood by certainly over 100 millions, while all the population of Neo-Sanskritic speech numbered in 1898 considerably over 200 millions.

Classification derives little help from the consideration of caste, whatever view be taken of the origin of this institution. The rather obvious theory that it was introduced by the handful of Aryan conquerors to prevent the submergence of the race in the great ocean of black or dark aborigines, is now rejected by many investigators, who hold that its origin is occupational, a question rather of social or industrial pursuits becoming hereditary in family groups than of race distinctions sanctioned by religion. They point out that the commentator's interpretation of the _Pancha Ksitaya_, "Five Classes," as _Brahmans_ (priests), _Kshatriyas_ (fighters), _Vaisya_ (traders), _Sudra_ (peasants and craftsmen of all kinds), and _Nishada_ (savages or outcasts) is recent, and conveys only the current sentiment of the age. It never had any substantial base, and even in the comparatively late Institutes of Manu "the rules of food, connubium and intercourse between the various castes are very different from what we find at present"; also that, far from being eternal and changeless, caste has been subject to endless modifications throughout the whole range of Hindu myth and history. Nor is it an institution peculiar to India, while even here the stereotyped four or five divisions neither accord with existing facts, nor correspond to so many distinct ethnical groups.

All this is perfectly true, and it is also true that for generations the recognised castes, say, social pursuits, have been in a state of constant flux, incessantly undergoing processes of segmentation, so that their number is at present past counting. Nevertheless, the system may have been, and probably was, first inspired by racial motives, an instinctive sense of self-preservation, which expressed itself in an informal way by local class distinctions which were afterwards sanctioned by religion, but eventually broke down or degenerated into the present relations under the outward pressure of imperious social necessities[1344].

* * * * *

Beyond the mainland and Ceylon no Caucasic peoples of Aryan speech are known to have ranged in neolithic or prehistoric times. But we have already followed the migrations of a kindred[1345], though mixed race, here called INDONESIANS, into Malaysia, the Philippines, Formosa, and the Japanese Archipelago, which they must have occupied in the New Stone Age. Here there occurs a great break, for they are not again met till we reach Micronesia and the still more remote insular groups beyond Melanesia. In Micronesia the relations are extremely confused, because, as it seems, this group had already been occupied by the Papuans from New Guinea before the arrival of the Indonesians, while after their arrival they were followed at intervals by Malays perhaps from the Philippines and Formosa, and still later by Japanese, if not also by Chinese from the mainland. Hence the types are here as varied as the colour, which appears, going eastwards, to shade off from the dark brown of the Pelew and Caroline Islanders to the light brown of the Marshall and Gilbert groups, where we already touch upon the skirts of the true Indonesian domain[1346].

A line drawn athwart the Pacific from New Zealand through Fiji to Hawaii will roughly cut off this domain from the rest of the Oceanic world, where all to the west is Melanesian, Papuan or mixed, while all to the right--_Maori_, some of the eastern _Fijians_, _Tongans_, _Samoans_, _Tahitians_, _Marquesans_, _Hawaiians_ and _Easter Islanders_--is grouped under the name POLYNESIAN, a type produced by a mixture of Proto-Malayan and Indonesian. Dolichocephaly and mesaticephaly prevail throughout the region, but there are brachycephalic centres in Tonga, the Marquesas and Hawaiian Islands. The hair is mostly black and straight, but also wavy, though never frizzly or even kinky. The colour also is of a light brown compared to cinnamon or cafe-au-lait, and sometimes approaching an almost white shade, while the tall stature averages 1.72 m. (5 ft. 7-3/4 ins.).

Migrating at an unknown date eastwards from the East Indian archipelago[1347], the first permanent settlements appear to have been formed in Samoa, and more particularly in the island of _Savaii_, originally _Savaiki_, which name under divers forms and still more divers meanings accompanied all their subsequent migrations over the Pacific waters. Thus we have in Tahiti _Havaii_[1348], the "universe," and the old capital of Raiatea; in Rarotonga _Avaiki_, "the land under the wind"; in New Zealand _Hawaiki_, "the land whence came the Maori"; in the Marquesas _Havaiki_, "the lower regions of the dead," as in _to fenua Havaiki_, "return to the land of thy forefathers," the words with which the victims in human sacrifices were speeded to the other world; lastly in _Hawaii_, the name of the chief island of the Sandwich group.

The Polynesians are cheerful, dignified, polite, imaginative and intelligent, varying in temperament between the wild and energetic and politically capable Maori to his indolent and politically sterile kinsmen to the north, who have been unnerved by the unvarying uniformity of temperature. Wherever possible, they are agriculturalists, growing yams, sweet potatoes and taro. Coconuts, bread-fruit and bananas form the staple food in many islands. Scantily endowed with fertile soil and edible plants the Polynesians have gained command over the sea which everywhere surrounds them, and have developed into the best seamen among primitive races. Large sailing double canoes were formerly in use, and single canoes with an outrigger are still made. Native costume for men is made of bark cloth, and for women ample petticoats of split and plaited leaves. Ornaments, with the exception of flowers, are sparingly worn. The bow and arrow are unknown, short spears, clubs and slings are used, but no shields. The arts of writing, pottery making, loom-weaving and the use of metals were, with few exceptions, unknown, but mat-making, basketry and the making of _tapa_ were carried to a high pitch, and Polynesian bark-cloth is the finest in the world.

Throughout Polynesia the community is divided into nobles or chiefs, freemen and slaves, which divisions are, by reason of _tabu_, as sharp as those of caste. They fall into those which participate in the divine, and those which are wholly excluded from it. Women have a high position, and men do their fair share of work. Polygyny is universal, being limited only by the wealth of the husband, or the numerical preponderance of the men. Priests have considerable influence, there are numerous gods, sometimes worshipped in the outward form of idols, and ancestors are deified.

Polynesian culture has been analysed by W. H. R. Rivers[1349], and the following briefly summarises his results. At first sight the culture appears very simple, especially as regards language and social structure, while there is a considerable degree of uniformity in religious belief. Everywhere we find the same kind of higher being or god and the resemblance extends even to the name, usually some form of the word _atua_. In material culture also there are striking similarities, though here the variations are more definite and obvious, and the apparent uniformity is probably due to the attention given to the customs of chiefs, overlooking the culture of the ordinary people where more diversity is discoverable.

There is much that points to the twofold nature of Polynesian culture. The evidence from the study of the ritual indicates the presence of two peoples, an earlier who interred their dead in a sitting posture like the dual people of Melanesia[1350], and a later, who became chiefs and believed in the need for the preservation of the dead among the living. All the evidence available, physical and cultural, points to the conjecture that the early stratum of the population of Polynesia was formed by an immigrant people who also found their way to Melanesia.

The later stream of settlers can be identified with the kava-people[1350]. Kava was drunk especially by the chiefs, and the accompanying ceremonial shows its connection with the higher ranks of the people. The close association of the _Areoi_ (secret society) of eastern Polynesia with the chiefs is further proof. Thus both in Melanesia and in Polynesia the chiefs who preserved their dead are identified with the founders of secret societies--organisations which came into being through the desire of an immigrant people to practise their religious rites in secret. Burial in the extended position occurs in Tikopia, Tonga and Samoa--perhaps it may have been the custom of some special group of the kava-people. Chiefs were placed in vaults constructed of large stones--a feature unknown elsewhere in Oceania. It is safe also to ascribe the human design which has undergone conventionalisation in Polynesia to the kava-people. The geometric art through which the conventionalisation was produced belonged to the earlier inhabitants who interred their dead in the sitting position.

Money, if it exists at all, occupies a very unimportant place in the culture of the people. There is no evidence of the use of any object in Polynesia with the definite scale of values which is possessed by several kinds of money in Melanesia. The Polynesians are largely communistic, probably more so than the Melanesians, and afford one of the best examples of communism in property with which we are acquainted. This feature may be ascribed to the earlier settlers. The suggestion that the kava-people never formed independent communities in Polynesia, but were accepted at once as chiefs of those among whom they settled would account for the absence of money (for which there was no need), and the failure to disturb in any great measure the communism of the earlier inhabitants. Communism in property was associated with sexual communism. There is evidence that Polynesian chiefs rarely had more than one wife, while the licentiousness which probably stood in a definite relation to the communism of the people is said to have been more pronounced among the lower strata of the community. Both communism and licentiousness appear to have been much less marked in the Samoan and Tongan islands, and here there is no evidence of interment in the sitting position. These and other facts support the view that the influence of the kava-people was greater here than in the more eastern islands: probably it was greatest in Tikopia, which in many respects differs from other parts of Polynesia.

Magic is altogether absent from the culture of Tikopia and it probably took a relatively unimportant place throughout Polynesia. In Tikopia the ghosts of dead ancestors and relatives as well as animals are _atua_ and this connotation of the word appears to be general in other parts of Polynesia. These may be regarded as the representatives of the ghosts and spirits of Melanesia. The _vui_ of Melanesia may be represented by the _tii_ of Tahiti, beings not greatly respected, who had to some extent a local character. This comparison suggests that the ancestral ghosts belong to the culture of the kava-people, and that the local spirits are derived from the culture of the people who interred their dead in the sitting position, from which people the dual people of Melanesia derived their beliefs and practices.

To sum up. Polynesian culture is made up of at least two elements, an earlier, associated with the practice of interring the dead in a sitting position, communism, geometric art, local spirits and magical rites, and a later, which practised preservation of the dead. These latter may be identified with the kava-people while the earlier Polynesian stratum is that which entered into the composition of the dual-people of Melanesia at a still earlier date, and introduced the Austronesian language into Oceania[1351].

FOOTNOTES:

[1194] Cf. J. Dechelette, _Manuel d'archeologie prehistorique_, Vol. II. 1910, p. 2, and for neolithic trade routes, _ib._ Vol. I. p. 626.

[1195] The Tell-el-Amarna correspondence contains names of chieftains in Syria and Palestine about 1400 B.C., including the name of Tushratta, king of Mitanni; the Boghaz Keui document with Iranian divine names, and Babylonian records of Iranian names from the Persian highlands, are a little later in date.

[1196] J. L. Myres, _The Dawn of History_, 1911, p. 200.

[1197] Cf. P. Giles, Art. "Indo-European Languages" in _Ency. Brit._ 1911.

[1198] S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, 1913, pp. 40 and 486-528.

[1199] O. Schrader, _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_, 3rd ed. 1906-7.

[1200] G. Kossinna, _Die Herkunft der Germanen_, 1911.

[1201] H. Hirt, _Die Indogermanen, ihre Verbreitung, ihre Urheimat und ihre Kultur_, 1905-7.

[1202] S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, 1913, pp. 40 and 486-528.

[1203] _Deutsche Altertumskunde_, I. 1913, p. 49.

[1204] See Note 3, p. 441 above.

[1205] Art. "Indo-European Languages," _Ency. Brit._ 1911, p. 500.

[1206] Centum (hard guttural) group is the name applied to the Western and entirely European branches of the Indo-European family, as opposed to the satem (sibilant) group, situated mainly in Asia.

[1207] _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 17 and chap. XVII. European origins: Race and Language: The Aryan Question.

[1208] S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, 1913, pp. 497, 501 ff.

[1209] Cf. T. Rice Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, p. 273.

[1210] E. de Michelis, _L'origine degli Indo-Europei_, 1905.

[1211] Even Sweden, regarded as the home of the purest Nordic type, already had a brachycephalic mixture in the Stone Age. See G. Retzius, "The So-called North European Race of Mankind," _Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst._ XXXIX. 1909, p. 304.

[1212] Cf. E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, 1909, l. 2, Sec. 551.

[1213] For the working out of this hypothesis see T. Peisker, "The Expansion of the Slavs," _Cambridge Medieval History_, Vol. II. 1913.

[1214] H. M. Chadwick, Art. "Teutonic Peoples" in _Ency. Brit._ 1911. Cf. S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, 1913, p. 480.

[1215] See R. Much, Art. "Germanen," J. Hoops' _Reallexikon d. Germ. Altertumskunde_, 1914.

[1216] H. M. Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_, 1907, pp. 210-215. For a full account of the affinities of the _Cimbri_ and _Teutoni_ see T. Rice Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, pp. 546-553.

[1217] Paper read at the Meeting of the Ger. Anthrop. Soc., Spiers, 1896. Figures of Bastarnae from the Adamklissi monument and elsewhere are reproduced in H. Hahne's _Das Vorgeschichtliche Europa: Kulturen und Voelker_, 1910, figs. 144, 149. Cf. T. Peisker, "The Expansion of the Slavs," _Camb. Med. Hist._ Vol. II. 1913, p. 430.

[1218] Cf. H. M. Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_, 1907, pp. 174 and 219.

[1219] _Monuments runiques_ in _Mem. Soc. R. Ant. du Nord_, 1893.

[1220] "Lactea cutis" (Sidonius Apollinaris).

[1221] W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 205 ff. See also O. Montelius, _Kulturgeschichte Schwedens_, 1906; G. Retzius and C. M. Fuerst, _Anthropologica Suecica_, 1902.

[1222] Commonly called the Borreby type from skulls found at Borreby in the island of Falster, which resemble Round Barrow skulls in Britain.

[1223] For Denmark consult _Meddelelser om Danmarks Antropologi_ udgivne af den Antropologiske Komite, with English summaries, Bd. I. 1907-1911, Bd. II. 1913.

[1224] The results were tabulated by Virchow and may be seen, without going to German sources, in W. Z. Ripley's map, p. 222, of _The Races of Europe_, 1900, where the whole question is fully dealt with.

[1225] See Ripley's Craniological chart in "Une carte de l'Indice Cephalique en Europe," _L'Anthropologie_, VII. 1896, p. 513.

[1226] The case is stated in uncompromising language by Alfred Fouillee: "Une autre loi, plus generalement admise, c'est que depuis les temps prehistoriques, les brachycephales tendent a eliminer les dolichocephales par l'invasion progressive des couches inferieures et l'absorption des aristocraties dans les democraties, ou elles viennent se noyer" (_Rev. des Deux Mondes_, March 15, 1895).

[1227] _Recherches Anthrop. sur le Probleme de la Depopulation_, in _Rev. d'Economie politique_, IX. p. 1002; X. p. 132 (1895-6).

[1228] _Nature_, 1897, p. 487. Cf. also A. Thomson, "Consideration of ... factors concerned in production of Man's Cranial Form," _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ XXXIII. 1903, and A. Keith, "The Bronze Age Invaders of Britain," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLV. 1915.

[1229] Livi's results for Italy (_Antropometria Militare_) differ in some respects from those of de Lapouge and Ammon for France and Baden. Thus he finds that in the brachy districts the urban population is less brachy than the rural, while in the dolicho districts the towns are more brachy than the plains.

[1230] Dealing with some studies of the Lithuanian race, Deniker writes: "Ainsi donc, contrairement aux idees de MM. de Lapouge et Ammon, en Pologne, comme d'ailleurs en Italie, les classes les plus instruites, dirigeantes, urbaines, sont plus brachy que les paysans" (_L'Anthropologie_, 1896, p. 351). Similar contradictions occur in connection with light and dark hair, eyes, etc.

[1231] "E qui non posso tralasciare di avvertire un errore assai diffuso fra gli antropologi ... i quali vorrebbero ammettere una trasformazione del cranio da dolicocefalo in brachicefalo" (_Arii e Italici_, p. 155).

[1232] W. Z. Ripley's _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 544 ff.

[1233] This specialist insists "dass von einer mongolischen Einwanderung in Europa keine Rede mehr sein koenne" (_Der europaeische Mensch. u. die Tiroler_, 1896). He is of course speaking of prehistoric times, not of the late (historical) Mongol irruptions. Cf. T. Peisker, "The Expansion of the Slavs," _Camb. Med. Hist._ Vol. II. 1913, p. 452, with reference to mongoloid traits in Bavaria.

[1234] "Malgre les nombreuses invasions des populations germaniques, le Tyrolien est reste, quant a sa conformation cranienne, le Rasene ou Rhaetien des temps antiques--hyperbrachycephale" (_Les Aryens_, p. 7). The mean index of the so-called Disentis type of Rhaetian skulls is about 86 (His and Ruetimeyer, _Crania Helvetica_, p. 29 and Plate E. 1).

[1235] "The Tyrrhenians in Greece and Italy," in _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ 1897, p. 258. In this splendidly illustrated paper the date of the immigration is referred to the 11th century B.C. on the ground that the first Etruscan saeculum was considered as beginning about 1050 B.C., presumably the date of their arrival in Italy (p. 259). But Sergi thinks they did not arrive till about the end of the 8th century (_Arii e Italici_, p. 149).

[1236] See R. S. Conway, Art. Etruria: Language, _Ency. Brit._ 1911.

[1237] _Op. cit._ p. 151. By German he means the round-headed South German.

[1238] S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, 1913, p. 370.

[1239] S. Feist, _loc. cit._ p. 65. For cultural and linguistic influence of Celts on Germans see pp. 480 ff. Evidence of Celtic names in Germany is discussed by H. M. Chadwick "Some German River names," _Essays and Studies presented to William Ridgeway_, 1913.

[1240] H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Celtes depuis les Temps les plus anciens jusqu'en l'an 100 avant notre ere_, 1904, p. 1.

[1241] G. Dottin, _Manuel pour servir a l'etude de l'Antiquite Celtique_, 1915, p. 1.

[1242] T. Rice Holmes, Caesar's _Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, p. 321. W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_, 1900, reviewing the "_Celtic Question_, than which no greater stumbling-block in the way of our clear thinking exists" (p. 124) comes to a different conclusion. He states that "the term _Celt_, if used at all, belongs to the ... brachycephalic, darkish population of the Alpine highlands," and he claims for this view "complete unanimity of opinion among physical anthropologists" (p. 126). His own view however is that "the linguists are best entitled to the name _Celt_" while the broad-headed type commonly called Celtic by continental writers "we shall ... everywhere ... call ... Alpine" (p. 128).

[1243] Cf. the similar dual treatment in Italic.

