Part 12

It will be apparent, even to the casual observer, that the marten is most precisely evolved to meet the frigid conditions imposed by its boreal habitat. The long, fine-haired winter coat is extremely warm and does not mat with snow or frost. With such an insulated covering any hollow log or woodpecker’s nest will do as a resting place. Snow is the least of the marten’s troubles; not only does it stay warm among the drifts, but travels across them with ease on its “built-in” hair snowshoes, which also keep the toe pads warm. The midwinter track of a marten is rather confusing, as it shows no definite toe marks, but is a blurry outline in soft snow, and on harder snow scarcely registers at all. However, if it is remembered that this animal travels much like a weasel, that is, it jumps instead of walking, the larger prints will serve to identify it as a marten.

Interesting as the physical adaptations of the marten may be, the response of its life history to the pressures of a long winter are no less fascinating. As has been stressed, the marten is a solitary and more or less nomadic animal. Apparently the only time of the year that is favorable for breeding is during the summer, as this is the only time when adults of the two sexes are commonly found together. This starts a reproductive cycle which, while not too uncommon, is unusual enough to excite one’s interest. For the following information, I am indebted to James Campbell of Hope, Idaho, who live-trapped and raised many of these interesting animals years ago when knowledge concerning them was relatively meager.

Box traps were used to take the marten during the middle of the winter, when snow lay from 15 to 25 feet deep along the trap lines. This was at an elevation of up to 6,500 feet in the panhandle of northern Idaho. As a sprung trap was approached, the outraged captive could be heard growling its resentment and struggling to escape. A flour sack would be placed around the entrance and the door opened. The marten, apparently mistaking the white glare for snow, invariably would leap out into the sack. Great care was necessary at this point, for the marten was usually wet with perspiration from its struggles within the box trap, and if allowed to chill would quickly die from exposure. The sack was placed within several others and the bundle placed in a pack-sack and carried down the mountain, where the marten was cooled gradually in the house, then put in the outdoor pens. Here they soon became so tame that they would readily accept food from the hand, never becoming treacherous like their unpredictable cousins, the mink. They loved fruit and berries, and were especially fond of chocolate candy.

Early in the venture, it was observed that winter-caught females were giving birth to young in April. Further observation revealed that breeding took place from the early part of July into late August, but that no matter when breeding was accomplished the young would be born in April. The first signs of pregnancy, however, would not be apparent until about 50 days before birth of the young. This indicates that, like most of the hibernating bats, breeding takes place in one season, but the fertilized ova remain quiescent and do not begin to develop until conditions are propitious for the birth of the young. This also insures arrival of the little ones quite early in the season, so that they may enter the following winter fully grown. The number of young varies from three to five, usually the smaller number.

No description of the marten would be complete without mention of its tremendous vitality. In trees it is superior to the squirrel, especially in long, arching leaps, which it makes from one lofty perch to another. In winter time it will often leap from the trees into soft snowdrifts, seemingly for the sheer thrill of the sport. It is not uncommon for martens to burrow through snowdrifts for some distance apparently in search of rodents. I have found that a marten, startled in the forest, is not usually too afraid of its arch enemy, man. At first it will run away but, if pursued too hotly, will come to bay on a low limb and put on a great display of hissing and growling while baring its sharp, white teeth. It is not improbable that if it were pressed further it might attack its tormenter.

River otter _Lutra canadensis_ (Latin: otter ... of Canada)

Range: Most of North America south to central Arizona and New Mexico in the Southwest, and south to the Gulf of Mexico in the east.

Habitat: Along and in fresh water streams and lakes.

Description: A short-legged, stream-lined creature with a thick tapered tail, usually seen in the water. Total length 3 to 4 feet. Tail 12 to 17 inches. Weight up to 20 pounds. Color mostly a rich, dark brown with a silvery sheen on the underparts. The throat and chest are lighter than the rest of the body. The otter is well adapted to aquatic life, having a long, round body and short, muscular legs. All four feet are webbed. The head is long and round, with short ears. Long, stiff whiskers stand out near the rather thick nose. The tail is thick at the base, and the body literally tapers off into the tail, increasing the general “torpedo” effect.

The otter, never plentiful in the Southwest, has become extremely rare in recent years. This is due in large part to its highly specialized habits, coupled with an inability to compete with man in the use of the few fresh water streams and lakes in the desert mountains. Yet, it has been recorded often enough in the past decade to warrant the hope that with careful management and complete protection it might increase in numbers. This is much to be desired because the otter is unique in several respects among our native mammals. This mild-mannered member of the weasel family lacks many of the fierce and blood-thirsty habits of its more ferocious relatives. It is, instead, gentle, even playful.

