Part 11

Description: Doglike in appearance, but larger than a big dog. Carries its short, bushy tail above the horizontal when traveling. The gray wolf is almost unbelievably big. Total length 55 to 67 inches. Tail 12 to 19 inches. Height at shoulders 26 to 28 inches. Weight 70 to 170 pounds. These animals show a tremendous variation in color, but the average individual will appear very much like a big German shepherd dog. From this average, they will vary from the almost white coat found in Alaska to the black phase of the red wolf of Texas. The head of the wolf is distinctive. It has a broad face with a wide but short nose. The straw-yellow eyes have round pupils. The ears are short and round, much more like a dog’s than a coyote’s. The feet, in keeping with the rest of the body, are large. The front feet have five toes; as is usual with canines, the first toe or “thumb” does not touch the ground. The hind foot has but 4 toes. These animals have a high reproduction rate. Each year the single litter may consist of from 3 to 4 to as many as 12; the average is assumed to be from 6 to 8.

The wolf’s association with man is older than recorded history. When man first gained his ascendency over other mammals, the wolf is believed to have been the progenitor of the dog. As man’s partner in the chase, it helped him become the one superior animal capable of exterminating it. At the present time, man has come close to doing just that. Only a few of these magnificent wild dogs remain in the United States. Those are concentrated mainly in the Southwest, and some of them undoubtedly have come across the border from Mexico. Before long the species probably will become extinct in this country, but the large numbers remaining in Alaska and Canada should persist for many years.

Much of the public antipathy for wolves comes from literature. Who, as a child, has not thrilled to the danger that surrounded Little Red Riding Hood, and rejoiced at the ultimate end of the arch villain? Long before animated cartooning took over nursery rhymes, children’s books were well thumbmarked at the page where the “big bad wolf huffed and puffed and blew the house down.” To “keep the wolf from the door” is an expression as full of meaning today as it was in the 15th century when the animal became extinct in England. The wolf has always been a symbol of taking ruthlessly. The genus _lupinus_ (Latin: wolf), a beautiful group of plants of the pea family, is so called because early botanists thought it robbed the soil. The “wolf” so often encountered at house parties is included in this class. None of these characterizations gives a good impression, and all are indicative of man’s feeling toward the wolf. It is most unfortunate that man so often condemns anything which interferes with his own economic progress. Nature has a place for the wolf, a specialized task for which it is admirably adapted.

In the days before the white man, bison roamed the western plains in great herds which were constantly followed by packs of wolves and coyotes. As long as the bison remained close together they were relatively safe, but woe to the sick or weak that lagged behind. These were quickly pulled down, and after wolves had eaten the choicest portions, the coyotes and vultures moved in for the rest. When the white man exterminated the bison, the wolves’ host was gone and they turned to the logical substitute, the white man’s cattle. This could have but one result. In the predator control campaign which followed, a wedge was driven through the wolf population of the Southwest, leaving one group isolated in Utah and Colorado and another in southern Arizona and New Mexico. The latter group is actually formed by immigration of wolves from Mexico. It fluctuates in numbers as the animals move back and forth across the border in response to local conditions. During the extermination program, the behavior of the wolf was affected to a considerable extent.

Accounts of early travelers stress the easy familiarity with which the gray wolf accepted their presence. When a wayfarer shot a bison, the wolf sat down within easy range and waited until the choicest cuts had been taken away. It then moved in for its share. Since that time the wolf has become one of the most wary and cunning of our wild creatures. Gifted with a keen intelligence, it has found that only by complete isolation can it escape the methods devised for its destruction. To this end, it has moved from the plains into the more inaccessible places in the mountains. Few will ever see a wolf in the Southwest again, and I consider myself fortunate to have seen this gray ghost of the plains in years long past, and to have heard its deep howl break the silence of a cold winter night.

Coyote _Canis latrans_ (Latin: dog ... barking)

Range: The coyote is common throughout the Southwest.

Habitat: This little wolf, once a creature of the prairies, now is found in all life zones and among many different associations.

Description: Because of their varied associations and wide climatic range, coyotes are of many sizes and colors. In general, they resemble a rather small, lean German shepherd dog with yellowish eyes. A good field mark is the bushy tail which is carried low while the animal is running and seldom is elevated above the horizontal at any time. Average total length 43 to 55 inches. Tail 11 to 16 inches. Color tawny to reddish gray with white or light-colored throat and chest, dark legs and feet. There is usually a dark median line down the back, and the tail also is somewhat darker than the body. Coyotes are lean animals; despite an impression of bulkiness suggested by the long fur, a large coyote seldom weighs more than 30 pounds. The track is much like that of a medium-sized dog; however, the prints of the claws tend to converge toward a center line more than those of the domestic animal. Coyotes are moderately prolific. The average litter contains from 4 to 6 pups, although as many as 11 have been recorded. The best indication that coyotes are in an area is their “singing” during the evening. They will sometimes greet the sunrise, but are infrequently heard during the day.