[1244] "No Gael [_i.e._ Q Celt] ever set his foot on British soil save on a vessel that had put out from Ireland." Kuno Meyer, _Trans. Hon. Soc. Cymmrodorion_, 1895-6, p. 69.

[1245] _Ancient Britain_, 1907, pp. 409-424.

[1246] _Das keltische Britannien_, 1912, pp. 28-37.

[1247] J. Rhys, _The Welsh People_, 1902, pp. 13-14.

[1248] _Das keltische Britannien_, 1912, pp. 28-37.

[1249] _Ancient Britain_, 1907, p. 414. The name of the Picts is apparently Indo-European in form, and if the Celts were late comers into Britain (see above) they may well have been preceded by invaders of Indo-European speech.

[1250] T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, 1907, p. 408. Cf. A. Keith, "The Bronze Age Invaders of Britain," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLV. 1915.

[1251] Quoted in T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, 1907, pp. 426-427.

[1252] T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, 1907, p. 443. See also John Abercromby, _A Study of the Bronze Age Pottery of Great Britain and Ireland and its associated Grave Goods_, 1912, tracing the distribution and migration of pottery forms: and the following papers of H. J. Fleure, "Archaeological Problems of the West Coast of Britain," _Archaeologia Cambrensis_, Oct. 1915; "The Early Distribution of Population in South Britain," _ib._ April, 1916; "The Geographical Distribution of Anthropological Types in Wales," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLVI. 1916, and "A Proposal for Local Surveys of the British People," _Arch. Camb._ Jan. 1917.

[1253] W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 310; T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, 1907, p. 432.

[1254] G. Coffey and R. Lloyd Praeger, "The Antrim Raised Beach: a Contribution to the Neolithic History of the North of Ireland," _Proc. Roy. Irish Acad._ XXV. (c.) 1904. See also the valuable series of "Reports on Prehistoric Remains from the Sandhills of the Coast of Ireland," _P. R. I. A._ XVI.

[1255] _Man_, IX. 1909, NO. 54.

[1256] _Proc. Roy. Irish Acad._ (3), III. 1896, p. 727.

[1257] Cf. also J. Wilfred Jackson, "The Geographical Distribution of the Shell-Purple Industry," _Mem. and Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc._ LX. No. 7, 1916.

[1258] _Survivals from the Palaeolithic Age among Irish Neolithic Implements_, 1897.

[1259] _The Dolmens of Ireland_, 1897.

[1260] They need not, however, have come from Britain, and the allusions in Irish literature to direct immigration from Spain, probable enough in itself, are too numerous to be disregarded. Thus, Geoffrey of Monmouth:--"Hibernia Basclensibus [to the Basques] incolenda datur" (_Hist. Reg. Brit._ III. Sec. 12); and Giraldus Cambrensis:--"De Gurguntio Brytonum Rege, qui Rasclenses [read Basclenses] in Hiberniam transmisit et eandem ipsis habitandam concessit." I am indebted to Wentworth Webster for these references (_Academy_, Oct. 19, 1895).

[1261] H. Zimmer, "Auf welchen Wege kamen die Goidelen vom Kontinent nach Irland?" _Abh. d. K. preuss. Akad. d. Wiss._ 1912.

[1262] J. Gray, "Memoir on the Pigmentation Survey of Scotland," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVII. 1907.

[1263] "A Last Contribution to Scottish Ethnology," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVIII. 1908.

[1264] "The Geographical Distribution of Anthropological Types in Wales," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLVI. 1916.

[1265] For the explanation see W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 322 ff.

[1266] W. Z. Ripley, _loc. cit._ p. 329.

[1267] "The Frenchman, the German, the Italian, the Englishman, to each of whom his own literature and the great traditions of his national life are most dear and familiar, cannot help but feel that the vernacular in which these are embodied and expressed is, and must be, superior to the alien and awkward languages of his neighbours." L. Pearsall Smith, _The English Language_, p. 54.

[1268] See above p. 455. T. Rice Holmes points out that the Aquitani were already mixed in type. _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, p. 12.

[1269] See above p. 454.

[1270] That is, the languages whose affirmatives were the Latin pronouns _hoc illud_ (_oil_) and _hoc_ (_oc_), the former being more contracted, the latter more expanded, as we see in the very names of the respective Northern and Southern bards: _Trouveres_ and _Troubadours_. It was customary in medieval times to name languages in this way, Dante, for instance, calling Italian _la lingua del si_, "the language of _yes_"; and, strange to say, the same usage prevails largely amongst the Australian aborigines, who, however, use both the affirmative and the negative particles, so that we have here _no_- as well as _yes_-tribes.

[1271] S. Feist points out that two physical types were recognised in antiquity, one dark and one fair, and reference to red hair and fair skin suggests Celtic infusion. _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, 1913, p. 365.

[1272] _Science Progress_, p. 159.

[1273] "The Portuguese are much mixed with Negroes more particularly in the south and along the coast. The slave trade existed long before the Negroes of Guinea were exported to the plantations of America. Damiao de Goes estimated the number of blacks imported into Lisbon alone during the 16th century at 10,000 or 12,000 per annum. If contemporary eye-witnesses can be trusted, the number of blacks met with in the streets of Lisbon equalled that of the whites. Not a house but had its negro servants, and the wealthy owned entire gangs of them" (Reclus, I. p. 471).

[1274] "The Spanish People," _Cont. Rev._ May, 1907, and _The Soul of Spain_, 1908.

[1275] T. E. Peet, _Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy and Sicily_, 1909, gives a full account of the archaeology.

[1276] "Zur Palaeoethnologie Mittel- u. Suedeuropas" in _Mitt. Wiener Anthrop. Ges._ 1897, p. 18. It should here be noted that in his _History of the Greek Language_ (1896) Kretschmer connects the inscriptions of the Veneti in north Italy and of the Messapians in the south with the Illyrian linguistic family, which he regards as Aryan intermediate between the Greek and the Italic branches, the present Albanian being a surviving member of it. In the same Illyrian family W. M. Lindsay would also include the "Old Sabellian" of Picenum, "believed to be the oldest inscriptions on Italian soil. The manifest identity of the name _Aodatos_ and the word _meitimon_ with the Illyrian names [Greek: Audata] and _Meitima_ is almost sufficient of itself to prove these inscriptions to be Illyrian. Further the whole character of their language, with its Greek and its Italic features, corresponds with what we know and what we can safely infer about the Illyrian family of languages" (_Academy_, Oct. 24, 1896). Cf. R. S. Conway, _The Italic Dialects_, 1897.

[1277] R. Munro, _Bosnia, Herzegovina and Dalmatia_, 1900. See also W. Ridgeway, _The Early Age of Greece_, 1901, ch. V., showing that remains of the Iron Age in Bosnia are closely connected with Hallstatt and La Tene cultures.

[1278] _Arii e Italici_, p. 158 sq.

[1279] "Liguri e Pelasgi furono i primi abitatori d'Italia; e Liguri sembra siano stati quelli che occupavano la Valle del Po e costrussero le palafitte, e Liguri forse anche i costruttori delle palafitte svizzere: Mediterranei tutti" (_Ib._ p. 138).

[1280] Ripley's chart shows a range of from 87 in Piedmont to 76 and 77 in Calabria, Puglia, and Sardinia, and 75 and under in Corsica. _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 251.

[1281] But cf. W. Ridgeway, _Who were the Romans?_ 1908.

[1282] The true name of these southern or Macedo-Rumanians, as pointed out by Gustav Weigland (_Globus_, LXXI. p. 54), is _Aramani_ or _Armani_, _i.e._ "Romans." _Tsintsar_, _Kutzo-Vlack_, etc. are mere nicknames, by which they are known to their Macedonian (Bulgar and Greek) neighbours. See also W. R. Morfill in _Academy_, July 1, 1893. The Vlachs of Macedonia are described by E. Pears, _Turkey and its People_, 1911, and a full account of the Balkan Vlachs is given by A. J. B. Wace and M. S. Thompson, _The Nomads of the Balkans_, 1914.

[1283] _Romaenische Studien_, Leipzig, 1871.

[1284] _Les Roumains au Moyen Age, passim._ Hunfalvy, quoted by A. J. Patterson (_Academy_, Sept. 7, 1895), also shows that "for a thousand years there is no authentic mention of a Latin or Romance speaking population north of the Danube."

[1285] This view is held by L. Rethy, also quoted by Patterson, and the term _Vlack_ (_Welsch_, whence Wallachia) applied to the Rumanians by all their Slav and Greek neighbours points in the same direction.

[1286] T. Peisker, "The Asiatic Background," _Camb. Med. Hist._ Vol. I. 1911, p. 356, and "The Expansion of the Slavs," _ib._ Vol. II. 1913, p. 440.

[1287] _Mitt. Wiener Anthrop. Ges._ 1897, p. 18.

[1288] _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 391.

[1289] _The Ancient History of the Near East_, 1913, p. 69.

[1290] Hall notes (p. 73) that "it is to the Thesprotian invasion, which displaced the Achaians, that, in all probability, the general introduction of iron into Greece is to be assigned. The invaders came ultimately from the Danube region, where iron was probably first used in Europe, whereas their kindred, the Achaians, had possibly already lived in Thessaly in the Stone Age, and derived the knowledge of metal from the Aegeans. The speedy victory of the new-comers over the older Aryan inhabitants of Northern Greece may be ascribed to their possession of iron weapons." Ridgeway, however, has little difficulty in proving that the Achaeans themselves were tall fair Celts from Central Europe. _The Early Age of Greece_, 1901, especially chap. IV., "Whence came the Acheans?" The question is dealt with from a different point of view by J. L. Myres, in _The Dawn of History_, 1911, chap. IX., "The Coming of the North," tracing the invasion from the Eurasian steppes.

[1291] H. R. Hall, _loc. cit._ p. 68; cf. H. Peake, _Journ. Roy. Anth. Inst._ 1916, p. 154.

[1292] C. H. Hawes, "Some Dorian Descendants," _Ann. Brit. School Ath._ No. XVI. 1909-10, proves that the Dorian or Illyrian (Alpine) type still persists in South Greece and Crete.

[1293] _Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea, Stuttgart_, 1830. See also G. Finlay's _Mediaeval Greece_, and the _Anthrop. Rev._ 1868, VI. p. 154.

[1294] _Romaenische Studien_, 1871.

[1295] _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ 1896, p. 351 sq.

[1296] By a sort of grim irony the word has come to mean "slave" in the West, owing to the multitudes of Slavs captured and enslaved during the medieval border warfare. But the term is by many referred to the root _slovo_, word, speech, implying a people of intelligible utterance, and this is supported by the form _Slovene_ occurring in Nestor and still borne by a southern Slav group. See T. Peisker, "The Expansion of the Slavs," _Camb. Med. Hist._ Vol. II. 1913, p. 421 _n._ 2.

[1297] IV. 21.

[1298] These Budini are described as a large nation with "remarkably blue eyes and red hair," on which account Zaborowski thinks they may have been ancestors of the present Finns. But they may also very well have been belated proto-Germani left behind by the body of the nation _en route_ for their new Baltic homes.

[1299] Cf. p. 304.

[1300] _Scythians and Greeks_, 1909.

[1301] The meaning of Wend is uncertain. It has led to confusion with the Armorican _Veneti_, the Paphlagonian _Enetae_, and the Adriatic _Enetae-Venetae_, all non-Slav peoples. Shakhmatov regards it as a name inherited by Slavs from their conquerors, the Celtic Venedi, who occupied the Vistula region in the 3rd or 2nd centuries B.C. See T. Peisker, "The Expansion of the Slavs," _Camb. Med. Hist._ Vol. II. 1913, p. 421 _n._ 2.

[1302] That is, the Elbe Slaves, from _po_=by, near, and _Labe_=Elbe; cf. _Pomor_ (Pomeranians), "by the Sea"; Borussia, Porussia, Prussia, originally peopled by the _Pruczi_, a branch of the Lithuanians Germanised in the 17th century.

[1303] _Carpath_, _Khrobat_, _Khorvat_ are all the same word, meaning highlands, mountains, hence not strictly an ethnic term, although at present so used by the _Crovats_ or _Croatians_, a considerable section of the Yugo-Slavs south of the Danube.

[1304] See note 5, p. 537.

[1305] That is, "Highlanders" (root _alb_, _alp_, height, hill). From _Albanites_ through the Byzantine _Arvanites_ comes the Turkish _Arnaut_, while the national name _Skipetar_ has precisely the same meaning (root _skip_, _scop_, as in [Greek: skopelos], scopulus, cliff, crag).

[1306] There are about twenty of these _phis_ or _phar_ (phratries) amongst the Ghegs, and the practice of exogamous marriage still survives amongst the Mirdites south of the Drin, who, although Catholics, seek their wives amongst the surrounding hostile Turkish and Muhammadan Gheg populations.

[1307] J. Deniker, "Les Six Races composant la Population actuelle de l'Europe," _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ XXXIV. 1904, pp. 182, 202.

[1308] _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ VII. 1896.

[1309] Hence Virchow (Meeting Ger. Anthrop. Soc. 1897) declared that the extent and duration of the Slav encroachments in German territory could not be determined by the old skulls, because it is impossible to say whether a given skull is Slav or not.

[1310] Especially Lubor Niederle, for whom the proto-Slavs are unquestionably long-headed blonds like the Teutons, although he admits that round skulls occur even of old date, and practically gives up the attempt to account for the transition to the modern Slav.

[1311] "The Racial Geography of Europe," in _Popular Science Monthly_, June, 1897.

[1312] _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ 1896, p. 81 sq.

[1313] _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ 1894, p. 36.

[1314] _Droit Coutumier Ossethien_, 1893.

[1315] Quoted by Ujfalvy, _Les Aryens_ etc. p. 11.

[1316] The _Yagnobi_ of the river of like name, an affluent of the Zerafshan; yet even this shows lexical affinities with Iranic, while its structure seems to connect it with Leitner's Kajuna and Biddulph's Burish, a non-Aryan tongue current in Ghilghit, Yasin, Hunza and Nagar, whose inhabitants are regarded by Biddulph as descendants of the Yue-chi. The Yagnobi themselves, however, are distinctly Alpines, somewhat short, very hirsute and brown, with broad face, large head, and a Savoyard expression. They have the curious custom of never cutting but always breaking their bread, the use of the knife being sure to raise the price of flour.

[1317] F. v. Luschan points out that very little is known of the anthropology of Persia. "In a land inhabited by about ten millions not more than twenty or thirty men have been regularly measured and not one skull has been studied." The old type preserved in the Parsi is short-headed and dark. "The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLI. 1911, p. 233.

[1318] _Dih, deh_, village. _Zaban_, tongue, language.

[1319] H. Walter, _From Indus to Tigris_, p. 16. Of course this traveller refers only to the Tajiks of the plateau (Persia, Afghanistan). Of the Galchic Tajiks he knew nothing; nor indeed is the distinction even yet quite understood by European ethnologists.

[1320] III. 91.

[1321] Even Ptolemy's [Greek: pasichai] appear to be the same people, [Greek: p] being an error for [Greek: t], so that [Greek: tasikai] would be the nearest possible Greek transcription of _Tajik_.

[1322] _Tribes of the Hindoo-Koosh_, 1880, _passim._

[1323] _An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul_, 1815.

[1324] "Ces Savoyards attardes du Kohistan" (Ujfalvy, _Les Aryens_ etc.).

[1325] The anthropological data are dealt with by T. A. Joyce, "Notes on the Physical Anthropology of Chinese Turkestan and the Pamirs," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLII. 1912. "The original inhabitant ... is that type of man described by Lapouge as _Homo Alpinus_," p. 468.

[1326] F. v. Luschan, "The Early Inhabitants of Asia," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLI. 1911, p. 243.

[1327] For the evidence of the extension of this element in East Central Asia see Ch. IX.

[1328] R. B. Foote, _Madras Government Museum_. _The Foote Collection of Indian Prehistoric and Protohistoric Antiquities. Notes on their ages and distribution_, 1916, is the most recent contribution to the prehistoric period, but the conclusions are not universally accepted.

[1329] A. F. R. Hoernle, _A Grammar of Eastern Hindi compared with the other Gaudian Languages_, 1880, first suggested (p. xxxi. ff.) the distinction between the languages of the Midland and the Outer Band, which has been corroborated by G. A. Grierson, _Languages of India_, 1903, p. 51; _Imperial Gazetteer of India_, 1907-8, Vol. I. pp. 357-8.

[1330] H. H. Risley, _The People of India_, 1908, p. 54. See also J. D. Anderson, _The Peoples of India_, 1913, p. 27.

[1331] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_ etc. 1892, _Indian Census Report_, 1901, and _Imperial Gazetteer_, Vol. I. ch. VI.

[1332] The jungle tribes of this group, such as the _Paniyan_, _Kurumba_ and _Irula_ are classed as PRE-DRAVIDIAN. See chap. XII.

[1333] A. C. Haddon, _Wanderings of Peoples_, 1911, p. 27.

[1334] _The Indo-Aryan Races_, 1916, pp. 65-71 and 75-78.

[1335] "A Third Journey of Exploration in Central Asia 1913-16," _Geog. Journ._ 1916.

[1336] _Natives of Northern India_, 1907, pp. 19, 24. See also his article "R[=a]jputs and Mar[=a]thas," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XL. 1910.

[1337] "His report, compiled during the inevitable distractions incident to the enumeration of a population of some 300 millions, was a notable performance, and will remain one of the classics of Indian anthropology." "The Stability of Caste and Tribal Groups in India," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLIV. 1914, p. 270.

