Part 3

In a general way the deer of the United States may be divided into two groups, these separated geographically by the Continental Divide. East of this line is the territory occupied by the white-tailed group; westward of it live the mule deer. Inasmuch as species seldom stop abruptly at geographical lines, we find in this instance that a whitetail subspecies, locally known as the Sonora fantail, is found along the Mexican border as far west as the Colorado River, territory also occupied by desert-dwelling mule deer. In like fashion the mule deer of the Rocky Mountains can even now be seen in the Badlands of North Dakota, several hundred miles east of the Continental Divide and well within the western range of the plains white-tailed.

Though the two species mingle in places, they are easily distinguished from each other, even by the novice. Because in many cases the animal is seen only in flight, the manner of running is perhaps the most prominent field difference. The mule deer, adapted to living in rough country, bounds away in stiff-legged jumps that look rather awkward on the level but can carry it up a steep incline with surprising speed. The white-tailed, on the other hand, stretches out and runs at a bobbing gallop. Deer seldom take leisurely flight from a human, usually straining every muscle to leave their enemy as soon as possible. In the rough, broken country frequented by mule deer this tactic often makes considerable commotion.

I am reminded of a herd of an estimated 70 deer that I jumped on a steep mountainside in southern Utah. The crashing of brush, crackling of hooves, and noise of rocks kicked loose in their flight created the impression of a landslide.

Another easily seen field difference between mule and white-tailed deer is the dark, short-haired tail of the former as compared with the great white fan of the latter. The tail of the mule deer seems in no way to be used as a signal. In flight it is not wagged from side to side as is that of the white-tailed.

Antlers of the mule deer are unlike those of any other large game species inhabiting their range. They are impressively large as a rule and, because of the high angle at which they rise from the head, often look larger. The spread is wide in proportion to the height; thus it is not unusual for a well-antlered buck to be mistaken for an elk, especially at a distance. The antlers are unique in having a beam that forks equally to form the points. Thus a typical head might have five points, these being: the basal snag, a small tine rising from the beam near the head; and four points, two from the forking of each division of the beam. The western manner of counting the points consists of numbering those of one antler only; the method often used in the East counts all of the points of both. The number of points does not necessarily denote the age of a deer. Under normal conditions the antlers will increase in size and points with every new pair until maturity is attained. They will then grow to approximately the same size for several years. In old age, the antler development will usually dwindle with each succeeding year until, in senility, they may be as small as those of a young deer. The condition of teeth and hooves is a more accurate indication of age even though this method lacks prestige of the time-honored system of points.

It would seem, from the ease with which this big deer can be established in varying types of habitat, that it is in little danger of extinction. It is probable that the various subspecies will disappear before long because their range is rapidly being taken up by agriculture or lumbering. Given some protection, the species will endure in the higher mountains for many years to come.

White-tailed deer _Odocoileus virginianus_ (Greek: odous, tooth and koilus, hollow. Latin: of Virginia)

Range: Mostly east of the Continental Divide in the United States, north into southern Canada, and most of Mexico except Baja California.

Habitat: Brushy and wooded country.

Description: A deer with a large, white tail, held aloft and wagged from side to side as it runs away through the underbrush. In the Southwest, two geographic variants occur, the subspecies _virginianus_ and the subspecies _couesi_; the latter known locally as Sonora fantail, and seen in the United States only in a limited range along the border. _Odocoileus virginianus_ of the Southwest is a large deer. It usually weighs between 150 and 250 pounds, and sometimes up to 300. The average adult animal will measure around 6 feet in total length. Tail about 10 inches. Color is reddish in summer, changing to gray with the winter coat. Belly, insides of legs, and undersurface of tail are white. Ears are small. Antlers have upright tines from a single beam.

As the specific name indicates, this is the same deer that is found in the Eastern States. It is also known as the plains whitetail, because it was once common along brushy draws and river bottoms throughout the prairie regions. Preeminently an eastern animal, it occurs most abundantly in the Eastern States, dwindling in numbers westward to the Continental Divide. A few scattered groups are found in the Pacific Northwest, and the subspecies _couesi_ extends westward along the Mexican border to the Colorado River.

The white-tailed deer may be distinguished from mule deer by any of three characteristics, all readily apparent in the field. These are: shape and construction of antlers, size and color of tail, and method of running. Antlers consist of two main beams which, after rising from the head, curve forward almost at right angles with a line drawn from forehead to nose. The tines rise from these main beams. In the mule deer the beams rise at a higher angle from the head and fork rather than remain single. The white-tailed tail is long and bushy, fully haired all around and pure white beneath. In flight it is erected and “wigwagged” from side to side. This, together with the white insides of the hams, presents a great show of white hair as the animal retreats. The mule deer has a thin, sparsely-haired tail that is bare underneath and does not wave from side to side in running. The “whitetail” runs at a brisk gallop with belly close to the ground; the mule deer bounds away with a series of ballet-like leaps.