Outstanding among these characteristics is the otter’s habit of building slides. These are probably nothing more or less than a refinement of the way otters travel through the tules and slippery mud flats, in which they spend much of their time hunting crayfish and small amphibians. The remarkable thing about the slides is that they seem to be built for one specific purpose, that of sport, an activity which ordinarily is one of the least important to most mammals. In soft or muddy places, even in soft snow, the otter slides along on its chest with head held high and forelegs trailing alongside the body. Motive power is furnished by thrusts of the hind legs. Excessive wear on the underparts is reduced by many coarse, close-set overhairs which seem to have been developed for this very purpose. The slide itself is only a narrow groove, 12 to 20 inches wide, that is worn down a steep bank to the water’s edge. The wet bodies of the otters make it smooth and slippery, and soon they are able to shoot down it with only an occasional helping kick of the hind feet. This fascinating game may go on for hours on end. The descent often is followed by a general rough and tumble in the “swimming hole.” There the action is almost too fast for the eye to follow, because few mammals can match the otter for grace and speed in the water.

Aquatic as the otter is, it does not care to be always wet, and this leads to another curious institution in its way of life. Near the slide, and usually at several other places along the waterway which is frequented by a family of these delightful creatures, will be found areas several feet in diameter, located among dry tules or in tall grass, where the animals roll and thus dry themselves. These seem also to be community news centers, because usually near such areas are found the scent “posts,” where otters deposit scent from the glands common to all members of the weasel family. In otters these glands do not secrete the high-potency perfume produced by those of skunks and minks. Nevertheless, it is sufficiently “loud” to be identified with the otter.

The dens present great contrast in location and type. They are usually situated near water, but one was found more than half a mile from the nearest stream. On the other hand, an otter will often take over the abandoned burrow of a bank beaver, and access to this abode must be by an underwater entrance. In many instances, the den is merely a nest in a thick clump of tules completely surrounded by water.

The two to four young are born in early spring. At birth they are blind, toothless, and amazingly helpless in comparison with their development 6 weeks later. At this age they begin to leave the den, and before long are quite at home in the water. Though the male may be in the neighborhood, the female will not allow him near the young until they are half grown. At this time, the family will begin to live together until the young are fully able to make their own way.

Otters are cosmopolitan in their tastes; being carnivores, they will prey on many species. Fish is their preferred food, and in most cases they capture rough fish species, these as a rule being slow and easy to catch. They are fully capable of catching trout, however, should other supplies fail. Otters in captivity do not thrive on fish alone, so evidently the great numbers of other small animals upon which they prey must be necessary adjuncts to their diet. These include crayfish, frogs, several species of small mammals, and such birds and eggs as may be available.

The presence of otters in an area is not difficult to detect. A slide, “rolling place,” or characteristic web-toed track are all sure indications that this interesting animal is a neighbor. Cultivate its acquaintance if you can. The otter is diurnal as well as nocturnal, and should you be so fortunate as to see this happy animal coast down his slippery slide, I am sure you will get as big a thrill from it as he does.

Mink _Mustela vison_ (Latin: weasel ... forceful, powerful)

Range: The range of the mink is strikingly similar to that of the otter, that is, it embraces most of northern North America, extending southward into southwestern United States in the west, and to the Gulf of Mexico in the east.

Habitat: This semi-aquatic animal seldom is found far from fresh water streams or ponds.

Description: The mink is about as long as an average house cat, but is much more streamlined in appearance. Total length for males 20 to 26 inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches. Weight up to 2¼ pounds. Females will average almost one-third smaller. Color is dark brown over most of the body, shading to lighter brown on the sides and darkening along the tail to a black tip. There are usually a few irregular white spots on chest and belly. The body is long, and round, tapering into the long, round neck. The head is small with rather a triangular face, small ears, and dark, beady eyes. The legs are short and, as would be expected on an aquatic animal, the feet are webbed, but in this case only the bases of the toes are joined by the webs. The underfur is thick and fine, the guard hairs coarse and conspicuously shiny. Mink will bear as many as 10 young, but the average is around 5. Dens usually are in a burrow, which may or may not have an underwater entrance.