[1338] A vast amount of material has been collected in recent years besides _Ethnographical Surveys_ of the various provinces, the _Imperial Gazetteer_ of 1909, and the magnificent _Census Reports_ of 1901 and 1911. Some of the more important works are as follows:--H. H. Risley, _Ethnography of India_, 1903, _The People of India_, 1908; E. Thurston, _Ethnographical Notes on Southern India_, 1906, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_, 1909; H. A. Rose, _Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and N.W. Frontier Province_, 1911; E. A. de Brett, _Gazetteer, Chhatisgarh Feudatory States_, 1909; C. E. Luard, _Ethnographic Survey, Central India_, 1909; L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, _The Cochin Tribes and Castes_, 1909, _Tribes and Castes of Cochin_, 1912; M. Longworth Dames, _The Baloch Race_, 1904; W. H. R. Rivers, _The Todas_, 1906; P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_, 1907; T. C. Hodson, _The Meitheis_, 1908, _The Naga Tribes of Manipur_, 1911; E. Stack and C. J. Lyall, _The Mikirs_, 1908; A. Playfair, _The Garos_, 1909; S. Endle, _The Kacharis_, 1911; C. G. and B. Z. Seligman, _The Veddas_, 1911; J. Shakespear, _The Lushei Kuki Clans_, 1912; S. Chandra Roy, _The Mundas and their Country_, 1912, _The Oraons_, 1915; and R. V. Russell, _Tribes and Castes of the N.W. Central Provinces_, 1916.

[1339] The term _Kol_, which occurs as an element in a great many tribal names, and was first introduced by Campbell in a collective sense (1866), is of unknown origin, but probably connected with a root meaning "Man" (W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes_, III. p. 294).

[1340] _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 190.

[1341] In a letter to the author, June 18, 1895.

[1342] Edgar Thurston, _Anthropology_ etc., Bul. 4, Madras, 1896, pp. 147-8. For fuller details see his _Castes and Tribes of S. India_, 1909.

[1343] _The Todas_, 1906. See chap. XXX. "The Origin and History of the Todas."

[1344] For the discussion of Caste see E. A. Gait's article in _Ency. of Religion and Ethics_, 1910, with bibliography; also V. A. Smith, _Caste in India, East and West_, 1913.

[1345] See Ch. VII.

[1346] See A. Kraemer, _Hawaii, Ostmikronesien und Samoa_, 1906.

[1347] For Polynesian wanderings see S. Percy Smith, _Hawaiki: the original home of the Maori_, 1904; J. M. Brown, _Maori and Polynesian; their origin, history and culture_, 1907; W. Churchill, _The Polynesian Wanderings_, 1911.

[1348] _H_ everywhere takes the place of _S_, which is preserved only in the Samoan mother-tongue; cf. Gr. [Greek: hepta] with Lat. _septem_, Eng. _seven_.

[1349] _The History of Melanesian Society_, 1914.

[1350] Cf. p. 139 ff.

[1351] Among recent works on Polynesia see H. Mager, _Le Monde polynesien_, 1902; B. H. Thomson, _Savage Island_, 1902; A. Kraemer, _Die Samoa-Inseln_, 1902; J. M. Brown, _Maori and Polynesian_, 1907; G. Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, 1910; F. W. Christian, _Eastern Pacific Islands_, 1910.

APPENDIX A. (p. 5)

Since the first few pages of this book were in print an important memoir on the "Phylogeny of Recent and Extinct Anthropoids with Special Reference to the Origin of Man" has been published by W. K. Gregory (_Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ Vol. XXXV., Article XIX, pp. 258 ff., New York, 1916). As Gregory's lucid statement of the problems involved is based on a prolonged examination of very varied and abundant material we have considered it advisable to present his summary. The chief conclusions, which appear to be of a conservative character, are as follows (p. 341).

_The Origin of Man._

1. Comparative anatomical (including embryological) evidence alone has shown that man and the anthropoids have been derived from a primitive anthropoid stock and that man's existing relatives are the chimpanzee and the gorilla.

2. The chimpanzee and gorilla have retained, with only minor changes, the ancestral habits and habitus in brain, dentition, skull and limbs, while the forerunners of the Hominidae, through a profound change in function, lost the primitive anthropoid habitus, gave up arboreal frugivorous adaptations and early became terrestrial, bipedal and predatory, using crude flints to cut up and smash the varied food.

3. The ancestral chimpanzee-gorilla-man stock appears to be represented by the Upper Miocene genera _Sivapithecus_ and _Dryopithecus_, the former more closely allied to, or directly ancestral to, the Hominidae, the latter to the chimpanzee and gorilla.

4. Many of the differences that separate man from anthropoids of the _Sivapithecus_ type are retrogressive changes, following the profound change in food habits above noted. Here belong the retraction of the face and dental arch, the reduction in size of the canines, the reduction of the jaw muscles, the loss of the prehensile character of the hallux. Many other differences are secondary adjustments in relative proportions, connected with the change from semi-arboreal, semi-erect and semi-quadrupedal progression to fully terrestrial bipedal progression. The earliest anthropoids being of small size doubtless had slender limbs; later semi-terrestrial semi-erect forms were probably not unlike a very young gorilla, with fairly short legs and not excessively elongate arms. The long legs and short arms of man are due, I believe, to a secondary readjustment of proportions. The very short legs and very long arms of old male gorillas may well be a specialization.

5. At present I know no good evidence for believing that the separation of the Hominidae from the Simiidae took place any earlier than the Miocene, and probably the Upper Miocene. The change in structure during this vast interval (two or more million years) is much greater in the Hominidae than in the conservative anthropoids, but it is not unlikely that during a profound change of life habits evolution sometimes proceeds more rapidly than in the more familiar cases where uninterrupted adaptations proceed in a single direction.

6. _Homo heidelbergensis_ appears to be directly ancestral to all the later Hominidae.

_On the evolution of human food habits._

While all the great apes are prevailingly frugivorous, and even their forerunners in the Lower Oligocene have the teeth well adapted for piercing the tough rinds of fruits and for chewing vegetable food, yet they also appear to have at least a latent capacity for a mixed diet. The digestive tract, especially of the chimpanzee and gorilla, is essentially similar to that of man and at least some captive chimpanzees thrive upon a mixed diet including large quantities of fruits, vegetables and bread and small quantities of meat[1352]. Mr R. L. Garner, who has spent many years in studying the African anthropoids in their wild state, states[1353] that "their foods are mainly vegetable, but that flesh is an essential part of their diet." Other observers state[1354] that the gorilla and chimpanzee greedily devour young birds as well as eggs, vermin and small rodents.

Even the existing anthropoids, although highly conservative both in brain development and general habits, show the beginning of the use of the hands, and trained anthropoids can perform quite elaborate acts. At a time when tough-rined tubers and fruits were still the main element of the diet the nascent Hominidae may have sought out the lairs and nesting places of many animals for the purpose of stealing the young and thus they may have learned to fight with and kill the enraged parents. They had also learned to fight in protecting their own nesting places and young. And possibly they killed both by biting, as in carnivores, and by strangling, or, in the case of a small animal, by dashing it violently down.

We may conceive that the Upper Tertiary ape-men, in the course of their dispersal from a south central Asiatic centre[1355], entered regions where flint-bearing formations were abundant. In some way they learned perhaps that these "Eolith" flints could be used to smash open the head of a small strangled animal, to crack open tough vegetables, or to mash substances into an edible condition. Much later, after the mental association of hand and flint had been well established, they may have struck at intruders with the flints with which they were preparing their food and in this way they may have learned to use the heavier flints as hand axes and daggers. At a very early date they learned to throw down heavy stones upon an object to smash it, and this led finally to the hurling of flints at men and small game. Very early also they had learned to swing a heavy piece of wood or a heavy bone as a weapon. For all such purposes shorter and stockier arms are more advantageous than the long slender arms of a semi-quadrupedal ancestral stage and I have argued above (p. 333) that a secondary shortening and thickening of the arms ensued.

One of the first medium-sized animals that the nascent Hominidae would be successful in killing was the wild boar, which in the Pleistocene had a wide Palaearctic distribution.

From the very first the ape-men were more or less social in habits and learned to hunt in packs. Whether the art of hunting began in south central Asia or in Europe, perhaps one of the first large animals that men learned to kill after they had invaded the open country was the horse, because, when a pack of men had surrounded a horse, a single good stroke with a coup-de-poing upon the brain-case might be sufficient to kill it.

I have argued above (p. 321) that the retraction of the dental arch and the reduction of the canines is not consistent with the use of meat as food, because men learned to use rough flints, in place of their teeth, to tear the flesh and to puncture the bones, and because the erect incisors, short canines and bicuspids were highly effective in securing a powerful hold upon the tough hide and connective tissue. It must be remembered that with a given muscular power small teeth are more easily forced into meat than large teeth.

After every feast there would be a residuum of hide and bones which would gradually assume economic value. The hides of animals were at first rudely stripped off simply to get at the meat. Small sharp-edged natural flints could be used for this purpose as well as to cut the sinews and flesh. After a time it was found that the furry sides of these hides were useful to cover the body at night or during a storm. Thus the initial stage in the making of clothes may have been a byproduct of the hunting habit.

Dr Matthew (_loc. cit._ pp. 211, 212) has well suggested that man may have learned to cover the body with the skins of animals in a cool temperate climate (such as that on the northern slopes of the Himalayas) and that afterward they were able to invade colder regions. The use of rough skins to cover the body must have caused exposure to new sources of annoyance and infection, but we cannot affirm that natural selection was the cause of the reduction of hair on the body and of the many correlated modifications of glandular activity. We can only affirm that a naked race of mammals must surely have had hairy ancestors and that the loss of hair on the body was probably subsequent to the adoption of predatory habits.

The food habits of the early Hominidae, and thus indirectly the jaws and teeth, were later modified through the use of fire for softening the food. Men had early learned to huddle round the dying embers of forest fires that had been started by lightning, to feed the fire-monster with branches, and to carry about firebrands. They learned eventually that frozen meat could be softened by exposing it to the fire. Thus the broiling and roasting of meat and vegetables might be learned even before the ways of kindling fire through percussion and friction had been discovered. But the full art of cooking and the subsequent stages in the reduction of the jaws and teeth in the higher races probably had to await the development of vessels for holding hot water, perhaps in neolithic times.

This account of the evolution of the food habits of the Hominidae will probably be condemned by experimentalists, who have adduced strong evidence for the doctrine that "acquired characters" cannot be inherited. But, whatever the explanation may be, it is a fact that progressive changes in food-habits and correlated changes in structure have occurred in thousands of phyla, the history of which is more or less fully known. Nobody with a practical knowledge of the mechanical interactions of the upper and lower teeth of mammals, or of the progressive changes in the evolution of shearing and grinding teeth, can doubt that the dentition has evolved _pari passu_ with changes in food habits. Whether, as commonly supposed, the food habits changed before the dentition, or _vice versa_, the evidence appears to show that the Hominidae passed through the following stages of evolution:

1. A chiefly frugivorous stage, with large canines and parallel rows of cheek teeth (cf. _Sivapithecus_).

2. A predatory, omnivorous stage, with reduced canines and convergent tooth rows (cf. _Homo heidelbergensis_).

3. A stage in which the food is softened by cooking and the dentition is more or less reduced in size and retrograde in character, as in modernized types of _H. sapiens_.

The following is an abbreviation of Gregory's arrangement of the Primates (pp. 266, 267).

Order Primates Suborder Lemuroidea Suborder Anthropoidea Series Platyrrhinae [New World monkeys] Fam. Cebidae Fam. Hapalidae [Marmosets] Series Catarrhinae [Old World monkeys] Fam. Parapithecidae [extinct] Fam. Cercopithecidae Fam. Simiidae Sub-fam. Hylobatinae [Gibbons] Sub-fam. Simiinae [Simians or Anthropoid apes]

By the courtesy of the author we are permitted to reproduce his provisional diagram of the phylogeny of the Hominidae and Simiidae (p. 337).

The following explanation is offered for the convenience of those who may not be familiar with the technical terms here employed.

_Simia_, the genus containing the orang-utan.

_Pan_, a name occasionally employed for the genus containing the chimpanzee. Most authorities place the chimpanzee and the gorilla in the genus Anthropopithecus.

_Hylobatinae_, the sub-family containing the gibbons.

_Palaeopithecus_, _Dryopithecus_, _Palaeosimia_, and _Sivapithecus_ are extinct simians.

_Pan vetus_ is the name suggested by Miller[1356] for the supposed chimpanzee whose jaw was found associated with the Piltdown cranium. He says "The Piltdown remains include parts of a brain-case showing fundamental characters not hitherto known except in members of the genus _Homo_, and a mandible, two molars, and an upper canine showing equally diagnostic features hitherto unknown, except in members of the genus _Pan_ [_Anthropopithecus_]. On the evidence furnished by these characters the fossils must be supposed to represent either a single individual belonging to an otherwise unknown extinct genus (_Eoanthropus_) or to two individuals belonging to two now-existing families (_Hominidae_ and _Pongidae_)." He argues that the jaw was actually that of a chimpanzee and that the cranium was that of a true man, whom he terms _Homo Dawsoni_. Gregory accepts this hypothesis. W. P. Pycraft[1357] has submitted Miller's data and conclusions to searching criticism and bases his deductions on far more ample material than that at the disposal of Miller. He says "That the Piltdown jaw does present many points of striking resemblance to that of the chimpanzee is beyond dispute. Dr Smith Woodward pointed out these resemblances long ago, in his original description of the jaw. But Mr Miller contends that because of these resemblances therefore it _is_ the jaw of a chimpanzee" (_loc. cit._ p. 408). Pycraft points out that there is more variability in the jaws of chimpanzees than Miller was aware of, and that most of the features of the Piltdown jaw are well within the limits of human variation; in discussing the conformation of the inner surface of the body of the jaw he says "Between the two extremes seen in the jaws of chimpanzees every gradation will be found, but in no case would there be any possibility of confusing the Piltdown fragment, or any similar fragment of a modern human jaw, with similar fragments of chimpanzee jaws" (p. 407).

FOOTNOTES:

[1352] A. Keith, "On the Chimpanzees and their Relationship to the Gorilla," _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_, 1899, I. p. 296.

[1353] _Science_, Vol. XLII. Dec. 10, 1915, p. 843.

[1354] A. H. Keane, _Ethnology_, 1901, p. 111.

[1355] W. D. Matthew, "Climate and Evolution," _Ann. New York Acad. Sci._ XXIV. 1915, pp. 210, 214.

[1356] Gerrit S. Miller, "The Jaw of Piltdown Man," _Smithsonian Misc. Coll._ Vol. 65, No. 12, 1915.

[1357] "The Jaw of the Piltdown Man, a Reply to Mr Gerrit S. Miller," _Science Progress_, No. 43, 1917, p. 389.

INDEX

Thanks are due to Hilary and Patrick Quiggin for help in the preparation, and to Miss L. Whitehouse for help in the revision, of the index.

Ababdeh, the, 483

Abaka, the, 78

Abbadie, A. d', 123

Abbot, W. J. L., 7

Abipone, the, 420

Abkhasian language, the, 541

Abnaki, the, 354, 375, and map, pp. 334-5

Abo, the, 117

Abor, the, 170 _n._

Abud, H. M., 484 sq.

Abydos, excavations at, 481

Abyssinians, the, 468 sq.

Achaeans, the, 463, 466, 533 sq.

Acheulean culture, 11, 14

Achinese, the, 223, 238 sq.

Acolhuas, the, 342, 394

Acoma, the, 382 _n._

Adam, L., 283, 415 _n._

Adelung, J. C., 127 _n._

Aderbaijani, the, 312

Aegean, the, culture of, 25 sq., 463 sqq., 467 sq., 501 sq.; prehistoric chronology of, 27; race, 466

Aeneolithic period, 21, 460

Aeta, the, 138, 149, 156 sqq., and Pl. II fig. 3

Afars, the, 468 sq., 484 sqq.

Afghans, the, 542 sq., 546

Ahoms, the, 192

Ahtena, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5

Aimaks, the, 312

Aimores. _See_ Botocudos

Ainu, the, 289, 294 sq., and Pl. VII figs. 1, 2

Akkadians, the, 261 sqq., 264

Akua. _See_ Cherentes

Alakalufs, the, 411; language of, 413

Alans, the, 312, 540

Albanians, the, 532, 538 sq.

Algonquian linguistic stock, the, 342, 347, 354 sq., 370 sqq., 381

Algonquin, the, 347 _n._ and map, pp. 334-5

Alldridge, T. J., 56 _n._

Alpine race, the, 449, 452 sq., Pl. XI figs. 3, 4, 6, and Pl. XIV figs. 3-6; in the Morea, 465; in Western Asia, 498, 504; in Scandinavia, 509; in Germany, 509 sq.; in France, 510, 525 sqq.; in the Tyrol, 512; and the Celts, 514 sq.; in Britain, 516 sqq.; in Italy, 529; in Russia, 539 sq.; in Irania, 541 sqq.; in Central Asia, 544 sq.; in India, 547 sq.

Altamira cave art, 13

Alur, the, 79

Ama-Fingu, the, 102

Ama-Tembu, the, 104

Ama-Xosa, the, 101

Ama-Zulu, the, 101

Amias, the, 250

Ammon, O., 511

Ammonites, the, 490

Amorites, the, 489 sq., 493, 545

Anau, exploration of, 257 sq.

Andaman Islanders, the, 138, 149 sqq., 155, 158, and Pl. II fig. 1

Anderson, J. D., 546 _n._

Anderson, John, 186 _n._

Andi language, the, 541

Andrae, W., 264 _n._

Angami Naga, the, 178; language, 177

A-Ngoni, the, 102

Annamese, the, 180, 202 sqq.

Annandale, N., 153, 222 _n._

Anorohoro, the, 242

Ansariyeh, the, 497

Antankarana, the, 241

Antimerina. _See_ Hova

Anu, the, 197

Anuchin, A., 289

Apaches, the, 342, 354, 383

Aquitani, the, 525

Arabs, the, 468, 470 sqq., 480, 488, 495, 498 sqq.

Arakanese, the, 180

Aramaeans, the, 489 sq.

Aramka, the, 73

Arapaho, the, 354, 370, 372, 374, and map, pp. 334-5

Araucanians, the, 409 sqq.; language, 412

Arawakan linguistic stock, 415 sq.