There probably is more controversy about the status of the coyote in its relationship to other animals than any other North American mammal today. The solution to the argument can be found by taking a 10 minute walk through a bit of the great outdoors. Those living things, plant or animal, which cannot adapt themselves to most changing conditions presented by a slowly dying world must perish. Those which survive do so because they have a mission to fulfill; they must give as well as take from their environment. To me, the unequalled ability of the coyote to withstand the campaigns of man toward its extermination indicates that this animal must be an especially favored child of Nature. Certainly many of the subtle relationships which it maintains with its associations have never been fully explored and others have not been discovered.

In the light of recent studies and with the influence of excellent documentary films in its favor, the coyote’s place in Nature is now becoming better known to the public. There seems to be no valid reason why people, who in general like dogs, should express indifference to the fate of this little wolf, which is but a wild dog with what most naturalists agree is a higher degree of native cunning and intelligence than that of the average domestic breed. In general, this attitude seems to stem from unfavorable and usually inaccurate stories circulated by word of mouth. A few hours spent in reading the scientific literature on the coyote will disprove many of these folk tales. For lighter reading try J. Frank Dobie’s _The Voice of the Coyote_ (Little, Brown & Co., Boston 1949) or _Sierra Outpost_ (Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1941) by Lila Loftberg and David Malcolmson. These delightful accounts present the coyote for what it is—one of the more important creatures in animal society.

When the first whites pushed their way across the western prairies, the coyote was chiefly a plains animal. Here it lived along the fringes of the huge bison herds, seldom venturing to make its own kills but sharing with the vultures the remnants left from those of the big gray wolves. With small game it was more successful, making heavy inroads upon the rodent and rabbit population. Then, as now, the coyote was also a scavenger and helped rid the plains of the carcasses of larger animals which died of natural causes. When the bison and wolves were practically exterminated, the coyote “took to the hills” and now is as frequently encountered in the higher mountains as anywhere. Farther west in the desert areas the story has been much the same. As civilization has advanced, the coyote has stubbornly retreated into the hills until now its “song” is heard in the highest canyons. The medium size and omnivorous tastes are factors which probably have much to do with its success in this new environment.

About half way between the gray fox and gray wolf in size, the coyote is large enough to subdue the big hares, yet nimble enough to catch the smaller rodents which make up a large part of its animal diet. The rest is supplied by a long list of other small creatures which are less often encountered, including birds, reptiles, and insects. The vegetable portion of its food is no less varied. Berries, stone fruits, cactus fruit, various gourds, some herbs, and even grass are eaten in considerable quantity, depending on the season and availability of meat. Besides this diet of what might be called fresh food, the coyote will usually take carrion. This is the basis for many unfounded accusations against the species. Because scats are sometimes composed almost entirely of the hair of such large mammals as deer, elk and mountain sheep, the coyote is thought to be killing these animals. Actual records of such occurrences are rare; the coyote is not built for such big game. Nature meant this to be the province of the gray wolf. Should such predation by coyotes take place, some other factor undoubtedly would restore the balance before long. Nature’s laws are as definite as those of human society and far more sternly enforced.

The family life of these intelligent creatures is interesting in its variations. No two pairs will follow any given pattern. As a rule coyotes, like wolves, will mate for life; but should one be killed, the other will usually seek another partner. Breeding takes place in early spring, followed some 60 to 65 days later by the appearance of a litter of up to 11 pups. The den is usually at the end of a burrow dug in soft soil close to a vantage point which overlooks the surrounding area. More rarely the den is chosen in a crevice among the rocks, and some have been found which are no more than hollows in the shelter of overhanging shrubs. During early life of the pups the male coyote is not allowed to approach them. Later, when they are able to take solid food, he brings his offerings to the neighborhood and the female carries them to the young. Up until the time the pups are able to leave the den, both parents are extremely wary in their approach to the area. They usually come in down wind so as to detect the presence of an intruder. If a human investigates too closely, the pups are moved to a new location at once.