This is the deer that contributed so much to the pioneers in their westward trek from the Atlantic States. It was important not only for its flesh but for its hide, which after tanning became the buckskin moccasins, breeches, and coats commonly worn by outdoorsmen in early days. Its distribution is now spotty compared with the former range, although there are today probably more white-tailed deer in the United States than in colonial times. This is mainly because in the thickly settled Eastern States predators have been reduced to a minimum and hunting seasons carefully regulated. It is too early yet to know if predator elimination will result in an inferior strain of deer, but the relative overpopulation in many localities has been indicated by lack of browse, disease, and excessive winter kill. The latter especially has been a problem in some of the Northern States. “Whitetails” are gregarious creatures, banding together in considerable numbers at times, especially during winter. A band of them in deep snow will stay together and their hooves will soon tramp down the snow over a small area. As succeeding snows fall, the drifts become deeper around the “deer yards” and eventually the occupants become as imprisoned by this white barrier as though they were fenced. If the number of animals in the yard is too great, available browse soon disappears and many will starve to death before warm weather returns. Over most of the mountainous area occupied by white-tailed deer in the Southwest snow is no problem. The herds merely move down to lower country when the snow gets too deep. This seasonal movement is so pronounced that this deer is classed as a migratory animal in some localities.

In line with this migratory tendency the “whitetail” follows a varied but well-marked routine in its life pattern. About the time of shedding the winter coat late in the spring, the bucks also cast their antlers. With the loss of these beautiful weapons their personalities suffer. They leave the group with which they have spent the winter and ascend to the higher mountains, there to consort with a few similarly afflicted individuals until a new growth of antlers restores their dignity. The does, left behind, have problems of their own. These include driving the yearling fawns away to fend for themselves in order that the does may give undivided attention to the tiny, spotted newcomers that arrive in midsummer. By this time the adults have put on the short, yellowish-red summer coat. The fawns are reddish too, but covered with pale spots, a combination that blends well with lights and shadows in the brushy places where the does choose to hide them. As soon as the fawns are large enough to follow their mothers the little family groups begin a gradual trek up the mountainside. There are several reasons for this exodus, chief of which are cooler temperatures, better browse, and fewer stinging insects.

While the does have been rearing their young, the bucks have been staging a slow comeback on the ridges above. By early fall their new antlers have hardened, been cleaned of velvet, and polished in the brushy thickets. With restored weapons they again seek company of the does. The season of the rut comes in a time when the bucks are at the peak of vigor and combativeness. Yearlings and weaker bucks are soon outclassed, leaving the most virile and aggressive males to become progenitors of the following year’s fawns. The simplicity of this system is equalled only by its effectiveness. Natural selective breeding is one of the most important items in perpetuation of a species. A decline in numbers of the best breeding animals often results in an inferior strain. In conservation of deer herds it is well to remember that it is not always the _number_ of animals that is the prime consideration. A smaller group of healthy, vigorous individuals is usually more to be desired than a larger population in average condition.

Although the species has vanished from many of its haunts in the Prairie States, it will not likely become extinct for a long time. Ranked by many authorities as our foremost game animal, it has been the “guinea pig” in many conservation experiments. Adaptable to almost any environment with suitable shelter and browse factors, it needs only a little protection to become well established. The “key” deer of the Florida Everglades, a tiny animal attaining a weight of only 50 pounds, is, however, on the verge of extinction. Another subspecies, the “Sonora fantail,” native to Mexico and the southwestern United States, is greatly reduced in numbers and seems destined to vanish.

Elk _Cervus canadensis_ (Latin: stag or deer, from Canada)

Range: Along the Rocky Mountains of the United States and Canada. Also found in central Canada, western Oregon and Washington, central California, and various small areas in those Western States where it has been introduced.

Habitat: Wooded places and high sheltered mountain valleys.

Description: A very large deer with enormous antlers, a thin neck, and a light rump patch. Total length 80 to 100 inches. Tail 4 to 5 inches. Shoulder height 49 to 59 inches. Average weight 600 to 700 pounds, with a maximum of about 1100. Coat dark in summer, lighter in winter. Longer hair on neck and throat of the bull forms a mane that is distinguishable at some distance. Antlers extremely large, usually six points on adult males. Females do not normally bear antlers. Hooves are black. Young usually one, although twins not rare.