Arawaks, the, 348, 399, 416

Arbois de Jubainville, M. H. d', 459, 514 _n._

Arcadians, the, 466

Argentina, fossil man in, 338

Arikara, the, 355, 371, and map, pp. 334-5

Aristov, N. A., 316 _n._

Arldt, T., 93

Armenians, the, 449, 498, 545, and Pl. XIV figs. 3, 4

Armenoids, the, 449, 450 sq., 479, 481, 497 sq.

Aruan, the, 416

Arunta, the, 429, 435 sqq.

Arvernians. _See_ Alpine race

Aryan languages. _See_ Indo-European languages

"Aryans," the, 441 sq., 449, 501 sqq.; "cradle" of, 503 sq.

Aryans, the, in India, 505 sq., 545 sq., 550 and Pl. XV figs. 1-3

Aryo-Dravidian type, Risley's, 546

Asha, the, 485

Ashango, the, 115

Ashanti, the, 58 sq.

Ashe, R. P., 95 _n._

Ashluslays, the, 421

Aspelin, J. R., 309 _n._, 319

Assami, the, 193, 550

Assiniboin, the, 355, 370, 372, and map, pp. 334-5

Assyrians, the, 488 sq., 492

Atacamenos, the, 408

Atarais, the, 416

Athapascan linguistic stock, the, 342, 347, 354, 363, 383

Atharaka, the, 97 _n._

Aucaes. _See_ Araucanians

Auetoe, the, 348, 419

Aurignacian man, 2, 9, 10; culture, 12, 14

Australians, the, 422, 426-437, and Pl. X figs. 5, 6; languages of, 428 sqq.

Austronesian languages, 221, 223, 240

Autenrieth, H. von, 237 _n._

Avars, the, 310, 326, 329 sq., 531

Ayamats, the, 52

Aymara, the, 407, 419

Aysa, the, 485

Azandeh, the, 44

Azilian culture, 12 sqq.

Aztecs, the, 384, 389-395, 397

Babine, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5

Babir, the, 70

Babylonia, Copper Age in, 22; Bronze Age in, 24; chronology, 27, 264 sq.; writing, 32 sqq.; influence of, on China, 207 sq.; inhabitants, 261 sqq., 488 sq., 491 sqq.; religion, 268; social system, 269; culture, 270 sq., 491; connection with Egypt, 481

Badakhshi, the, 544

Baele, the, 73

Baelz, E., 294, 296 _n._

Ba-Fiot. _See_ Eshi-Kongo

Ba-Ganda, the, 44, 94 sqq., 248

Ba-Gesu, the, 91 _n._

Baggara, the, 74, 471 _n._

Baghirmi, the, 69, 72

Bagobo, the, 247

Bahau, the, 231

Ba-Hima, the, 91, 93, 468, 484, 486

Ba-Huana, the, 115

Baining, the, 142

Bajau, the, 228

Ba-Kalai, the, 115

Bakairi, the, 348, 415

Ba-Kene, the, 91

Ba-Kish, the, 117

Ba-Kundu, the, 117

Ba-Kwiri, the, 117

Balagnini, the, 228

Balbi, A., 420 _n._

Balinese, the, 224

Balkashin, M., 316 _n._

Ball, C. J., 208 _n._

Ball, J., Dyer, 212 _n._, 216 _n._

Baloch, the, 546

Ba-Lolo, the, 110, 114

Ba-Long, the, 117

Balti, the, 167

Balto-Slavs, the, 506

Ba-Luba, the, 113

Ba-Mangwato, the, 109

Ba-Mba, the, 112

Bambara, the, 49, 50

Bancroft, H. H., 353

Bandelier, A. F., 383 _n._

Bandziri, the, 87

Banjars, the, 52

Bantu, the, compared with Sudanese Negro, 44 sqq.; Chap. IV. _passim_; in Madagascar, 239 sq.

Ba-Nyai, the, 105

Ba-Nyoro, the, 92

Banyuns, the, 52

Ba-Puti, the, 109

Bara, the, 244 sq.

Barabra, the, 75 sqq., 484

Barawan, the, 231

Barea, the, 42

Bari, the, 78, 79

Ba-Rolong, the, 106

Ba-Rotse, the, 106 sqq.

Barrett, W. E. H., 100 _n._

Barth, H., 51, 64 _n._, 65 sq., 70 sq., 72 _n._

Bary, E. von, 446 _n._

Ba-Sa, the, 117

Ba-Sange, the, 113

Base, the, 42

Ba-Senga, the, 105

Ba-Shilange, the, 110, 113

Bashkirs, the, 303, 318 sq., 328 _n._

Ba-Soga, the, 91 _n._

Ba-Songe, the, 113

Basques, the, 454 sqq., 526 sq.

Bastarnae, the, 326, 507

Ba-Suto, the, 104, 106

Batak, the, 247

Ba-Tanga, the, 117

Ba-Tau, the, 109

Batchelor, J., 295 _n._

Ba-Teke, the, 115

Bateman, C. S. L., 113

Bates, O., 468

Ba-Teso, the, 91 _n._

Ba-Thonga, the, 102

Ba-Tlapin, the, 106

Batta, the, 237 sq.

Ba-Twa, the, 125, 130

Bavaria, blond type in, 510; Mongoloid traits in, 512 _n._

Baya, the, 88

Ba-Yanzi, the, 120

Ba-Yong, the, 117

Bayots, the, 52

Bean, R. B., 248

Beaver, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5

Beccari, O., 231 _n._

Be-Chuana, the, 44, 49, 104, 106, 108 sq.

Beddoe, J., 449, 462, 522

Bede, the, 70

Bedouin, the, 499 sq., 545, and Pl. XII fig. 5

Beech, M. W. H., 486 _n._

Behr, V. D. v., 450 _n._

Beja, the, 76 sq., 443, 468 sq., 483 sq.

Bektash, the, 497

Belck, W., 26 _n._

Belgae, the, 526 sq.

Belgium, neolithic inhabitants of, 451

Bellacoola, the, 363, and map, pp. 334-5

Bengali, the, 547, 550

Beni Amer, the, 483 sq.

Bent, J. T., 44, 89, 105, 466 _n._, 493

Bentley, W. H., 111, 119

Berbers, the, 448, 449 _n._, 450 sqq., 453, 468-472, 476; language of, 453 sqq., 472 sq.

Bernard, A., 137

Berrakis, the, 544

Bertholon, L., 448

Bertin, G., 129

Bertrand, A., 457

Bertrand-Bocande, M., 53 _n._

Betoya, linguistic stock, 415

Betsileo, the, 242 sqq.

Betsimisaraka, the, 242 sq.

Beuchat, H., 389 _n._, 392, 394 _n._, 397 _n._, 399, 406 _n._, 421 _n._

Bhotiya, the, 169 sq.

Bicol, the, 221 _n._, 247

Biddulph, J., 542 _n._, 543 sq.

Bigandet, P., 186, 190

Bigger, F. J., 520

Billet, A., 197 sq.

Binger, L. G., 50 _n._, 52, 62

Bingham, H., 405 _n._

Bini, the, 58 sq.

Bird, G. W., 188 _n._

Bisayas, the, 221

Bisharin, the, 483 sq., and Pl. XIII figs. 1, 2

Bishop, I. (Bird), 197 _n._, 218 _n._, 293 _n._

Blackfoot. _See_ Siksika

Blagden, C. O., 153 _n._, 154 _n._, 222 _n._, 426 _n._

Bleek, E. D., 128 _n._

Bleek, W. H. I., 118, 128 sq.

Blood Indians. _See_ Kainah

Blumentritt, F., 156 _n._

Blundell, H. Weld, 487 _n._

Boas, F., 343, 347 _n._, 358 sq., 364 sqq., 367 _n._

Bock, Carl, 192 _n._, 194

Bodo, the, 547

Bod-pa, the, 168 sq., 171

Bogoras, W., 288, 341

Boghaz Keui, 496, 502 _n._

Bollaert, W., 403 _n._

Bongo, the, 78 sq.

Bonjo, the, 87

Bonvalot, P. G., 544

Booth, A. J., 34 _n._

Borgu, the, 62

Bori, the, 170 _n._

Borlase, W. C., 520

Borneo, natives of, 230 sqq.

Boro, the, 414

Bororo, the, 411 sq., 415

Borreby type, the, 509 _n._

Botocudo, the, 416 sqq.

Bottego, V., 81 _n._

Boule, M., 8 sq.

Bove, G., 413

Bowditch, C. P., 393 _n._

Brahui, the, 546, 550

Braknas, the, 469

Bretons, the, 449 _n._, 529 sq.

Brett, E. A. de, 548 _n._

Breuil, H., 13 _n._

Bridges, T., 401 _n._, 413

Brinton, D. G., 337

Britain, neolithic inhabitants of, 451 sqq.; and prehistoric trade routes, 501; races of, 516 sqq., 524

Broca, P., 456, 512

Brocklehurst, T. U., 393 _n._, 397 _n._

Brogger, W. C., 14

Brooks, W. K., 399

Brown, A. R., 151, 431 _n._, 432 sqq.

Brown, G., 146 _n._, 555 _n._

Brown, J. M., 353, 552 _n._, 555 _n._

Brown, R., 181 _n._

Brown, R. Grant, 190

Brueckner, E., 13 sqq.

Bruenn, skeleton, the, 9

Bruex skull, the, 9

Brythons, the, 515

Budini, the, 536

Buduma, the, 69

Bugis, the, 224, 226 sqq., 236

Bukidnon, the, 247

Bulala, the, 73

Bulams, the, 53

Bulgarians, the, 532

Bulgars, the, 318, 326 sqq., 329

Burduna, the, 435

Burish dialect, 542 _n._

Burmese, the, 180, 188 sqq., 547; language, 177 _n._

Burton, Sir R., 116

Bury, J. B., 303 _n._

Buryats, the, 272, 277

Buschmann, K. E., 393

Bushmen, the, 12, 30, 226 sqq., and Pl. I figs. 5, 6; traces of, in Egypt, 476

Bwais, the, 187

Byrne, J., 283, 346 _n._

Byron-Gordon G., 397

Caddo, the, 355

Caddoan linguistic stock, the, 355, 381

Cagayans, the, 247

California, Indians of, 368 sqq. _See_ map, pp. 334-5

Callilehet, the, 411

Cambeba, the, 419 _n._

Cambojans, the, 180

Canaanites, the, 489 sq., 493, 503

Canary Islands, natives of the, 448, 450, 480

Capitan, L., 9 _n._

Carabuyanas, the, 348

Carapaches, the, 414

Carey, S., 183

Cariban linguistic stock, 415

Caribs, the, 399, 415 sq., and Pl. IX fig. 1

Carpin, J. du P., 328 _n._

Carrier, the, 361 sq., and map, pp. 334-5

Carruthers, D., 257

Cartailhac, E., 13 _n._

Cashibos, the, 414

Castren, M. A., 278, 317

Catios, the, 400 sq.

"Caucasic," definition of, 440 sq.; peoples, Chaps. XIII, XIV, XV; type in Central Asia, 291 sq.; in Finno-Turki Mongols, 300 sqq.

Caucasus, racial elements in the, 540 sq.

Cayuga, the, 354, 377

Cebunys, the, 342

Celts, the, 442, 457, 459, 462 _n._, 506, 513 sqq., 525; language of, 453, 512, 515

Cesnola, L. P. di, 463

Chadwick, H. M., 465 _n._, 466 _n._, 507 _n._, 508 _n._, 513 _n._

Chaldeans, the, 490

Chalmers, J., 146 _n._

Chamberlain, A. F., 344, 375 _n._

Chamberlain, B. H., 296 sq.

Champas, the, 166, 180, 203

Champion, A. M., 97 _n._

Chanda, Ramaprasad, 547

Chandra Das, S., 169 _n._, 175 _n._

Chanler, W. A., 124

Chantre, E., 540

Chao, the, 411

Chatelperron industry, the, 12

Chavanne, J., 446

Chavero, A., 393 _n._

Chechenz language, 541

Chekhs, the, 331, 532, 537

Chellean culture, 7, 11, 14 sq.

Cheremisses, the, 325

Cherentes, the, 417

Cherokee, the, 32 _n._, 342, 354, 378, and map, pp. 334-5

Chervin, A., 407

Cheyenne, the, 354, 357, 370, 372, 374, and map, pp. 334-5

Chibcha, the, 402 sqq., 421 _n._

Chichimecs, the, 342, 388 _n._, 394

Chickasaw, the, 355, 378, and map, pp. 334-5

Chilasi, the, 544

Chiliks, the, 316

Chimakuan, the, 363

Chimmesayan, the, 355

Chimu, the, 407 sq.

China, prehistoric age in, 30 sq.

Chinese, the, 193 sqq., 206 sqq.

Chingpaws. _See_ Singpho

Chinhwans, the, 250

Chinook, the, 363, 366, and map, pp. 334-5

Chins, the, 182 sqq.

Chipewyan, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5

Chiquito, the, 348, 420

Chiriqui, the, 400, 421 _n._

Chiru, the, 178

Chitimachan, the, 381

Chocos, the, 400 sq.

Choctaw, the, 355, 378, and map, pp. 334-5

Choglengs, the, 417

Chontals, the, 400

Choroti, the, 421

Christian, F. W., 555 _n._

Chudes, the, 258, 301, 317, 319 sq.

Chukchi, the, 274 sq., 277, 285 sqq., 344

Church, G. E., 348

Churchill, W., 552 _n._

Cimbri, the, 507

Circassians, the, 541

Clark, C. U., 317 _n._

Clifford, H., 153 sqq., 227 _n._, 229

Clozel, F. J., 88, 90

Coahuila, the, 342

Cochiti, the, 382 _n._

Cockburn, J., 166 _n._

Cocks, A. H., 323

Cocoma, the, 401

Cocopa, the, 383, and Pl. VIII fig. 3

Coconuco, the, 404

Codrington, R., 102 _n._

Codrington, R. H., 146 _n._, 241 _n._

Coffey, G., 23 _n._, 26, 520 _n._

Cole, Fay-Cooper, 248 _n._

Collas, the, 406 sq.

Collignon, R., 448, 455 sq., 469

Colquhoun, A. R., 193 _n._, 202

Colvile, Z., 243 _n._, 244

Comanche, the, 355, 370, 372, and map, pp. 334-5

Combe Capelle skeleton, the, 9, 10

Conestoga, the, 354

Conibos, the, 414

Conway, R. S., 453 _n._, 457 _n._, 467 _n._, 513 _n._, 529

Congo pygmies, the, 122, 125; in Egypt, 122, 124, 476

Cook, S. A., 494 _n._

Cool, W., 225

Cooper, J. M., 413 _n._

Coorgs, the, 546 sq.

Corequajes, the, 415 _n._

Coroados. _See_ Kames

Corsicans, the, 461

Cowan, W. D., 242 _n._

Coyaima, the, 402

Crawfurd, J., 146 sq.

Cree, the, 354; Plains-Cree, 371; Wood-Cree, 375, and map, pp. 334-5

Creek, the, 355, 378 sq., and map, pp. 334-5

Crete, bronze in, 25; iron in, 26; exploration in, 463, 467; Pelasgians in, 464, 466; language, 454; and prehistoric trade routes, 502

Crevaux, J., 415 _n._

Croatians, the, 532, 537 sq.

Cro-Magnon skeletons, the, 9, 448, 450

Crook, Dr W., 189 _n._, 306 _n._, 308 _n._, 445 _n._, 548

Crossland, C., 484 _n._

Crow, the, 355, 370, 372, and map, pp. 334-5

Cummins, S. L., 79 _n._

Cunas, the, 400

Cunningham, A., 176

Cunningham, J. F., 94 _n._

Curzon, G. N., Lord, 204

Cushing, F. H., 381, 385 _n._, 387 _n._

Cyprus, 463; Pelasgians in, 464, 467; and prehistoric trade routes, 502

Czaplicka, M. A., 275, 277 _n._, 325

Dadikes. _See_ Tajiks

Daflas, the, 170

Dahae, the, 306 sq.

Dahle, L., 241, 245

Dahomi, the, 58 sq.

Dakota, the, 355, 370 sqq., and Pl. VIII figs. 5, 6

Dalton, E. T., 170 _n._, 186 _n._, 192 _n._, 548

Dalton, O. M., 62

Damant, G. H., 178 _n._

Damara. See Ova-Herero

Dames, M. Longworth, 548 _n._

Danakil. See Afars

Danes, the, 449, and Pl. XI figs. 1-3

Dards, the, 167

Darod, the, 485

Darwazi, the, 544

Darwin, C., 401 _n._, 413

Dauri, the, 281

Dawson, C., 3 _n._, 6 _n._

Daza, the, 473

Dechelette, J., on the prehistoric period, 11 _n._, 13 _n._, 21 _n._, 22 _n._, 25 _n._, 26, 27 _n._, 28 _n._, 35; Iberians, 455 _n._; Ligurians, 456 sqq.; Siculi, 460 _n._; AEgean chronology, 467 _n._; trade routes, 502 _n._

Decle, L., 91

Deggaras, the, 68

Dehiya. _See_ Dahae

Dehwar. _See_ Tajik

Delaware (Leni Lenape), language, 349

Dene (Tinneh), the, 354, 361 sqq., and map, pp. 334-5

Deniker, J., 38 _n._, 240 _n._, 295, 340, 413 _n._, 469, 483 _n._, 511, 539

Denmark, Alpine type in, 509

Dennett, R. E., 45 _n._, 58 _n._

Deodhaings, the, 192

Desgodins, P., 167 _n._, 170 _n._, 171, 196, 197 _n._

Dewey, H., 10 _n._

Dhe. _See_ Dahae

Diaramocks, the, 250

Diasu, the, 197

Dieseldorff, E. P., 342, 389

Dinka, the, 46, 78 sqq., 484

Dittmar, C. von, 286

Diula, the, 51 _n._

Dixon, R. B., 347, 355 sq.