When the young are big enough to emerge from the den, a new phase of their existence begins. At first, they play around the entrance like a group of collie pups, stopping now and then to survey this wonderful new world with wide eyes. Soon the wandering instinct asserts itself, however, and they begin to make short sorties away from the den. This is the time the parents have been anticipating. Now the young can be taken away from an area which becomes more dangerous with every passing day. The family may now hunt as a unit, initiating the young into the coyote way of life, or the mother may scatter the young along the perimeter of her range, bringing food to them as she makes her rounds. In either event, they soon learn to fend for themselves and by the following spring are mature animals.

Unlike his larger relative, the gray wolf, which is a great traveler, the coyote will establish a range and stick to it. In time, he will learn every yard of it and will notice the slightest changes. This is of great importance, not only in evading attempts on his life but also in the matter of filling his stomach. The woodrat, which tonight may be deep within its fortress of rock and branches, will be remembered and called upon again tomorrow when it may be out foraging for pinyon nuts. The cottontail, which reached the brush pile last night, may be intercepted en route tonight.

Several coyotes often share the same range and hunt together. This is especially true of a mated pair which is feeding young. Such a combination is especially efficient in running down such animals as jackrabbits and, more rarely, pronghorns. These creatures tend to run in a circle, and the coyotes alternate in chasing and resting until the animal is exhausted. Then they both close in for the kill. Pronghorn hunting is fraught with danger, however, especially during the time their young are small. These sharp-hoofed animals have been known to pursue and kill coyotes.

It is to be hoped that the relentless persecution of the coyote will soon be a thing of the past. The species has an important place in the ecology of the Southwest, and it cannot be removed without seriously affecting the status of its associates. This is a situation that is deplored by anyone interested in natural history. It is unthinkable that the West should lose this colorful species that is so interwoven with its legends and history.

Wolverine _Gulo luscus_ (Latin: having to do with the throat ... one eyed; purblind)

Range: Canada and the high mountains of California, Utah, Colorado, and possibly New Mexico.

Habitat: Near timberline in the most remote areas.

Description: A large (20 to 35 pounds), dark-colored animal somewhat resembling a small bear in build. Total length 36 to 41 inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches. In coloration the wolverine shows variation, but with no sharp contrasts. The back is dark brown, shading to a paler color on top of the head. The sides of the body are marked with dull yellowish bands which begin at the shoulders and join near the root of the tail. The underparts are lighter and usually a “blaze” or spot of white decorates the front of the chest. The legs are short and exceptionally powerful, the large feet are armed with long, horn-colored claws. These register rather prominently in the track which otherwise is somewhat like that of a large bobcat. The breeding habits of the wolverine are not well known, but it is assumed the den is located among rocks in talus slopes. The average number of young is thought to be four or less. They are born early in the year.

This mammal, largest of the weasel family, possibly will never be seen by anyone who reads these lines, so scarce has it become in the United States. Yet, because it is such a notorious animal and so little understood, and because it has been recorded in both Utah and Colorado several times, and long suspected to have been a native of New Mexico, it is here included. It would be a shame, indeed, for a layman to see this celebrated creature and not be aware of this unusual good fortune.

The wolverine has been an object of fear and revulsion not only to the white man but to the Indian. It seems to be one of the few mammals which goes out of its way to create destruction and carries a chip on its shoulder toward all other animals which interfere with its desires. It is a creature of mystery, whose life history at this late date we shall probably never fully learn before it becomes extinct.

When the Hudson Bay Company trappers invaded upper North America they found the Objibwa Indians living in a sort of armed truce with the wolverine. They called it “Carcajou,” a term said to have been derived from the Algonquin, and accorded it the respect due a malevolent spirit. I have forgotten the Chippewa name for the animal, but I well remember that it was considered a “windigo” or evil spirit. Eskimos coveted its fur for trimming the hoods of their parkas. The long guard hairs protected the face from the bitter air without collecting frost, and the underfur did not collect snow and frost like other furs.

The scientific name of the wolverine is interesting. _Gulo_, the Latin term for throat, no doubt has reference to the gluttonous habits of the animal. _Luscus_, also Latin, means one-eyed or, as some authors suggest, blind. This may refer to the small eyes, so deeply set as to be almost invisible at a little distance, or may date back to the first wolverine taken to Europe from Hudson Bay. This specimen was said to have lost one eye, and the name may have been derived from that. At any rate, the normal wolverine is neither one-eyed nor blind.

The wide distribution of the wolverine provides an admirable example of what life zones mean. This same species lives at timberline in the high mountains of desert country and is also found at or near sea level far north of the Arctic Circle. It is well adapted to this environment, with exceptionally thick and heavy fur which does not mat easily with snow. In addition, during the season of greatest snowfall, the edges of the feet and toes grow stiff hairs which, in effect, act as small snowshoes, and enable the animal to travel with less effort.