The elk is the largest member of the deer family native to the southwestern United States. It was once widely distributed, known not only throughout the Middle West but also in most of the Eastern States. In fact, one of its common names, “wapiti,” is of eastern American Indian origin; it was so called by the Algonquins. The Crees of Canada and the Northern States call it “wapitiu” (pale white) to distinguish it from the darker colored moose with which it was associated in that region. It is now confined to the Rockies and westward in the United States, and to the Rockies and central portion of Canada. Many herds now found in Western States have been introduced to take the place of those thoughtlessly exterminated in the early days. This has been the case in Arizona and New Mexico, where Merriam’s elk disappeared before 1900. This elk, now known only from scanty records and a few mounted heads and skulls, was a giant of its kind. Not only was it larger than the Wyoming elk which now takes its place, but it had correspondingly massive antlers. Its passing is a grim warning of what could happen easily to the tule elk, a pygmy elk of central California which has been reduced to a dangerously small herd. The elk now present in the Southwest, chiefly if not all, are descendants of individuals brought down from the large herds of the Yellowstone Park area. In their new homeland they maintain the same habits that characterize the species in Wyoming.

Next to buffalo, elk are the most gregarious large mammals in the United States. The degree to which they band together varies with the seasons and can be attributed to their migratory instincts. During summer months the bands are small and widely scattered high in the Transition Life Zone and even higher at times. With the advent of cold weather they work their way down to lower country, and winter finds them gathered in sheltered grassy valleys. This exodus to winter quarters can be one of the most thrilling sights in Nature. In the north it is not uncommon for herds of a thousand or more of these stately animals to move into one of the more favored valleys. They have the instinct so highly developed among most animals of knowing when a storm is imminent, and the migration may be completed within a period of 48 hours, or even less if foul weather is brewing.

The concentration of hundreds of these hungry animals into one small area creates numerous problems, the most serious being that of feed. Before the white man came, the elk population was more scattered, and many winter feeding grounds were available. In those ungrazed areas they were able to paw down through the snow to the nourishing dry grass beneath. Large herds must now be fed on hay to avoid winter losses that would otherwise result. In the Southwest, with its comparatively mild winters and small population, the animals experience little difficulty in weathering the storms without human aid. The present herds appear well established, and with proper conservation measures should be a valuable part of our wildlife for many years to come.

Migratory though they are, elk still must weather a great seasonal range of temperature. In adapting to these changes they have developed two definite coats, one for summer and one for winter. The winter garb is put on early in the fall; it consists of a heavy coat of brown woolly underfur with guard hairs that vary from gray on the sides to almost black on neck and legs. Old bulls tend to be more black and white than the cows and younger animals. This heavy pelage, often called the “gray” coat, effectively wards off cold winds that sweep through the mountains and insulates the wearer against snow that is driven into the outer surface. In the spring this coat is shed to make way for a light summer coat. The matted hair falls away in great bunches, and the animals are unkempt in appearance for 2 months or more. The summer coat is made up of short, stiff hairs with little underfur. The pelage is glossy when compared with the harsh guard hairs of the winter coat. In color it is tawny, appearing reddish at a distance. The rump patch is a light tawny color in both coats.

With the coming of spring the bulls lose the great antlers which they have carried through the winter. This takes place through a general deterioration of the antler base accompanied by some reabsorption of tissues at that point. The antlers may simply drop off or, in their weakened condition, be snapped off on contact with low hanging branches. They are usually shed in March, and by May a new pair begins to grow. As with the rest of the deer family, a thick growth of velvet covers the new growth. The first stages look rather ludicrous as the antlers develop points by successive stages, each tine coming to maturity before the next begins to grow. Eventually the height of the antlers “catches up,” so to speak, with the overprominent base. At full maturity, attained by August, there are few sights so impressive as a bull elk in the velvet. When this stage is reached the antlers, until now extremely tender, begin to harden and lose their sense of feeling. The bulls strip off the velvet by rubbing against branches and brush. Gradually the hard core emerges, stained a rich brown, except for the tips of the tines which are a gleaming ivory white. The antlers are so beautifully symmetrical that they seem graceful despite their size. One of the largest pairs on record has a length of beam of 64¾ inches and a spread of 74 inches.

A mature bull usually has six tines on each antler. These have definite names. The first tine extends forward from the head and is known as the “brow” tine; the next to it as the “bez” tine. Collectively they are called the “lifters,” formerly known as “war tines.” The next point inclines toward the vertical; this is the “trez” tine. The fourth is the “royal” or “dagger” point, and the terminal fork of the antler forms the final two points which are called “surroyals.”