Dog Rib, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5

Doko, the, 123

Dongolawi, the, 75

Dorians, the, 466, 468, 505, 534

Doerpfeld, W., 466

Dorsey, G. A., 372 _n._ sqq., 385 _n._

Dottin, G., 514 _n._

Dravidians, the, 428, 546 sq., 549 sqq., and Pl. XV figs. 4, 5; language, 550

Dris, Rajah, 230

Drouin, M., 307

Dru-pa, the, 168

Druses, the, 498, 545

Du Bois, C. G., 370

Dubois, E., 3 _n._

Dubois, F., 65

Duckworth, W. L. H., 2 _n._, 3 _n._, 4 _n._, 8, 243, 343 _n._

Dume, the, 123 sq.

Dumont, A., 447

Dundas, C., 486 _n._

Dungan, the, 311

Duodez language, 541

Durani, the, 543

Durkheim, E., 430

Dusun, the, 230 sq.

Dwaish, the, 469

Dwala (Duala), the, 47 _n._, 117

Dybowski, M., 86 sq.

Dzo, the, 178

Ebisu, the, 261

Edkins, J., 211 _n._

Edomites, the, 490

Efiks, the, 117

Egypt, Copper Age in, 21 sq.; Bronze Age in, 24 sq.; Iron Age in, 26; prehistoric chronology, 27; writing, 32 sq.; Pelasgian influence in, 464; racial elements in, 474-481; and Babylonia, 481, 501; and Palestine, 493

Egyptians, the, 450, 453, 455, 468, 474-483

Ehrenreich, P., 38, 331, 347 sq., 410 sq., 415, 417, 420, 441, 443

Elam, Copper Age in, 22; Bronze Age in, 25

Elamites, the, 266

Eliot, C., 97 _n._

Eliri, the, 75

Ellis, A. B., 47 _n._, 55 _n._, 58 sqq., 119

Ellis, Havelock, 528

Elphinstone, Mountstuart, 544

Emerillons, the, 419

Emmons, G. T., 363 _n._

Endle, S., 548 _n._

Enoch, C. R., 353

_Eoanthropus Dawsoni._ _See_ Piltdown

Eolithic period, 10

Ephthalites. _See_ Ye-tha

Ercilla, A. de, 409 _n._

Erie, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5

Eshi-Kongo, the, 110, 112, 248

Eskimauan linguistic stock, the, 354

Eskimo, the, Alaskan, 343, 357 sq., 401; Labrador, 343, 357 sq.; Asiatic, 344; "blonde," 360; _see also_ map, pp. 334-5, and Pl. VIII fig. 1

Esthonians, the, 320

Ethiopians. _See_ Eastern Hamites

Etruscan language, 453

Etruscans, the, 512 sq.

Euahlayi, the, 436

Europaeus, D. E. D., 319 _n._

Evans, Sir A. J., 454 _n._, 463

Evans, Sir J., 7

Ewe, the, 46, 58

Faidherbe, L. L. C., 450

Falghars, the, 543

Fallmerayer, J. P., 535

Fans, the (West Africa), 81 _n._, 115

Fans, the (Zerafshan), 543

Fanti, the, 58 sq.

Farrand, L., 354, 386 _n._

Featherman, A., 62 _n._

Feist, S., 452, 454, 457 _n._, 503 _n._, 504 sq., 507 _n._, 513, 527 _n._

Felups, the, 52 sq.

Fenner, C. N., 339

Fermuli. _See_ Purmuli

Fewkes, J. W., 350, 384 sqq., 387 _n._

Finlay, G., 535 _n._

Finno-Turki Mongols, the, Chap. IX. _passim_

Finno-Ugrians, the, 319 sq.; language, 454

Finns, the, 317 sqq., 504, 508, 531, 536 _n._; Danubian, 318; Volga, 318, 320; Baltic, 320 sq.; Tavastian, 320, 322; Karelian, _ib._

Finsch, O., 146 _n._

Fishberg, M., 496 _n._

Fitzgerald, W. W. A., 98

Fitz-Roy, R., 413

Five Nations, the, 354, 375, 377

Flat-heads (Columbia River). _See_ Chinook

Flat-heads (Inland Salish), the, 343, 366

Fleischer, H. L., 241

Fletcher, A. C., 372 _n._ sq.

Fleure, H. J., 522

Flower, Sir W., 123

Foerstemann, E., 342, 389 sq., 394, 396

Folkmar, D., 156 _n._

Foote, R. B., 545 _n._

Forbes, C. J. F. S., 147, 188 _n._

Foreman, J., 156, 246 _n._, 247 sq.

Formosa, aborigines of, 248 sqq.

Fouillee, A., 510 _n._

Foy, W., 236 _n._

Fraipont, J., 8 _n._

France, neolithic inhabitants of, 451 sq.; racial elements in, 510 sq., 525 sqq.

Frazer, Sir J. G., 364, 430

Freeman, E. A., 460 _n._

Friederici, G., 138 sq.

Friis, J. A., 323

Fritsch, G., 126

Frobenius, L., 62 _n._

Fuegians, the, 401, 411, 413

Fulah, the, 46, 53, 59, 66 sq., 73, 75, 90, 468, 476, 482 sq.

Fulani. _See_ Fulah

Fulbe. _See_ Fulah

Fuluns, the, 52

Funj, the, 78

Fur, the, 75

Furfooz brachycephals, the, 451

Furlong, C. W., 413 _n._

Furness, W. H., 234 _n._

Furtwaengler, A., 507

Ga, the, 58 sq.

Gabelenz, G. v. d., 454

Gadabursi, the, 485

Gaddanes, the, 157

Gadow, H., 395 _n._

Gagelin, Abbe, 204

Gaillard, R., 69 _n._

Gait, E. A., 192 _n._, 551 _n._

Galatians, the, 545

Galcha, the, 541, 543 sq.

Galchic language, 541 sqq.

Galibi, the, 416

Galla, the, 90 sqq., 98, 468, 485 sq.

Galley Hill skeleton, the, 8 sq.

Gallinas, the, 53

Gamergu, the, 70

Gannett, H., 248 _n._

Garamantes, the, 473

Garhwali, the, 170

Garner, R. L., 557

Gatschet, A. S., 379 _n._

Gauchos, the, 410

Gautier, J. E., 258

Geer, Baron G. de, 14 sq.

Geikie, J., 14, 16 _n._, 123 _n._

Gentil, E., 69

Georgians, the, 541

Gepidae, the, 329

Germanic race. _See_ Nordic race

Germans, the, 318, 321

Germany, racial elements in, 509 sq.

Gesan linguistic stock, 415 sq.

Getae, the, 326

Ghegs, the, 538

Ghuz. _See_ Oghuz

Giao-shi, the, 203

Gibbons, A. St H., 107 _n._

Gibraltar skull, the, 8

Gidley, J. W., 339

Giles, H. A., 215 _n._, 218 _n._, 280 _n._

Giles, P., 34 _n._, 453 _n._, 467, 503 _n._, 504

Gill, W., 197 _n._

Gillen, F. J., 430, 436 _n._

Gilyaks, the, 274 sq., 277, 285, 288 sq., 344, and Pl. VI fig. 6

Gladstone, J. H., 21, 24

Gleichen, A. E. W., 487 _n._

Goddard, P. E., 383 _n._

Godden, G. M., 177 _n._

Goez, B., 543

Goidels, the, 515

Gola, the, 53

Golds, the, 274 sq., 277, 289, and Pl. VI fig. 5

Goliki, the, 172

Golo, the, 78 sq.

Gomes, E. H., 234 _n._

Gonaqua, the, 128

Gorjanovi[vc]-Kramberger, 8 _n._

Gors, the, 544

Goths, the, 449, 508, 540

Gowland, W., 260

Graebner, F., 139, 350, 429 sqq.

Grasserie, R. de la, 345 _n._

Gravette industry, the, 12

Gray, J., 522

Greece, prehistoric chronology of, 27

Greeks, the, 463 sqq., 466, 532 sqq.

Gregory, W. K., 556, 559 sqq.

Grenard, F., 169 _n._

Grey, Sir G., 237

Grierson, G. A., 176 _n._, 177 _n._, 178 _n._, 546 _n._

Grimaldi skeletons, the, 447

Grinnell, G. B., 372 _n._, 375 _n._

Griqua, the, 128

Gros Ventre, the, 370, and map, pp. 334-5

Guacanabibes, the, 399

Guanches, the, 450, 468, 480

Guarani, the, 419. _See also_ Tupi-Guarani

Guatusos, the, 400, and Pl. IX fig. 2

Guillemard, F. H. H., 147 _n._, 247, 296 sq.

Guinness, H. G. (Mrs), 114

Gujarati, the, 547, 550

Guppy, H. B., 137

Gura'an, the, 73

Gurdon, P. R. T., 548 _n._

Gurkhas, the, 170

Gurungs, the, 170 _n._, 547

Habiru. _See_ Khabiri

Hackman, A., 261, 319 _n._

Hacquard, Pere, 65 _n._

Haddon, A. C., on Negrilloes, 126 _n._, 149 _n._, 154 _n._, 156 _n._; Melanesia, 135 _n._, 138 _n._, 146 _n._; Indonesians, 221 _n._; Borneo, 230 sqq., 426 _n._; America, 336 _n._, 341 _n._, 415 _n._, 416 _n._; Australia, 432 _n._; racial migrations, 292 _n._, 453 _n._, 483 _n._, 490 _n._, 493 _n._, 547 _n._

Hadendoa, the, 483 sq.

Haebler, K., 337 _n._

Hagar, S., 351

Hagen, B., 224

Hahne, H., 507 _n._

Haida, the, 363, and map, pp. 334-5

Hakas (Ki-li-Kisse), the, 310

Hakas, (Burma), the, 183, 185

Hakkas, the, 211, 249

Hale, H., 412

Halevy, J., 262

Hall, H. Fielding, 191 _n._

Hall, H. R. H., on prehistoric periods, 21 _n._, 26 _n._, 27 _n._, 43 _n._; Greece, 466 _n._, 533, 534 _n._

Hall, R. N., 89 _n._, 106 _n._

Hallett, H. S., 190 sq., 192 _n._, 201 _n._, 202 _n._

Hallstatt, Iron Age, culture of, 28 sq.

Hamada, K., 260

Hamilton, A., 170 _n._

Hamites, the, 441, 447, 468-487, 488, and Pl. XIII; Abyssinian, 486 sq.; Eastern, 468 sqq., 474 sqq., 483-7; Egyptian, 468, 474 sqq.; Northern, 468 sqq.

Hammer, G., 543

Hampel, J., 23, 24 _n._

Hamy, E. T., 50 _n._, 126, 221 _n._, 276, 290, 303

Hano, the, 382 _n._

Hans (San-San), the, 291

Harding, Sir A., 97

Hares, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5

Harri, the, 545

Harrison, H. S., 49 _n._

Harrison Lake. _See_ Lillooet

Hartland, E. S., 100 _n._, 120 _n._, 430, 436

Hausa, the, 44, 66 sqq., and Pl. I fig. I

Havasupai, the, 383

Hawes, C. H., 27 _n._, 534 _n._

Hawes, H. B., 27 _n._

Hawiya, the, 485

Hazaras, the, 312

Hebrews. _See_ Khabiri

Hedin, Sven, 257, 310

Heikel, A. O., 309

Hellenes, the, 463 sq., 466, 532

Helm, O., 24 _n._

Hermann, K. A., 262

Herve, G., 454

Hewitt, J. N. B., 375 _n._

Hickson, S. J., 119 _n._, 148 _n._

Hidatsa, the, 371, and map, pp. 334-5

Hill-Tout, C., 363 _n._, 367

Hilprecht, H. V., 265 _n._

Hilton-Simpson, M. W., 113 _n._

Himyarites, the, 487 sq., 499

Hirt, H., 503 _n._

Hirth, F., 210 _n._

Hittites, the, 449, 467, 490, 493, 496 sqq.

Hiung-nu, the, 291 sq., 305

Hobley, C. W., 97 _n._

Hodge, H., 385 _n._

Hodgson, B. H., 177

Hodson, T. C., 178, 181, 182 _n._, 548 _n._

Hoei, the, 211

Hoernle, A. F. R., 546 _n._

Hoffman, W. J., 375 _n._

Hogarth, D. G., 268 _n._, 496 _n._, 497 _n._

Hok-los, the, 211, 249

Hollis, A. C., 486 _n._

Holmes, T. Rice, 25 _n._, 174 _n._, 451 _n._; on the Mediterranean Race, 452-456, 459; Indo-Europeans, 505 _n._, 507 _n._; Celts, 514; Picts, 516; British round-heads, 517 _n._, 518; 525 _n._

Holmes, W. H., 339, 351, 357, 381 _n._, 387 _n._

Hommel, F., 210 _n._, 270

_Homo Alpinus_, 449 sq. _See also_ Alpine race

---- _Europaeus_, 449. _See also_ Nordic race

---- _heidelbergensis_, 8, 9. _See also_ Mauer jaw

---- _primigenius_, 8, 9. _See also_ Neandertal man

---- _recens_, 8 sqq.

Hooper, W. H., 286

Hoops, J., 507 _n._

Hopi, the, 355, 357, 382, 385, and map, pp. 334-5

Hor-pa, the, 172

Horsoks, the, 172

Hose, C., 231

Hottentots, the, 126 sqq., and Pl. I figs. 3, 4

Hough, W., 351, 385 _n._, 387 _n._

Houghton, B., 183

Hova, the, 224, 240, 242 sqq., 244 sq.

Howitt, A. W., 430, 435 _n._, 436

Howorth, Sir H. H., 172 _n._, 281, 302

Hrasso, the, 170

Hrdli[vc]ka, A., 338 sqq.

Huaxtecans, the, 388, 393 sqq., 396

Huaxtecs (Totonacs), the, 342, 388 sq., 395

Huc, E. R. (Abbe), 280

Huichols, the, 395 _n._

Huilli-che, the, 410

Hungarians, the, 317 _n._, 328 sqq.

Hungary, Copper Age in, 23

Huns, the, 307, 326 sqq., 531

Huntington, E., 165 _n._, 257, 263 _n._, 384 _n._

Hurgronje, C. S., 239 _n._

Huron, the, 354, 375, 378, and map, pp. 334-5

Hyades, P. D. J., 401 _n._, 413

Hyksos, the, 476, 490

"Hyperboreans," the, 285

Iban, the, 230, 232 sqq.

Ibara, the, 242

Ibea, the, 117

Iberians, the, 449, 452, 455 sq., 459, 525; language of, 454

Ibis, P., 249

Idoesh. _See_ Dwaish

Igorots (Igorrotes), the, 157, 247

Ihring, H. V., 270

Illanuns, the, 228 _n._

Illinois, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5

Illinois dialect, the, 354

Illyrians, the, 460 _n._, 529 _n._, 538

Ilocano, the, 247

Imeritian language, 541

Inca, the, 404-407, 421 _n._

Indo-Aryan type, Risley's, 546

Indo-European languages, 441 sq., 453, 456 sq., 502 sqq.; type, 504 sq.; migrations, 505 sqq.

Indo-Germanic. _See_ Indo-European

Indonesians, the, 221, 230, 235, 248 sq., 551 sq.

Ingham, E. G., 56 _n._, 57

Ingrians, the, 322

Iowa, the, 371, and map, pp. 334-5

Ipurina, the, 348, 416

Iranians, the, 506, 541 sqq., and Pl. XII fig. 6

Ireland, Copper Age in, 23; Bronze Age in, 25 sq., 502; racial elements in, 519 sqq.

Ireland, A., 191 _n._

Iroquoian linguistic stock, the, 354 sq., 375 sqq., 381

Iroquois, the, 342, 354 sq., 375 sqq., and map, pp. 334-5

Irula, the, 423, and Pl. X fig. 2

Ishak, the, 485

Ishogo, the, 115

Isleta, the, 382 _n._

Israelites, the, 490, 494

Italic language, 461 _n._

"Italici" of Sergi, 461 _n._

Italy, racial elements in, 528 sqq.

Itaves, the, 157

Itelmes. _See_ Kamchadales

Iungs (Njungs), the, 196

Ivanovski, A., 316 _n._

Iyer, L. K. A. K., 548 _n._

Jaalin, the, 74

Jackson, F. G., 324

Jackson, J. Wilfred, 353, 520 _n._

Jallonke the, 49, 51

Jaluo, the, 80

James, A. W., 386 _n._

James, G. C., 522

Jansens, the, 178

Japan, Stone Age in, 260 sq.

Japanese, the, 274, 294 sqq.; language, 297; religion, 297 sqq., and Pl. VII figs. 3, 4

Jastrow, M., 493 _n._, 500

Jats, the, 306 sqq., 546

Java, fossil man in, 3

Javanese, the, 224, 240

Jazyges, the, 326

Jemez, the, 382 _n._

Jenks, A. E., 247 sq., 375 _n._

Jequier, G., 475 _n._

Jette, J., 363

Jews, the, 494 sqq.

Jicarilla, the, 383, and map, pp. 334-5

Jigushes, the, 52

Joats, the, 52

Jochelson, W. I., 286 _n._

Johns, C. H. W., 265 _n._, 268 _n._, 491 _n._, 492 _n._, 493 _n._

Johnston, Sir H. H., on the Sudanese, 43 _n._, 45, 57 _n._, 65, 67 _n._, 86; Bantu, 92 sq., 94 _n._, 96 _n._, 106 _n._, 113 _n._, 116, 117 _n._; Bushman, 121 _n._, 126, 129 _n._, 229 _n._; Berbers, 452 _n._, 473 _n._; Egypt, 476 sq., 481 _n._; Fulah, 483

Johnson, J. P., 43 _n._, 161

Jola, the, 52

Jolof, the, 47

Jones, W., 377 _n._

Joyce, T. A., on Africa, 41 _n._, 43 _n._, 44 _n._, 113 _n._, 115 _n._, 468 _n._; Madagascar, 240, 244 sq.; Central Asia, 311, 545 _n._; Mexico, 342, 393 _n._, 395 _n._; Central America, 399; South America, 400 _n._, 403 _n._, 404 _n._, 407 _n._, 409 _n._, 410 _n._, 412 _n._

Jullian, C., 455, 457, 459

Junker, W., 79 sq., 82 sq., 122, 124

Junod, H. A., 102 _n._, 104 _n._

Juris, the, 348

Kababish, the, 74, 471 _n._, 484, and Pl. XII figs. 3, 4

Kabard language, the, 541

Kabinda, the, 110, 112 sq.