The presence of mink in any given area is usually quite easily determined by scouting sand bars and mud flats along the water’s edge. The tracks are quite distinctive, especially in softer mud, because here the animal spreads its toes to keep from sinking, and in places the outlines of the partially webbed toes become clearly apparent. In most cases if tracks are at all discernible, marks of the claws are conspicuous. The occurrence of mink away from water can not be considered normal, because this creature ranks second only to the otter, among southwestern carnivores, in its preference for an aquatic life. Exceptions do occur, however; mink have been encountered crossing mountain ranges where they might be many miles from the closest watercourse. It is thought that these infrequent cases may be migrations from unfavorable areas, or that such a trip may be undertaken in search of a mate.

Much of the mink’s dependence on water stems from its diet. Some of its preferred foods are fish, crayfish, and frogs, none of which are more adept in the water than the mink. Other food items, taken whenever circumstances permit, are birds and eggs and rodents. It is interesting to note that the muskrat is no match for the agile mink, and that one of these fierce carnivores moving into an area has resulted in the extermination of a whole colony of muskrats. Cottontails, too, are unable to cope with the tactics of the mink, although their reproductive proclivities usually keep their numbers well ahead of such inroads. Even with this wide variety of prey and its expertness at hunting, the mink is so voracious that in some areas it has been estimated 100 acres are only enough to support one adult. The continual hunt for food may be the motivation for another interesting habit of the mink which is seldom found among other carnivores.

Many beasts of prey will hide or bury a kill and come back to it later for several more meals. In fact the wolverine, one of the mink’s close relatives, will do this. However, the mink actually collects a considerable store of food during periods of good hunting and caches it away against time of need. Caches will often consist of larger animals, such as muskrats and ducks, laid neatly away under an overhanging bank. Since these stores are highly perishable, this is mostly a cold weather practice. The mink is not normally a carrion eater.

A characteristic of the weasel family is the occurrence of anal glands which secrete a liquid having a powerful odor. The skunks are best known in this respect. In my opinion the mink and weasel both release an odor which, by comparison, makes the skunk’s “almost nice.” The one saving grace in their case is that the odor soon evaporates, while that released by the skunks retains its strength for a long time, and regains much of the original potency with every rain. Like the skunks, these animals use the disagreeable odor as a defensive weapon. It no doubt has other uses too, such as identifying the individual and its territory to other animals of the same species.

Considering the weasel family as a group, it becomes apparent that here is a rather large number of species, all closely related, yet having widely divergent habits. For instance, the marten is as much at home in trees as is the squirrel; the otter can catch fish with ease; and the badger is able to dig better than even the ground squirrels and spends much of its life underground. In the same way, the group varies widely in temperament. At one end of the scale stands the wolverine, surly and defiant; at the other are the marten and otter, playful and even affectionate. The mink might be classified as nervous and irritable. There seems in its temperament to be an actual blood lust. When the mood is upon it, it will continue to kill even when a human is close by. I have seen a mink continue to slaughter a flock of ducks even as I was attempting to drive it away. A mink cornered is a creature to reckon with; there are few animals its size that are so courageous.

As might be suspected, such wildly fierce creatures make poor parents. The females sometimes desert the young while they are still too small to make their own way. Yet this, after all, is but a human criticism. Who is to condemn an animal which Nature has allowed to exist under conditions that would have eliminated a more amicable species?

Short-tailed weasel (ermine) _Mustela erminea_ (Latin: weasel ... from the fur ermine)

Range: From northern Greenland south to northern United States with one extension south into Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. To be expected in northern Arizona.

Habitat: Generally found in forests of the Transition Life Zone and higher. It will often be found in the Arctic Zone.

Description: A tiny predator with long body and short legs. Total length from 7 to 13 inches. Tail 2 to 4 inches. Weight 1½ to 3⅔ ounces. This wide range in statistics is from comparing the smallest females with the largest males. Males consistently average from one-fifth to one-fourth larger than females. Summer color is dark brown with white underparts and feet. There is a white line down the insides of the hind legs connecting the white of the feet with that of the belly. The tip of the tail is black. Winter coat is all white with the exception of the black tail tip. The body is long and supple, legs are short, the neck long and round. The head is small with rather large, bulging dark eyes. The ears are large for a creature of this size. Breeding dens are usually in the ground under large rocks or among the roots under a tree. Average number of young is thought to be about four.

I have a special affection for this tiny predator which, because of its fearlessness, has given me many a glimpse into its private life which would not have been possible in the case of a larger or more timid creature. Let no one underestimate the courage of this small mustelid which, if left alone, will continue its normal activities even under the close scrutiny of an observer, but if molested will often turn on its tormenter with a fury matched by few large animals. It shares these characteristics with two other relatives of the United States: the longtailed weasel (_Mustela frenata_), which is also found in the Southwest, and the least weasel (_Mustela rixosa_), which inhabits part of the northern United States, Canada, and Alaska. The short-tailed weasel will not be mistaken for either of the other species, since the least weasel has no black tip on the tail and the long-tailed weasel has a tail about one-third of its body length. The tail of the short-tailed weasel is only about one-fourth of its body length, and this species is considerably smaller than the long-tailed weasel.