Unwieldy as this tremendous rack of antlers appears, the animals handle them with comparative ease. In the normal walk or trot the body is carried along smoothly with the nose held up and forward. In this posture the antlers are well balanced and are carried without undue strain. In running through brush the nose is lifted still higher; this throws the antlers farther back along the shoulders, and as the nose parts the branches they slide along the curving beams without catching on the tines. Despite these cumbersome impediments, the elk creates less disturbance than most large forest animals when in flight. Antlers as weapons of offense are far overrated, for they seldom serve this function. Males have been severely injured and even killed in fights among themselves, but these are exceptions, and most fighting is done by striking with the front feet. If antlers are used it is usually with a chopping, downward motion that rakes, rather than puncturing the hide of the opponent.

Despite the fine appearance he presents, the bull elk is not content merely to be seen, but insists on being heard as well. His vocal effort is a high, clear, mellow tone commonly known as bugling, although it seems to have more the quality of a whistle than the sound of a horn. The call begins on a low note that is sustained for perhaps two seconds and then rises swiftly for a full octave to a sweet mellow crescendo, drops by swift degrees to the first note, and dies away. This is followed by several coughing grunts that can be heard only at close range. Bugling can be heard for a great distance, and on a clear quiet evening one of the greatest charms of wilderness camping is to hear this clear challenge flung out from some nearby ridge. The response is quickly returned from other hillsides, some so far away as to be mere whispers in the distance.

Bugling is indulged mainly during the rutting season and lasts from August to November. During this time it undoubtedly is intended as a challenge to other bulls and perhaps also to impress the cows with their lords’ great importance. At other seasons it is heard but infrequently, and then probably is simply an expression of abundant animal spirits. Cows have been known to bugle, but this is a rare occurrence.

The single calf is born between mid-May and mid-June. Twins are not uncommon. At birth the calf will weigh 30 to 40 pounds, and is an awkward animal. It has a pale brown coat liberally sprinkled with light spots, and a very prominent rump patch. For several days it remains hidden in the grass while the mother grazes nearby and keeps constant vigil. Several times daily she will return to let the calf suckle, but this is done as hurriedly as possible. Many are the predators that are only too anxious to catch the little one, such as mountain lions, wolves, bobcats, coyotes, bears, and even golden eagles. Should the calf be molested it emits a shrill squeal and the cow charges in with sharp hooves flashing. She usually is successful in driving away the smaller predators and sometimes intimidates even the largest with her bristling show of fury. After the calf is large enough to follow the mother, she warns it of danger with a hoarse, coughing bark.

The presence of canine teeth in elk is a peculiarity not found in other American deer. They are of modified form, being bulbous growths without known function. They occur in both sexes but those in bulls have the greatest development. At maturity they become highly polished and stain a light brown.

RODENTS _Including the Lagomorphs_ (_hares and pikas_)

Rodents are the most numerous mammals of the Southwest. This is not an unusual condition; they enjoy numerical superiority over other mammals throughout the world. As a rule rodents are small animals; the largest to be found in the uplands of the Southwest are the beaver and the porcupine. Although these two are considerably larger than all others of the group, they cannot be classed as big animals. Because of the large number of species represented and the varying conditions under which they live, rodents have wide differences in physical characteristics. They can all be identified as belonging to this group, however, by one common characteristic—that of having long, curving incisors. As a rule these number two above and two in the lower jaw, the only exception being the hares and some of their closely allied species. These properly belong to the order _Lagomorpha_ but will be included here with rodents.

The incisors are deeply set in the jaws, that part above the gums being a hollow tube filled with pulp. Unlike the incisors of other mammals, they continue a slow steady growth throughout the life of the animal. This is a means of compensating for the wear the cutting edges must undergo. The fronts of these teeth are covered with a heavy coat of enamel, while the back surfaces are either bare dentine or at best covered with very thin enamel. The wear thus results in a bevel-edged surface much like that of a chisel which, with the whetting it receives during the normal movements of eating, remains sharp. A uniform sharpening of both upper and lower incisors is assured by a peculiar arrangement of the hinge of the lower jaw. A more-than-average play in this ball and socket joint allows the lower incisors to slide either behind or in front of the uppers so that both sets receive approximately the same wear on both sides. Should one of the incisors be broken or otherwise damaged so that normal attrition cannot take place, its opposite will grow to such a degree that the animal is unable to take food and then may starve to death. Canine teeth are absent in all rodents, and premolars are lacking in many species. The large gap thus left between the narrow incisors and the comparatively massive molars accounts in part for the wide skull that tapers quickly to the laterally compressed face so typical of rodent features.