Kabuis, the, 178

Kabyles, the, 452

Kachins. _See_ Kakhyens

Kadayans, the, 232

Kadir, the, 423

Kai-Colo, the, 137 _n._, 343

Kainah, the, 374, and map, pp. 334-5

Kaingangs. _See_ Kames

Kaitish, the, 436, and, Pl. X fig. 5

Kajuna dialect, the, 542 _n._

Kakhyens, the, 182, 186, 193

Kalabit, the, 230 sq.

Kalapooian, the, 363, and map, pp. 334-5

Kalina, the, 416

Kalmuks, the, 272, 274 sq., 311, and Pl. VI fig. 4

Kamassintzi, the, 317

Kamayura, the, 348, 419

Kamchadales, the, 274 sq., 285 sqq., 344

Kames, the, 417

Kamjangs, the, 192

"Kanakas," the, 137

Kanarese, the, 549, and Pl. XV fig. 6

Kanembu, the, 69, 72 sq.

Kanet, the, 547

Kansa, the, 371

Kanuri, the, 69, 72

Kara, the, 75

Karagasses, the, 317

Kara-Kalpaks, the, 312

Kara-Kirghiz, the, 314, 316

Kara-Tangutans, the, 169

Karaya, the, 415

Karenni, the, 187

Karens, the, 182, 186 sq., 199

Kargo, the, 75

Karian inscriptions, 453

Karigina, the, 415 _n._

Karipuna, the, 414

Karons, the, 52

Karsten, R., 421 _n._

Kartweli, the, 541

Kasak, the, 316

Kashgarians, the, 311, 313 _n._

Kashmiri, the, 550

Kassonke, the, 49

Kattea. _See_ Vaalpens

Kauffmann, F., 504

Kavirondo, the, 91 _n._

Kawahla, the, 484

Kayan, the, 159 _n._, 231 sqq.

Kayapos, the, 417

Keith, A., 2 _n._, 3 _n._, 5 _n._, 6, 8 _n._, 9, 447, 511 _n._, 517 _n._, 557 _n._

Keller, C., 485

Kelt (Celt), use of term, 449, 512, 514

"Keltiberians," the, 527

Kelto-Slavs, the, 449

Kennan, G., 288 _n._

Kennan, R., 314

Kennelly, M., 212 _n._, 216 _n._

Kenyah, the, 231 sqq.

Keresans, the, 382 _n._

Keribina, the, 70

Kerrikerri, the, 70

Khabiri (Hebrews), the, 490, 493 sq.; religion of the, 500

Khamti, the, 180

Khanikoff, N. V., 542 sq.

Khanungs. _See_ Kiu-tse

Khas (Gurkha), the, 170

Khas (of Siam), the, 170 _n._

Khatri, the, 546

Khatti, the, 496

Khazars, the, 326, 494

Khemis, the, 188

Kheongs, the, 187

Kheta, the, 496

Khitans, the, 279

Khmers, the, 199

Khorvats. _See_ Croatians

Khos, the, 544

Khotana, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5

Khyengs, the, 188

Khyungthas, the, 188

Kiao-shi. _See_ Giao-shi

Kichai, the, 355

Kickapoo, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5

Kidd, D., 104 _n._

Kimmerians, the, 267 _n._

Kimos, the, 239

King, L. W., 23 _n._, 27 _n._, 262 _n._ sqq., 481 _n._, 491 _n._, 493 _n._, 497 _n._

King, P. P., 413

Kingsley, M. H., 58, 116

Kiowa, the, 370, 372, and map, pp. 334-5

Kiowa-Apache, the, 370

Kipchaks, the, 312, 315

Kirghiz, the, 274, 301, 303, 310 sq., 314 sqq.

Kitars, the, 316

Kiu-tse, the, 197

Klaatsch, H., 2, 9 _n._, 10 _n._

Klangklangs, the, 183

Klaproth, H. J., 306, 309 _n._

Kleinschmidt, S., 346 _n._

Klemantan, the, 231 sqq.

Klements, D. A., 310

Kloss, C. B., 252 _n._

Kobito, the, 260

Knowles, W. J., 520

Koch-Gruenberg, T., 415

Koeze, C. A., 248 _n._

Koganei, Y., 295 _n._

Kohistani, the, 544

Kohlbrugge, J. H., 230 _n._

Koibals, the, 317

Kolaji, the, 75

Koldewey, K., 264 _n._

Kollmann, J., 123

Kols, the, 548 sq.

Kolya, the, 178

Komans, the, 312

Kono, the, 53

Konow-Sten, 176 _n._, 177 _n._, 178 _n._

Koraqua, the, 128

Koreans, the, 274, 289 sqq., and Pl. VII fig. 5; Korean script, 294

Korinchi, the, 236

Koro-pok-guru, the, 260, 295

Koryak, the, 274 sq., 277, 285 sqq., 344

Kossacks. _See_ Kasak

Kossinna, G., 503 _n._

Kowalewsky, M., 540

Kraemer, A., 552 _n._, 555 _n._

Krapina skeletons, the, 8, 12

Krause, F., 415 _n._, 417

Kreitner, G., 194

Krej, the, 78

Kretschmer, P., 529 _n._

Kroeber, A. L., 347, 368 sqq., 374 _n._

Kropotkin, P. A., prince, 165 _n._

Kru, the, 53, 57 sq.

Kshtuts, the, 543

Kubachi language, the, 541

Kuki, the, 178 sq., 182, 186

Kuki-Lushai, the, 178 _n._, sqq., 183; language, 177

Kulfan, the, 75

Kumi, the, 188

Kumuks, the, 312

Kunbi, the, 546

Kurankos, the, 53

Kurds, the, 267 _n._, 505, 545, and Pl. XIV figs. 1, 2

Kuri, the, 69

Kurlanders, the, 320

Kurnai, the, 437

Kurugli, the, 303

Kurumba, the, 424, 547 _n._, 549

Kussas, the, 53

Kustenaus, the, 416

Kutchin, the, 361

Kutigurs, the, 329

Kwaens, the, 323

Kwakiutl, the, 343, 363 sqq., _see_ map, pp. 334-5, and Pl. VIII fig. 2

Kwana, the, 416

Kymric race. _See_ Nordic race

Kyzylbash, the, 497

La Chapelle-aux-Saints skull, the, 8, 9, 12

Lacouperie, T. de, 168 _n._, 176 _n._, 193, 195 sq., 207 sqq., 294 _n._, 249 _n._, 251 _n._

Ladakhi, the, 166 sq.

La Ferassie skeleton, the, 9, 12

Lafofa, the, 75

Lagden, G., 109 _n._

Lagoa Santa race, the, 339 sq., 417

Laguna, the, 382 _n._

Lai, the, 183

Lai, the, 211

Laing, S., 267 _n._

Lake, P., 446 _n._

Laloy, L., 16, 511

La Micoque industry, the, 11

Lampongs, the, 235 sq.

Lampre, G., 258

Lamut, the, 274 sq.

Land Dayak, the, 230 sq., 426

Lang, Andrew, 151, 430, 437 _n._

Lansdell, H., 280, 281 _n._, 285 _n._, 289

Laos, the, 180, 191 sq., 201

Lapicque, L., 149 sq., 422

Lapouge, G. V. de, 449, 510, 512, 540

Lapps, the, 321 sqq., 324, and Pl. VII fig. 6; physical characters of, 324

Lartet, L., 9 _n._

Last, J. T., 241

La Tene, Later Iron Age culture of, 28

Latham, R. E., 409 _n._

Lawas, the, 199

Layana, the, 416

Layard, N. F., 520

Laz language, 541

Leder, H., 258 sqq.

Lefevre, A., 536

Legendre, A. F., 196 _n._

Leitner, G. W., 167, 542 _n._

Le Moustier, culture, 8, 11, 14; skeleton, 9, 12

Lenormant, F., 535

Lenz, O., 116 _n._

Lenz, R., 410

Leon, N., 345 _n._

Leonard, A. G., 45 _n._, 58 _n._

Leonhardi, M. F. v., 437 _n._

Lepcha, the, 547; language, 177

Lepsius, K. R., 76 sq., 473

Lesghians, the, 541; language of, 483

Letourneau, C., 36, 448

Letto-Slavs, the, 506

Letts, the, 321

Levallois industry, the, 11

Levchine, A. de, 316 _n._

Lewis, A. B., 367 _n._

Leyden, J., 222 _n._

Lho-pa, the, 170

Liberians, the, 53, 56 sq.

Libyan Race. _See_ Northern Hamites

Libyans, the, 448 sq., 453, 476

Lichtenstein, M. H. K., 127

Ligurians, the, 449, 455-9, 461 sq., 504, 513, 529; language of, 453

Lillooet, the, 343, 367, and map, pp. 334-5

Limba, the, 53

Limbu, the, 547

Lindsay, W. M., 529 _n._

Lin-tin-yu. _See_ Yayo

Lippert, J., 67 _n._

Lithuanians, the, 318

Littmann, E., 453 _n._, 487 _n._

Liu-Kiu (Lu-Chu), the, 274, 296 sq.

Livi, R., 460, 462, 511, 528

Livingstone, D., 107

Livonians, the, 320

Logon, the, 70

Lohest, M., 8 _n._

Lokko, the, 53

Lolos, the, 173, 195 sq., 211

Lombards, the, 449

Loucheux, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5

Low, Brook, 231

Lowie, R. H., 367 _n._

Luard, C. E., 548 _n._

Lubbers, A., 239

Lucayans, the, 399 sq.

Luchuans. _See_ Liu-Kiu

Lugard, F. D., 62

Lugard, F. S. (Lady), 73 _n._

Luiseno, the, 355, 370

Lukach, H. C., 56 _n._

Lumholtz, C, 395 _n._, 397 _n._

Lupacas, the, 407

Luschan, F. v., 268 _n._, 450, 465, 492 _n._, 495 _n._, 497 sqq., 542 _n._, 545

Lushai, the, 178

Lu-tse, the, 197

Lyall, C. J., 548 _n._

Lycia, inhabitants of, 497; language, 454

Lydian dialect, the, 453

Lythgoe, A. M., 478

Maba, the, 73 sq.

Macalister, A., 511

Macalister, R. A. S., 492

MacCurdy, G. G., 5 _n._, 35

Macdonald, J., 104 _n._, 108

Mace, A. C., 478

Machas, the, 543

Mackintosh, C. W., 107 _n._

MacMichael, H. A., 74, 75 _n._

Macusi, the, 416

Madagascar, 239 sqq.

Madi, the, 78

Madurese, the, 224

Mafflian industry, the, 10, 14

Mafulu, the, 158

Magars, the, 170 _n._

Magdalenian culture, 12 sqq.

Mager, H., 555 _n._

Maghians, the, 543

Magyars, the, 301, 318, 326, 328 sqq., 531; language of, 282

Mahaffy, J. P., 493 _n._

Mahai, the, 75

Mahamid, the, 73

Mahrati, the, 550

Mainwaring, G. B., 177 _n._

Ma-Kalaka, the, 104 sq.

Makaraka, the, 78 sq.

Makari, the, 69 sq.

Makirifares, the, 415

Ma-Kololo, the, 106 sqq.

Makowsky, A., 9 _n._

Maku, linguistic stock, 415

Malagasy, the, 239 sqq.; language, 241; mental qualities, 244

Mala-Vadan, the, 423

Malayalim, the, 549

Malayans, the, 221 sqq., 227; folklore of, 229 sq.

Malayo-Polynesian. _See_ Austronesian

Malays, the, 221 sqq., 226; in Borneo, 230, 232 sqq.; in Madagascar, 240; in Australia, 428, 551

Malbot, H., 450, 472

Malinowski, B., 432, 434

Malliesors, the, 538

Malta, inhabitants of, 499

Man, E. H., 150 _n._, 152, 251 sqq.

Man, the, 197 sq., 211

Manaos, the, 416

Manchu, the, 274 sq., 279 sqq.

Manda, the, 267 _n._

Mandan, the, 355, 371 sq., and map, pp. 334-5

Mandara, the, 69 sq.

Mandaya, the, 247

Mandingans, the, 44, 46, 49 sqq., 66

Mangbattu, the, 44, 46, 78, 80 sqq.

Mangkassaras, the, 224, 226, 236

Manguianes, the, 237

Manipuri, the, 178 sqq., 181

Manobo, the, 247

Mans-Coc, the, 198

Mans-Meo, the, 198, 211

Mans-Tien, the, 198

Mansuy, M., 186 _n._

Man-tse. _See_ Man

Mao Nagas, the, 178 sq.

Maori, the, 552, and Pl. XVI figs. 3, 4

Mapoches, the, 410

Maram Nagas, the, 178 sq.

Maratha Brahmans, the, 546 sq.

Margi, the, 70

Maricopa, the, 383

Markham, Sir C. R., 347 sq., 401 _n._, 405, 409, 414 _n._, 420 _n._

Maronites, the, 498

Marre, A., 241 _n._

Marrings, the, 178 sq.

Marstrander, C. J. S., 497 _n._

Martin, H., 449 _n._

Martin, R., 153 _n._, 154, 412, 426 _n._

Martius, V., 402 _n._, 411, 416 sq.

Masai, the, 97, 468, 484, 486

Mas-d'Azil, 12; pebbles, 34 sqq.

Ma-Shona, the, 104

Maspero, G., 270, 493 _n._, 533

Massagetae, the, 305 sq.

Ma-Tabili, the, 105

Mataco, the, 420 sq.

Mathew, J., 237 _n._, 428

Matlaltzincas, the, 395

Matokki, the, 75

Matores, the, 317

Matthew, W. D., 557 _n._

Mauer jaw, the, 3 sqq., 11, 14

Ma-Vambu, the, 113

Maya, the, 389-398

Mayang Khong, the, 178

Maya-Quiche the, 342, 393, 397 sq.

Mayorunas, the, 402

Maypures, the, 416

Mbenga, the, 115

McCabe, R. B., 177

McDougall, W., 231 _n._

McGee, W. J., 396

Means, P. A., 406 _n._

Mecklenberg, A. F., Duke of, 113 _n._

Medes, the, 267 _n._

Mediterranean race, the, 448 sq., 452; in Europe, 455-468; in Africa, 468-478; language of, 453 sq.

Mehinaku, the, 348, 416

Mehlis, C., 457

Meinhof, C., 473 _n._

Meithis, the, 181; language of, 177 _n._

Melam, the, 197

Melanesians, the, 135 sqq.; analysis of, 138 sq.; culture of, 139-146

Mendi, the, 53

Menominee, the, 354, 375, and map, pp. 334-5

Mentawi, the, natives of, 235

Mentone, Grottes de Grimaldi, the, 9

Mercer, H., 396

Merker, M., 486 _n._

Mescalero, the, 383, and map, pp. 334-5

Messapians, the, 452, 529 _n._

Messerschmidt, L., 496

Mesvinian industry, the, 10, 14

Meyer, A. B., 230

Meyer, E., 27 _n._, 262 sqq.; on Indo-Europeans, 441 _n._, 456, 504, 506 _n._, 460 _n._; Pelasgians, 466 sqq.; Egyptians, 479, 482; Semites, 489 _n._, 491 _n._, 492 _n._, 493 _n._

Meyer, H., 450

Meyer, Kuno, 515 _n._

Miami, the, 354, 375, and map, pp. 334-5

Miao-tse. _See_ Mans-Meo

Michelis, E. de, 505

Micmac, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5

Micronesians, the, 551, and Pl. XVI figs. 5, 6

Mikhailovskii, V. M., 277 _n._, 278 _n._

Miklukho-Maclay, N. v., 137 _n._

Milanau, the, 231, 233

Miller, Gerrit S., 560 _n._, 561

Milliet. _See_ Saint Adolphe

Milligan, J., 160

Milne, J., 260

Minaeans, the, 499

Minahasans, the, 224

Mindeleff, C., 383 _n._

Mingrelian language, the, 541

Minnetari, the, 342

Minns, E. H., 537

Minoan culture, 463 sqq., 467, 502

Minyong, the, 170

Mirdites, the, 538 _n._, 539

Miri, the, 170

Mishmi, the, 170

Mishongnovi, the, 382 _n._

Missouri, the, 371, and map, pp. 334-5

Mittu, the, 78

Miwok, the, pp. 334-5

Miztecs, the, 390, 395

Mizzi, M., 499 _n._

Moabites, the, 489 sq.

Mochicas, the, 408

Moeso-Goths, the, 508

Mohave, the, 383, and map, pp. 334-5

Mohawk, the, 354, 377

Moi, the, 197

Molu-che. _See_ Araucanians

Mongolia, prehistoric remains in, 259 sq.

Mongoloid type, Risley's, 547

Mongolo-Dravidian type, Risley's, 547

Mongolo-Tatar. _See_ Mongolo-Turki

Mongolo-Turki, the, 164 sq., 256, 274 sqq.

Mongols, Northern, Chap. VIII

Mongols, Oceanic, Chap. VII

---- Southern, Chap. VI

Mono, the, 355

Mons, the, 180

Montagnais, the, 354, 375, and map, pp. 334-5

Montano, J., 157

Montelius, O., 27, 210 _n._, 319 _n._, 512

Mooney, J., 374 _n._

Moorehead, W. K., 343

"Moors," the, 469

Moravians, the, 331

Mordvinians, the, 325

Morel, E. D., 58 _n._

Morgan, J. de, 22, 25 _n._, 258, 267 _n._, 447

Morgan, E. Delmar, 173 _n._

Morfill, W. R., 530

Morice, A. G., 362 sq.

Morley, S. G., 391 _n._, 392 _n._, 397 _n._

Mosgu, the, 69, 71

Mossi, the, 62

Mossos, the, 173, 195 sq.