Short-tailed weasels are the smallest carnivores in the Southwest. In fact, except for the least weasel, they are the smallest on the North American Continent. Despite its size, _Mustela erminea_ is so hardy it ranges to the northernmost point of land in the Northern Hemisphere. This, the north coast of Greenland, is but a few degrees from the North Pole. The European form, not specifically distinct from ours, is equally hardy. It, too, inhabits not only the more temperate zones, but penetrates far north of the Arctic Circle wherever land is found. In our Southwest they are sometimes encountered at low elevations but more often in the higher mountains. Here they go through the winter change of color, but not so regularly nor so completely as in the far north.

The term “ermine” refers to this animal’s fur in the winter pelage. This is the royal ermine, reserved in days past for the use of the aristocracy. At its best this fur is a spotless white, except for the sharply contrasting black tail tip. In heraldry the pure white had symbolic significance, but to the weasel it has more mundane uses. These are as camouflage, both in pursuing prey and in avoiding attacks of enemies. In the far north this seasonal change of garb is mandatory and complete, but in the mild (by comparison) climate of our southwestern mountains the situation is somewhat altered. Here the creature can descend to lower elevations as winter comes on and, if it wishes, evade most of the severe weather. Under conditions which to some extent are left to its own choice, the degree of color change varies greatly. In snowy areas on higher peaks it will change to true ermine; lower down it probably will turn to a light yellow, and below snowline the animal will retain the same brown above and white below that it wears all summer.

Like most other members of the weasel family, these small mustelids are admirably adapted to do their part in Nature. Their size permits them to enter the homes of all but the very smallest rodents. Their strength and suppleness combined with ferocity enables them to subdue animals several times as large. Surprisingly enough, though well able to climb, they do not eat many birds. Most of their prey is rodents. Small mice seem to be preferred, though chipmunks, ground squirrels, and woodrats also are taken. Pikas and small rabbits fall prey to these mighty mites, and there are many recorded cases of snakes being killed by them. Like the mink, short-tailed weasels will gather a cache of food when hunting is good. For their size they have a tremendous appetite; it has been estimated that one will eat half of its own weight in food every 24 hours. From this it will be seen that they can live only in an area where rodents are plentiful, and that they play a large part in keeping these creatures under control.

I have been privileged to see this weasel many times and under varying circumstances. In all of these encounters it has seemed evident that at first the animal accepts the intrusion of man not so much as an enemy, but rather as a competitor. Under these condition it will continue its activities and pay very little attention to the intruder. However, should any hostile action be taken against it, the weasel will make its escape, if possible. If cornered it will savagely defend itself, and as a last resort spray its attacker with the foul-smelling contents of the anal gland. Not so long lasting as the skunk’s perfume, this odorous mist is nearly as effective while it lasts. How much better to stand aside and watch the little predator go about its work!

If you are fortunate enough to be in an area where a hay meadow is being irrigated, you will see the meadow voles (meadow mice) being flooded out of their homes. A careful watch may reveal one or more short-tailed weasels taking their toll of these hapless refugees. You may even find a cache laid away during this period of good hunting. Neither pity the voles nor scorn the weasel; both are only fulfilling their destinies in an ages-old plan.

Spotted skunk _Spilogale gracilis_ (Greek: spilos, spot and gale, weasel ... gracilis, Latin: slender)

Range: This species, together with several subspecies, is the common spotted skunk of the Southwest. It has a “spotty” distribution over the whole of the four-State area with which this book is concerned.

Habitat: Common in most situations which offer suitable environment from near sea level, to an elevation of approximately 8,000 feet. Seldom encountered above timberline. These skunks normally live in burrows in the ground, but are not averse to taking up residence under buildings or in the walls or attics of frame houses.

Description: A small, nocturnal, black and white animal about the size of an average grey tree squirrel. Total length about 16 inches, of which 6 inches is taken up by the tail. One description of the color pattern would be to call it marbled. The head usually has a prominent white spot between the eyes, with several smaller spots on the sides of the face. The forequarters are marked with four lateral, irregular white stripes which reach to mid body. The rump is variously blotched with white. Tail very bushy and about half white and half black. Eyes dark in color, ears small. Feet small but plantigrade as in the larger species of skunks. Young number three to six, born in early summer.