Food habits of the wolverine are far from selective. Heavy and clumsy in build, it is doubtful if many large game animals fall prey to this awkward hunter. However, it does not hesitate to drive larger predators away from their kills and appropriate them for itself. At such times it eats as much as it can, then hides the rest for future repasts. It will return to the site until the remains are completely devoured, even if they spoil in the meantime. Natural prey includes rodents which it can dig out of burrows, and such ground-nesting birds as it comes across in its travels. It is said to be one of the few successful predators of the porcupine. Thief, predator, and scavenger, the wolverine roams its isolated ranges feared by hunter and hunted alike.

The wolverine is one of the few animals that seems to take malicious delight in harassing human beings. Though robbing of traps can be explained by hunger, theft and destruction of the traps themselves seems to represent deliberate and clever planning. So, too, does the breaking into and entering of isolated cabins with attendant pilferage of their contents. What cannot be eaten is either broken up and defiled or carried away and hidden.

Marten _Martes americana_ (Latin: a marten ... America)

Range: North America from Alaska through the greater part of Canada, thence through northwestern, United States and south into California, Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico.

Habitat: Usually coniferous forests of the Canadian Life Zone up to the Alpine Zone.

Description: In the trees, this animal is often mistaken for a large squirrel. On closer inspection it will resemble a house cat with a short, bushy tail. Total length 22 to 27 inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches. Weight 2 to 4 pounds. The coloration of the marten is distinctive. The body is a beautiful, soft, yellow-brown, darker on the back, legs and tail. On the chest the color lightens to a pale buff or sometimes a rather distinct orange. The underparts are lighter than the rest of the body. The fur is extremely fine and thick. It is distinctive in being almost entirely underfur, there being very few guard hairs. The body is extremely graceful with relatively long legs and small feet. The head is small with features somewhat resembling those of the weasel. The ears are large for a member of the weasel family and lend an alert appearance to the face. This alertness is further borne out by the lively movements of this animal, which is the most active of any in that group.

The marten, often called “pine marten,” is one of the most solitary animals of a group whose members habitually travel alone. Perhaps this is because in this family of predators each species is fully able to overpower any resistance put up by its accustomed prey, individually and not through force in numbers. Perhaps, too, it is because the entire group is made up of voracious eaters which, if they ran in packs, could not encounter enough prey to adequately feed them all. Finally, this clan has several species which instinctively kill far in excess of normal needs. This is a practice which, almost without exception, is confined to those members of the weasel family which prey on rodents. It is evidently one of Nature’s methods of controlling the rodent population. To operate at highest efficiency these killers should hunt alone. These factors all apply in some degree to the marten. As a consequence, although there may be many in an area, the marten is usually found alone except for a brief time during the breeding season or in the case of a female with young. The male evidently has no part in bringing up the family.

The marten has always been more or less plentiful throughout its range, and there is no reason to believe that it will not continue to be seen by alert observers for many years to come. Its chosen habitat is among the evergreens near timberline. This is also an area of rock slides, and the marten loves to hunt the small rodents which make their homes there. Indeed, it divides its time between the two environments, hunting in the talus slopes during summer months, and taking to the trees in winter when rock slides are buried deep beneath the snow. It is an extremely hardy creature which holes up in an abandoned squirrel or woodpecker nest only during the short periods of storm, when hunting would be useless. As might be expected, its summer and winter diets vary widely. Both, however, have as their basic item the spruce squirrel, the important host of the marten, and like it a hardy creature that is abroad throughout the year.

There is considerable variety in the summer diet. On and in the ground there is available an amazing number of species which are denied to the marten during the winter, some because of protection afforded them by the deep snowdrifts and others because they hibernate. Among these are pikas, ground squirrels, woodrats, chipmunks, and many species of mice. In summer, the marten also takes eggs and young of ground-nesting birds. In the trees are found other nests, not excepting those of the woodpecker, into which the marten inserts its forepaw and comes out not only with young birds, but often the adult as well. Martens are known to eat quantities of the larger insects and, since they are fond of fruits and berries when raised in captivity, there is little doubt that they indulge in these delicacies in the wild.

Winter diet consists of the spruce squirrel, augmented by such other small creatures as may be abroad during cold weather. Though it would seem that the marten might suffer from the curtailment of its lavish summer menu, the opposite is the case. They remain fat and healthy under weather conditions that would seriously hamper most other predators. To a large extent, this ability to survive is due to the untiring perseverance and great skill with which they hunt. In addition, few creatures have been endowed with so many adaptations with which to withstand the long, cold winter.