Mostitz, A. P., 259

Moszkowski, Max, 149

Mousterian man. _See_ Le Moustier

Moxos, the, 348, 414, 416

Mpangwe. _See_ Fans

Mpongwe, the, 115

Mros, the, 187 sq.

Mrungs, the, 188

Much, M., 23

Much, R., 507 _n._

Mueller, F., 236 _n._

Mugs, the, 187 sq.

Mundu, the, 78

Mundurucu, the, 419

Munro, N. G., 295 _n._

Munro, R., 529 _n._

Muong, the, 197

Murmi, the, 547

Murut, the, 230 sq.

Muskhogean linguistic stock, the, 355, 381

Musquakie. _See_ Sauk and Fox

Mussian, explorations at, 258

Muyscans, the, 400, 402

Myers, C. S., 75 _n._, 79 _n._, 482

Mycenaean (Mykenaean). _See_ Minoan

Myong, the, 197

Myres, J. L., 465, 466 _n._, 477 _n._, 489 _n._, 490 _n._, 502, 533 _n._

Mysians, the, 506; language of, 453

Nachtigal, G., 70 sqq., 74 _n._

Nadaillac, Marquis de, J. F. A., 381, 394 _n._, 395 _n._, 408 _n._

Naga, the, 178 sq.; language, 177

Naga-ed-Der, excavations at, 478, 481

Nahane the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5

Nahua, the, 342 sq., 388 _n._, 392 sqq., 397, 400, 421 _n._

Nahuatlans, the, 342, 388, 393 sqq., 402

Nahuqua, the, 348, 415

Nairs, the, 547

Najera, 396

Nambe, the, 382 _n._

Narrinyeri, the, 437

Nashi (Nashri). _See_ Mossos

Naskapi, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5

Nassau, R. H., 61 _n._

Natagaima, the, 402

Natchez, the, 355, and map, pp. 334-5

Navaho, the, 354, 383, _see_ map, pp. 334-5, and Pl. VIII fig. 4.

Naville, E., 475 _n._, 477 _n._, 481

Neandertal man, 2, 8 sqq., 12, 448

Negrilloes, the, 122 sqq., and Pl. II fig. 4

Negritoes, the, 149 sqq., and Pl. II figs. 1, 2, 3, 5-7; culture of, 158-9, 230

Neumann, O., 127

Nez-perces. _See_ Shahapts

Ngao, the, 198

Ngiou. _See_ Burmese

Ngisem, the, 70

Nias, the, 235

Niblack, A. P., 366 _n._

Niceforo, A., 461

Nickas, the, 250

Nicobarese, the, 251 sqq.

Niederle, L., 540 _n._

Nieuwenhuis, A. W., 234 _n._

Nilotes, the, 486, and Pl. XIII

Niquirans, the, 388

Niu-chi (Yu-chi, Nu-chin), the, 279

Njungs. _See_ Iungs

Nogai, the, 303

Nong, the, 197 sq.

Nootka, the, 363, 393 _n._, and map, pp. 334-5

Nordenskioeld, A. E. von, 287

Nordenskioeld, E., 421

Nordenskioeld, G., 383 _n._

Nordic race, the, 449, 452 sq., 504, 506 sqq., Pl. XI figs. 1, 2, 5, and Pl. XIV figs. 1, 2; in Scandinavia, 509

Norsemen, the, 449, 526 sq.

Northcote, G. A. S., 79 _n._

Norway, racial elements in, 509

Nossu (Nesu). _See_ Lolos

Nu-Aruak, the, 416

Nuba, the, 74 sqq.

Nubians, the, 75 sqq., 468

Nuer, the, 78 sq., 484

Nueesch, J., 16, 123

Nutria, the, 382 _n._

Nuttall, Z., 353, 393 _n._

Nwengals, the, 183

Obermaier, H., 4 _n._, 8, 9 _n._, 14 _n._

Oghuz, the, 311 sqq.

Ojibway, the, 354, 371, 375 sqq., and map, pp. 334-5

Ojo Caliente, the, 382 _n._

Okanda, the, 115

Oldoway skeleton, the, 43 _n._, 447

Omagua (Flat-heads), the, 419

Omaha, the, 355, 371, and map, pp. 334-5

Onas, the, 411; language of, 413

Oneida, the, 354, 377

Onnis, E. A., 461

Onondaga, the, 354, 377

Ons, the, 316

Oraibi, the, 382 _n._

Orang-Baruh, the, 238

---- -Benua, the, 223

---- -Malayu. _See_ Malays

---- -Selat, the, 228

---- -Tunong, the, 238

Oraons, the, 550

Orbigny, A. D. d', 412

Oriyas, the, 547

Orleans, H., Prince d', 186 _n._, 191 _n._, 192 sq., 195 sqq.

Oroch, the, 275

Orochon, the, 274 sq., 277

Oroke, the, 275

Orsi, P., 460

Osage, the, 342, 355, 371, and map, pp. 334-5

Oshyeba. _See_ Fans

Ossets, the, 505, 540

O'Sullivan, H., 79 _n._

Ostrogoths, the, 449

Ostyaks, the, 275, 277, 303, 325, and Pl. VI fig. 3

Otomi, the, 395

Ottawa, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5; language, 354

Oto, the, 371, and map, pp. 334-5

Ova-Herero, the, 44, 109 sqq., 119 sq.

---- -Mpo, the, 109

---- -Zorotu, the, 110

Oyampi, the, 419

Padam, the, 170 _n._, 193

Padao, the, 193

Paes, the, 404

Pahuins. _See_ Fans (West Africa)

Paiwans, the, 250

Pai, the, (Laos) of Assam, 192

Pa-i, the, of S.W. China, 211

Pakhpu, the, 543

Pakpaks, the, 237 _n._

Palaeasiatics, Deniker's, 295

Palaeo-Siberians, the, 275, 344

Palawans, the, 237

Palembang, the 235 sq.

Paleo-Asiatics. _See_ Palaeo-Siberians

Palmer, H. R., 68 _n._

Pames, the, 394 _n._

Pampangan, the, 247

Pampeans, the, 410; language of, 412

Panches, the, 402

Pangasinan, the, 247

Paniyan, the, 423, and Pl. X fig. 4

Pano, the, 414, 419

Pan-y, the, 198

Pan-yao, the, 198

Papuans, the, 135 sq., 188, 146 sqq., 551, and Pl. III figs. 3, 4

Papuasians, the, chap. V. _passim_

Papuo-Melanesians, the, 135 sq., and Pl. III figs. 5, 6

Parker, A. C., 375 _n._

Parker, E. H., 216 _n._, 292 _n._, 294 _n._, 304

Parker, H., 425 _n._

Parker, K. Langloh, 436, 437 _n._

Parkinson, J., 58 _n._

Parkinson, R., 146

Parthians, the, 305 sq.

Partridge, C., 58 _n._

Passumahs, the, 223

Patagonians, the, 411 sq., and Pl. IX figs. 5, 6; language of, 412 sq.

Paton, L. B., 492 _n._, 493 _n._

Patroni, G., 459 sq.

Patterson, A. J., 531 _n._

Paulitschke, P., 485

Paumari, the, 348, 416

Pawnee, the, 355, 371 sqq., 375, and map, pp. 334-5

Peal, S. E., 192 _n._

Pears, E., 530 _n._

Pease, A. E., 446 _n._

Pechenegs, the, 312

Pecos, the, 382 _n._

Peet, T. E., 528 _n._

Peisker, T., 257, 260 _n._, 303 sq., 330, 506 _n._, 507 _n._, 512 _n._, 531, 536 _n._, 537 _n._

Peixoto, J. R., 417

Pelasgians, the, 449, 452, 458, 462-7, 512 sq.; in Italy, 528; in Greece, 532 sq.; language of, 453, 465

Penck, A., 13 sqq.

Penek, the, 410

Penka, C., 460 _n._, 529, 532

Peoria, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5

Pepohwans, the, 249

Peringuey, L., 121

Permians, (Beormas, Permian Finns), the, 318 _n._, 322, 324, 330

Persians, the, 542, 545

Pescado, the, 382 _n._

Perry, W. J., 352

Peschel, O., 286 _n._, 302 _n._, 315 _n._, 317 _n._

P[)e]s[)e]g[)e]m, the, 158

Petersen, E., 465 _n._

Petrie, W. M. Flinders, 27 _n._, 37, 467, 476, 479, 495 _n._

Peyrony, M., 9 _n._

Philippines, the, 246 sqq.

Philistines, the, 490, 494

Phoenicians, the, 352, 488 sq., 493, 527

Phrygians, the, 490, 506

Piankashaw, the, 375

Pickett, A. J., 379 _n._

Pictones, the, 525

Picts, the, 515 sq.

Picun-che, the, 410

Picuris, the, 382 _n._

Piegan, the, 374, and map, pp. 334-5

Piette, E., 13, 34, 36

Pilma, the, 411

Piltdown skull, the, 3 sqq., 11, 560 sq.

Pima, the, 382 sq., and map, pp. 334-5

Pinches, T. G., 34, 208, 266

Pintos, the, 394 _n._

Pipils, the, 388 sqq.

_Pithecanthropus erectus_, 2 sqq., 9

Plains Indians, the, 342, 370-5, and map, pp. 334-5

Planert, W., 129 _n._

Playfair, A., 548 _n._

Pojoaque, the, 382 _n._

Polabs, the, 537

Polak, J. E. R., 345 _n._

Poles, the, 532, 537

Polynesians, the, 341, 552 sqq., and Pl. XVI figs. 1-4

Pomo, the, pp. 334-5

Ponca, the, 342, 371 sq., and map, pp. 334-5

Portugal, racial elements in, 527 sq.

Potanin, G. N., 169, 311 _n._

Potawatomi, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5

Poutrin, L., 69 _n._

Powell, J. W., 16, 347, 349, 354, 391 _n._

Powhatan, the, 378, and map, pp. 334-5

Praeger, R. Lloyd, 520 _n._

Pre-Dravidians, the, 149, 230, Chap. XII, 428, and Pl. X figs. 1-4

Prichard, J. C., 300, 303, 306, 447

Prince, J. D., 262

Prjevalsky, N. M., 168, 172

Procksch, O., 489 _n._, 491 _n._, 493 _n._, 494 _n._

Proto-Malays, the, 230

Proto-Polynesians, the, 138

Pryer, W. B., 228 _n._

Pueblo Indians, the, 356, 382-7, 392; and map, pp. 334-5

Puelche, the, 410, 412

Puenche, the, 410

Pumpelly, R., 257

Punan, the, 230 sq., 233

Punjabi, the, 550

Pun-ti, the, 212

Purasati, the, 494

Purmuli, the, 544

Pwos, the, 187

Pycraft, W. P., 561

Quapaw, the, 378

Quatrefages, A. de, 230

Quoirengs, the, 178

Quichuas, the, 404 sq., 407

Radloff, W., 315

Raffles, Sir T. S., 238

Rahanwin, the, 485

Rajputs, the, 306 sqq., 546

Rakhaingtha, the, 188

Randall-MacIver, D., 89 _n._, 106 _n._

Rangkhols, the, 177

Ranqualches, the, 410

Rat, J. Numa, 345 _n._

Rattray, R. S., 69 _n._

Rawling, C. G., 157 _n._

Rawlinson, G., 262 _n._, 307

Ray, S. H., 135 _n._, 139 _n._, 428

Read, C. H., 62

Reade, W. Winwood, 116

Reck, Hans, 43 _n._, 447

Reclus, E., 276 _n._, 398 _n._

Reed, W. A., 156 _n._

Regnault, M. F., 48

Rein, J. J., 298 _n._

Reinach, L. de, 192 _n._

Reinach, S., 13 _n._, 465 _n._

Reinecke, P., 27

Reinisch, L., 80

Reisner, G. A., 22, 75, 478, 481

Rejang, the, 223, 235 sq.

Retu, the, 475 _n._

Retzius, G., 505 _n._

Reutelian culture, 10

Rhaetians (Rasenes), the, 512

Rhoxolani, the, 326

Rhys, Sir J., 516 _n._

Rialle, G. de, 249 _n._

Richthofen, F. von, 302, 311

Ridgeway, Sir W., 2 _n._, 28; on Pelasgians, 453, 462 _n._, 464 sq., 466 _n._, 467 _n._; Ligurians, 457; Romans, 529 _n._; Achaeans, 533 _n._

Rink, H. J., 346, 358

Rink, S., 287

Ripley, W. Z., 17 _n._, 441 _n._, 449; on the Mediterranean race, 452, 461 _n._; Basques, 454 _n._, 455 _n._; Greeks, 462 _n._, 465, 483 _n._; Phoenicians, 493 _n._; Jews and Semites, 495 _n._, 504; Scandinavia, 509; Central Europe, 510 _n._, 511 _n._; Celts, 514 _n._; Britain, 524, 527; Italy, 529 _n._

Risley, H. H., 167 _n._, 308, 546 sqq.

Rivers, W. H. R., 139 sqq., 432 _n._, 548 _n._, 549, 553

Rivet, P., 339 sq.

Robinson, C. H., 67 _n._

Robinson, H. C., 153, 222 _n._

Rockhill, W. W., 168 sqq., 171, 174

Roesler, R., 531, 535

Roeys, the, 178

Rol, the, 78

Rolleston, J., 517

Romans in North Africa, the, 470

Romilly, H. H., 146 _n._

Rong, the, 170, 177

Roscoe, J., 91 sq., 97 _n._

Rose, H. A., 548 _n._

Rosenberg, H. von, 234 _n._, 235 _n._, 237 _n._

Rostafinski, J., 506

Roth, H. Ling, 62 _n._, 160 _n._, 231 _n._

Routledge, W. S. and K., 97 _n._

Roy, S. C., 548 _n._

Ruadites, the, 470

Rumanians, the, 318, 331, 530 sqq.

Rumaniya, the, 470

Russell, F., 383 _n._

Russell, R. V., 548 _n._

Russians, the, 318, 539 sq.

Ruthenians, the, 532, 537

Rutot, M., 10, 14

Sabaeans, the, 498

Sacae, the, 167 sq.

Saint-Adolphe, Milliet de, 417, 419 _n._

Saint-Denys, d'H. de, 198

Saint-Martin, V. de, 290 _n._, 327 _n._, 328 _n._

Sakai, the, 149, 154, 422 sq., 425 sq., and Pl. X fig. 2

Sakalava, the, 241 sq., 245

Sakhersi, the, 51 _n._

Salaman, R. N., 495 _n._

Salars, the, 169

Salish, the Coast, 363, 366 sq., and map, pp. 334-5

Salish, the Inland, 343, 366 sqq., and map, pp. 334-5

Salmon, P., 451

Sambaqui (shell-mound) race, the, 417

Samoyeds, the, 275, 301, 303, 317, 323 sq., and Pl. VI fig. 1; religion of, 277 sq., 325

Sandberg, G., 169 _n._

Sande, G. A. J. van der, 146

Sandia, the, 382 _n._

San Felipe (Indians), the, 382 _n._

San Ildefonso (Indians), the, 382 _n._

San Juan (Indians), the, 382 _n._

Santa Ana (Indians), the, 382 _n._

Santa Barbara (Indians), the, 369 sq.

Santa Clara (Indians), the, 382

Santo Domingo (Indians), the, 382 _n._

Santal, the, 547

Santee-Dakota, the, 371, and map, pp. 334-5

Sapper, K., 390

Sarasin, F., 224 _n._, 425 _n._, 426

Sarasin, P., 224 _n._, 425 _n._, 426

Sards, the, 460 sq.

Sarmatians (Sarmatae), the, 326, 535 sq.

Sarsi, the, 354, 370, and map, pp. 334-335

"Sartes," the, 312

Sassaks, the, 224 sq.

Sauk and Fox, the, 354, 375, 377, and map, pp. 334-5

Saulteaux, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5

Saxons, the, 449

Sayce, A. H., 236 _n._, 267 _n._, 300, 447, 495 sq.

Scandinavia and amber trade, 502; "Aryan cradle" in, 504; population of, 509

Schafarik, P. J., 327 _n._

Scharff, R. F., 337

Schetelig, A., 251

Schiefner, A., 286

Schleicher, A., 283, 442

Schliemann, H., 463

Schlenker, C. F., 54 _n._

Schmid, T. P., 412

Schmidt, H., 258

Schmidt, W., 135 _n._, 151 _n._, 221 _n._, 350, 428 sqq.

Schoetensack, O., 3 _n._

Schoolcraft, H. R., 377

Schott, H., 311 _n._

Schrader, O., 503 _n._

Schultz, J. W., 374 _n._

Schumacher, G., 492

Schwalbe, G., 9 _n._

Schweinfurth, G., 79 _n._

Scotland, racial elements in, 521 sqq.

Scott, J. G., 189 _n._, 191 _n._, 204

Scythians, the, 168 _n._, 304, 507, 535 sqq.; in India, 547

Scytho-Dravidian type, Risley's, 546

Sea Dayak. _See_ Iban

Sebop, the, 231

Seger, H., 29 _n._

Seguas, the, 388 _n._

Sekani, the, 361 sq., and map, pp. 334-5

Sekhwans, the, 249

Seki-Manzi, the, 261

Seler, E., 389

Seligman, B. Z., 76 _n._, 425 _n._

Seligman, C. G., 74 _n._, 75, 76 _n._, 77 _n._, 79, 135, 425 _n._, 484, 499, 548 _n._

Seljuks, the, 314

Sellin, E., 492

Semang, the, 138, 149, 153 sqq., 158, 425, and Pl. II fig. 2

Seminole, the, 355, 378, 381, and map, pp. 334-5

Semites, the, in Babylonia, 262 sqq., 266, 441, 468; Arabs, 470 sqq., 477 sqq.; in Africa, 481, 485; Chap, XIV

Semple, E. C., 490 _n._

Seneca, the, 354, 377

Senoi. _See_ Sakai

Serbians, the, 532, 538

Serer, the, 47 sqq.

Sergi, G., 36, 442, 447; on the Mediterranean race, 451 sq., 456 sqq., 461 sqq., 478; in Italy, 512 _n._, 513, 528 sq.; in Greece, 532; in Russia, 539; Hamites, 468 sq., 483

Seri Indians, the, 396, 401

Setebos, the, 414

Sgaws, the, 187

Shahapts, the, 366 sq., and map, pp. 334-5

Shakespear, J., 178 _n._, 548 _n._

Shakshu, the, 543

Shans, the, 166, 180, 191 sqq.; alphabets of, 195, 198 sq.

Shargorodsky, S., 284

Sharra, the, 272

Shaw, G. A., 242

Shawias, the, 470

Shawnee, the, 354, 375, 378, and map, pp. 334-5

Shendu, the, 183

Sheyante, the, 183

Shilluk, the, 78 sqq., 484

Shinomura, M., 261

Shins, the, 544

Shipaulovi, the, 382 _n._

Shipibos. _See_ Sipivios

Shluhs, the, 468

Shom Pen, the, 251 sqq.

Shoshoni, the, 355, 367, 371 sq., and map, pp, 334-5

Shoshonian linguistic stock, the, 347, 369

Shrubsall, F. C., 121, 126, 450 _n._

Shu, the, 183

Shunopovi, the, 382 _n._

Shushwap, the, 343, 367, and map, pp. 334-5

Sia, the, 382 _n._

Siah Posh, the, 544

Siamese, the, 180, 199 sq.; writing system, 195

Sibree, J., 242 _n._

Sicani, the, 460

Sichumovi, the, 382 _n._

Siculi, the, 452, 460, 529

Sidonians. _See_ Phoenicians

Siebold, H. v., 289

Sien-pi, the, 290 sqq.

Sierochevsky, V. A., 314

Sierra-Leonese, the, 53 sqq.

Sifans, the, 211

Sihanakas, the, 242

Sikemeier, W., 549

Sikhs, the, 550

Siksika, the, 354, 370, 372 sqq., and map, pp. 334-5

Singpho, the, 186

Siouan linguistic stock, the, 342, 347, 355, 371 sqq., 381; Eastern, 378

Sioux. _See_ Dakota

Sipivios, the, 414

Sirdehi, the, 544

Sistani, the, 544

Siyirs, the, 183

Skeat, W. W., 153 _n._, 154 _n._, 222 _n._, 426 _n._

Skidi, the, 373

Skinner, A., 375 _n._

Slavey, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5

Slavo-Kelt, use of term, 512

Slavs, the, 318, 321, 327 sqq., 442, 444, 529, 535, 537 sqq.

Slovaks, the, 331, 532, 537

Slovenes, the, 532, 536 _n._

Smeaton, D. M., 187

Smith, A. H., 215 _n._

Smith, Donaldson, 122

Smith, G. Elliot, 21 sq., 25, 78, 81 _n._, 351 sqq., 451 _n._, 452 _n._, 477 sqq., 480, 491 _n._

Smith, R., 10 _n._

Smith, S. Percy, 552 _n._

Smith, V. A., 551 _n._

Smyth, R. Brough, 160 _n._

Smyth-Warington, H., 165, 201 _n._

Snellman, A. H., 309 _n._, 320

So, the, 70

Sok-pa, the, 168 _n._, 172

Sokte, the, 183

Sollas, W. J., 8, 10 _n._, 12 sqq., 128 _n._, 131, 159, 161

Sols, the, 316

Solutrian culture, 12, 14

Somali, the, 443, 468 sq., 484 sqq.

Songhai, the, 64 sqq.

Soninke the, 49, 51

Sonorans, the, 342

Soppitt, C. A., 178

Soyotes, the, 317

Spain, racial elements in, 527 sq.

Spartman, P. S., 370 _n._

Speck, F. G., 380

Speiser, F., 146 _n._

Speke, J. H., 91

Spence, L., 393 _n._

Spencer, H., 402 _n._

Spencer, Sir W. Baldwin, 427 sq., 430 sq., 433, 434 _n._, 436

Spinden, H. J., 367 _n._, 390 _n._

Spy skeletons, the, 8

Squier, E. G., 408

Stack, E., 548 _n._

Stanley, H. E. J., 101 _n._

Stanley, H. M., 95 _n._

Starr, F., 112 _n._

Steensby, H. P., 359

Stefansson, V., 360

Stein, Sir M. A., 257 sq., 310 sq., 544, 547

Steinen, K. v. D., 347 _n._, 411, 415 sqq.

Steinmetz, R. S., 81 _n._, 401 n

Sternberg, L., 288 _n._

Stevenson, M. C., 385 _n._

Stow, G. W., 104 _n._, 106 _n._

Strandloopers, the, 121

Strepyan culture, 10

Stuhlmann, F., 27 _n._, 45 _n._, 93, 470, 476

Sturge, Allen, 15

Subano, the, 247

Sudanese Negro, chap. III

Sumerians, the, 261 sqq., 480 sq., 491; _see also_ Babylonia

Sumu, the, 197

Sundanese, the, 224

Susa, explorations at, 258, 267

Susquehanna, the, 354, 375, and map, pp. 334-5

Suti, the, 490

Suyas. _See_ Kayapos

Swahili. _See_ Wa-Swaheli

Swanton, J. R., 355, 363 _n._

Swazi, the, 104

Sweden, Alpine type in, 505 _n._, 509; Nordic type in, 509

Swettenham, Sir F. A., 222 _n._, 227

Swiss pile-dwellers, the, 529

Sykes, Sir M., 268 _n._

Syrians, the, 489 sq.

Szinnyei, J., 317

Tagalogs, the, 156, 224, 237, 246 sq.

Tagbanua, the, 247

Ta-Hia, the, 306

Tahltan Indians, the, 363 _n._

Tahtadji, the, 497

Tai (T'hai). _See_ Shans

Tai-Shan language, the, 194 sq.

Tajiks, the, 307, 505, 542 sqq., and Pl. XIV figs. 5, 6

Talaings, the, 180

Talamanca, the, 421 _n._

Talbot, P. A., 69 _n._

Talko-Hryncewicz, J. D., 259

Talodi, the, 75

Tamai, K., 250

Tamehu, the, 545

Tamils, the, 549

Tanala, the, 242

Tangkhuls, the, 178

Tanguts, the, 168, 172

Tanoans, the, 382 _n._

Taos, the, 382 _n._

Tapiro, the, 157, and Pl. II figs. 5-7

Tappeiner, F., 512

Tapuya, the, 417

Tarahumare, the, 395 _n._

Taranchi, the, 311

Tarascan language, the, 345

Tarascos, the, 395

Tardenoisian industry, the, 13

"Tartars," the, 292 _n._, 303; Kazan, 312; Nogai, _ib._; Siberian, 318; Volga, 320

Tarte industry, the, 12

Tashons, the, 183 sq.

Tasmanians, the, 159 sqq., 427 sqq., and Pl. III figs. 1, 2

Taubach tooth, the, 6

Taute the, 183

Tavoyers, the, 188

Tawangs, the, 170

Tawyans, the, 184

Taylor, E. J., 225

Taylor, G., 249 _n._

Taylor, W. E., 98, 100

Teda, the, 473

Tehuelche. _See_ Patagonians

Teilhard, P., 6

Teit, J., 367 _n._

Tekestas, the, 399

Telinga (Telugu, Tling), the, 180, 549

Temple, Sir R. C., 152 sq., 182, 185 _n._, 187 _n._

Ten Kate, H. F. C., 147

Tepanecs, the, 342, 394

Terrage, M. de V. du, 23

Tesuque, the, 382 _n._

Teton-Dakota, the, 370, and map, pp. 334-5

Teutoni, the, 507

Teutonic race. _See_ Nordic race

Teutons, the, historic and prehistoric, 506, 525 sq., 530

Theal, G. M., 104 _n._, 105 _n._, 108 _n._, 126 _n._

Thessalians, the, 466

Tho, the, 197 sq., 211

Thomas, Cyrus, 391, 392 _n._

Thomas, N. W., 58 _n._, 59 _n._, 431 _n._, 436

Thompson, Basil, 146 _n._

Thompson, E. H., 397

Thompson, J. P., 146 _n._

Thompson, M. S., 530 _n._

Thompson, P. A., 201 _n._

Thompson, the, 367, and map, pp. 334-5

Thomsen, Wilhelm, 259, 261, 309, 319 _n._, 320

Thomson, A., 511 _n._

Thomson, B. H., 555

Thracians, the, 505 sq., 531

Thurn, Sir E. F. im, 416 _n._

Thurnam, J., 517

Thurston, E., 423, 548 _n._, 549

Tibetans, the, 165 sqq.; language of, 281

Tibeto-Indo-Chinese branch, 165

Tibu, the, 468, 473 sq.

Ticuna, the, 419

Tilho, M., 69 _n._, 72 _n._

Timni, the, 53 sq.

Timotes, the, 400

Timuquanans, the, 415

Tipperahs, the, 188

Tipuns, the, 250

Tling. _See_ Telinga

Tlingit, the, 343, 355, 363 sq., and map, pp. 334-5

Toala, the, 426

Toba, the, 420 sq.

Tocaima, the, 402

Tocharish, 441 _n._, 504

Tocher, J. F., 522

Toda, the, 549

Toghuz, the, 310 sq.

Toltecs, the, 342, 388 sq., 393, 394 _n._

Tongue, M. H., 128 _n._

Tooke, W. H., 119

Topinard, P., 38

Torday, E., 113 _n._, 115 _n._

Toshks, the, 538 sq.

Tosti, G., 37

Totonacs. _See_ Huaxtecs

Toung-gnu, the, 188

Toxides, the, 539

Trarsas, the, 469

Tremearne, A. J. N., 58 _n._, 69 _n._

Tremlett, C. F., 203 _n._

Tshi, the, 46, 58

Tsiampa. _See_ Champa

Tsimshian, the, 343, 363, 393 _n._

Tsintsars, the, 530

Tsoneca. _See_ Tehuelche

Tuaregs, the, 468 sq., 473

Tuck, H. N., 183

Tucker, A. W., 75 _n._, 79 _n._

Tumali, the, 75

Tungthas, the, 188

Tungus, the, 274 sqq., and Pl. VI figs. 2, 5

Tunican, the, 378, 381, and map, pp. 334-5

Tunisia, natives of, 448 sq.

Tupi, the, 417, 419; language, 419

Tupi-Guarani, the, 348; language, 404; linguistic stock, 415, 417, 419

Turki, the, 169, 172, 302 sqq.; physical features, 303; in India, 308; in Central Asia, 308 sqq.; in Asia Minor, 313 sq.; in Siberia, 314 sqq.

Turko-Iranian type, Risley's, 546

Turkomans, the, 305, 312 sq.

Turks, Osmanli, 301, 303, 313 sq.

Turner, S., 171

Turner, Sir William, 15, 159 _n._

Tusayans, the, 385 sq.

Tuscarora, the, 354, 377 sq., and map, pp. 334-5

Tylor, Sir E. B., 353, 437 _n._

Tynjur, the, 74

Tyrol, the, brachycephaly in, 512

Uaupes, the, 348

Ude language, 541

Ugrian Finns, the, 317 sqq., 326 sq.

Uigurs, the, 301, 308 sqq., 329 _n._

Uinta, the, 371

Ujfalvy, C. de, 166 sq., 271 sq., 291, 302 _n._, 307, 311 _n._, 512, 544

Ukit, the, 230 sq.

Uled-Bella, the, 469

Uled-Embark, the, 469

Uled-en-Nasur, the, 469

Ulu Ayar, the, 230, 426

Umbrians, the, 513, 529

Ural-Altaic peoples. _See_ Northern Mongols

---- languages, 281 sqq.

Usuns (Wusun), the, 291, 301, 306

Ute, the, 355, 371 sq.

Utigurs, the, 329

Uzbegs, the, 303, 312, 315

Vaalpens, the, 120 sq.

Vacas, the, 52

Valentini, P. J. J., 342, 389

Vambery, A., 314, 330 _n._

Vandals, the, 449, 470

Vandeleur, S., 68 _n._

Vansittart, E., 170 _n._

Vapisianas, the, 416

Vascones, the, 525

Vasilofsky, N. E., 314 _n._

Vater, J. S., 127

Vauru, the, 348

Vazimba, the, 239, 244 sq.

Vedda, the, 149, 422, 424, and Pl. X fig. 1

Vei, the, 32 _n._, 46 _n._, 49

Venedi, the, 537

Veneti, the, 529 _n._, 537 _n._

Vepses, the, 320, 322

Verneau, R., 9 _n._, 123, 186 _n._, 198, 451

Vierkandt, A., 37 _n._

Vinson, J., 454 _n._, 456 _n._

Virchow, R., 29, 38, 127, 442, 447, 540 _n._

Visayas, the, 224, 246

Visigoths, the, 449

Vlachs, the, 530

Voguls, the, 303, 325

Volkov, T., 259 _n._, 305 _n._

Volz, W., 237 _n._

Votes, the, 320, 322

Voth, H. R., 385 _n._

Votyaks, the, 325

Vouchereau, A., 243

Wa-Boni, the, 97

Wace, A. J. B., 530 _n._

Wa-Chaga, the, 97

Wachsmuth, W., 463 _n._

Waddell, L. A., 169 _n._

Wa-Duruma, the, 97

Wa-Giryama, the, 97 sqq.

Wa-Gweno, the, 97

Wa-Hha, the, 91

Wahuma. _See_ Ba-Hima

Waiilatpuan, the, 363

Wainwright, G. A., 26 _n._

Wa-Kamba, the, 97

Wa-Kedi, the, 62 _n._, 96

Wakhi, the, 544

Wa-Kikuyu, the, 97 _n._

Wakore, the, 51 _n._

Walapai, the, 383

Wales, racial elements in, 522 sqq.

Walkhoff, E., 4 _n._

Wallace, A. R., 223, 224 _n._, 226 sqq.

Wallack, H., 450

Walpi, the, 382 _n._

Walter, H., 542 _n._

Wandorobbo, the, 124

Wangara, the, 51 _n._

Wa-Nyika, the, 97

Wa-Pokomo, the, 97

Wa-Ruanda, the, 91, 486

Wa-Sandawi, the, 127, 129

Wa-Swahili, the, 44, 100

Wa-Taveita, the, 97

Wa-Teita, the, 97

Watt, G., 181, 182 _n._

Wa-Tusi, the, 91, 486

Webster, W., 454 _n._, 521 _n._

Weeks, J. H., 113 _n._

Weigland, G., 530 _n._

Weiss, M., 97 _n._

Wends, the, 537

Werner, A., 97 _n._, 98 _n._, 102 _n._

Weule, K., 97 _n._

Wheeler, G. C., 432 _n._

Whenohs, the, 184

Whiffen, T., 414 _n._

Wibling, Carl, 16

Wichita, the, 355, 371, and map, pp. 334-5

Williamson, R. W., 158

Willis, B., 339

Wilson, Thomas, 175

Winchell, N. H., 344

Winckler, H., 490, 496

Windisch, E., 516

Windt, H. de, 287

Winnebago, the, 355, 375

Wintun, the, pp. 334-5

Wissler, C., 357-383 _passim_

Wissmann, H. von, 125

Witoto, the, 414, 415 _n._

Wochua, the, 124

Wolf, L., 125

Wollaston, A. F. R., 149 _n._, 154 _n._, 157 _n._

Wolof, the, 44, 47 sqq.

Woodford, C. M., 137 _n._, 146 _n._

Woodthorpe, R. G., 195 _n._

Woodward, A. Smith, 3 _n._, 5 _n._, 6 _n._

Worcester, D. C., 156 _n._

Wray, L., 155 _n._

Wright, F. E., 339

Wright, W., 4 _n._, 452 _n._

Wuri, the, 117

Wyandot, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5

Wylde, A. B., 487 _n._

Xenopol, A. D., 531

Yacana, the, 411

Yadrintseff, N. M., 309 _n._

Yagi, S., 261

Yagnobi, the, 542 _n._

Yahgans, the, 411, 413; language of, 413

Yakut, the, 172, 274 sq.; language, 283 _n._, 303, 314 sq.

Yamamadi, the, 348

Yankton-Dakota, the, 371, and map, pp. 334-5

Yavapai, the, 383

Yavorsky, J. L., 305

Yayo (Yao), the, 197

Yedina, the, 69

Yegrai, the, 172

Yegurs, the, 311 _n._

Yellow Knives, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5

Yemanieh, the, 74

Ye-tha, the, 307 sq.

Yezidi, the, 497

Yidoks, the, 543

Y-jen, the, 211

Yo, the, 183

Yokut, the, pp. 334-5

Yoma, the, 188

Yoruba, the, 46, 58 sq.

Yotkan, explorations at, 258

Younghusband, Sir F., 301 sq.

Yuan-yuans, the, 292, 307

Yuchi, the, 378 sqq., and map, pp. 334-5

Yue-chi, the, 291, 305 sqq., 542 _n._

Yugo-Slavs, the, 331, 537

Yuin, the, 437

Yukaghir, the, 274 sq.; writing system, 284 sq., 344

Yuma, the, 383

Yuman linguistic stock, the, 355, 369

Yumanas, the, 416

Yungas, the, 408

Zaborowski, S., 448, 456, 536 _n._, 539 sq.

Zandeh, the, 44, 78 sq., 81 sq.

Zapotecs, the, 390, 395

Zimbabwe monuments, the, 44, 89 sq., 105, 241 _n._

Zimmer, H., 521 _n._

Zimmern, H., 269 _n._

Ziryanians, the, 324

Zoghawa, the, 73

Zulu-Xosa, the, 44, 101 sqq., 129, and Pl. I fig. 2

Zuni, the, 382, and map, pp. 334-5

CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY J. B. PEACE, M.A., AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

PLATE I

PLATE II

PLATE III

PLATE IV

PLATE V

PLATE VI

PLATE VII

PLATE VIII

PLATE IX

PLATE X

PLATE XI

PLATE XII

PLATE XIII

PLATE XIV

PLATE XV

PLATE XVI

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