Part 2

Black bears may be black or brown, but those I have seen at McKinley have all been of the black color phase. The black bear lacks the pronounced shoulder hump of the grizzly. The tan muzzle is also distinctive. Equipped with strong, curved claws, the black bear climbs trees with surprising agility, a talent the grizzly seems to lack.

The food habits of the black bear are similar to those of the grizzly, but in general they spend more time turning over rocks and tearing apart logs in search of insect life. They feed on herbs and grass, are fond of berries, hunt mice and dig out ground squirrels, and are ever on the alert for carrion. In the Rocky Mountains and on the West Coast, they occasionally strip the bark from trunks of spruces, pines, and firs in order to feed on the inner cambium layer. Along the coast of Alaska they sometimes congregate to feed on spawning salmon.

Where we have bears we have potential bear problems. Roadside feeding of bears creates beggar bears—always dangerous. Allowing bears to obtain food in cabins or camps demoralizes them, encourages them in a life of plunder and general anti-human depredations—the usual outcome is damage to humans and the death of the bears. A point of view generally disregarded by all is the effect of garbage on the bears. No garbage should be made available to bears anywhere for the simple reason that such artificial food interferes with the natural feeding habits of bears and their natural distribution, tending to congregate large numbers of them in a limited area. Administrators and public alike must ever be heedful of the problem. Clean campsites and proper garbage disposal are desirable in this regard.

Caribou _Rangifer arcticus stonei_

The caribou is a circumpolar deer adapted to life in the Arctic. Both sexes carry antlers and even the calves grow a spike 6 or 8 inches long. The cow’s antlers are small and branching; those of the old bull are towering and picturesque, with a well-developed brow tine extending over the nose from one or both antlers. As you see the caribou in his easy, swinging trot, you will perhaps notice his big feet. The hoofs, rounded and spreading, and the dew claws well developed, serve him as snowshoes in winter, and as a broad support in the soft tundra.

Each spring the caribou appear in faded, dun coats, their color pattern gone, the long hair worn and frayed. Winter hardships are behind and the sprouting, nutritious, vitamin-packed green forage is available—nature’s restorative. On the hummocks the caribou are already finding the new growth of sedge hidden by the old, leached, brown blades. As the winter coat is shed, and the new black pelage shows in patches, the animals have a moth-eaten look.

In May and early June, the caribou that have wintered along the north boundary of the park and northward to Lake Minchumina, move into the park, continue eastward to the Teklanika and Sanctuary rivers, and cross to the south side of the Alaska Range over the glaciers at the heads of these rivers. At this time the bands are small, numbering from a few individuals to one or two hundred. After feeding on the south side of the range for 2 or 3 weeks, the caribou return en masse, usually in late June or early July, but in 1960 about the middle of June. Herds numbering one or two thousand are not unusual, and I have seen an assemblage of four or five thousand. The herds cross Sable Pass and travel parallel with the road to Muldrow Glacier. From there they may strike northward or continue on westward. In August and September at least a few caribou may be found especially in the Wonder Lake area.

Caribou are inordinately fond of lichens which they eagerly feed upon at all seasons. In summer they take advantage of the variety of foods available and feed extensively on grasses, many herbaceous species, willows, and lichens. Lichens are much sought in fall and winter, and in these seasons grasses and sedges continue to be major foods.

Caribou are plagued by warble flies and nostril flies throughout the summer. These beelike insects cause the caribou great annoyance. The warble fly lays eggs on the hair of the legs and underparts of the body. The eggs soon hatch, the larvae penetrate the hide, and move to the back region where they emerge as swollen larvae in the spring. The nostril flies deposit living larvae in the nostrils. The larvae become lodged back in the throat in a mass and the following spring are coughed out; they pupate on the ground, and soon emerge as terrorizing flies. A caribou may dash away in panic to escape a fly, then stop in a wet sedgy depression and hold its nose close to the ground. Thus it may stand for long periods if not attacked. On sunny days when the flies are very active, the movement of the herds is drastically influenced. The large herds may seek a high, breezy ridge, or a snowfield, to minimize the attack. Commonly, one or two thousand on such days assemble in a compact group on a broad gravel bar where they may stand all day. Should clouds cover the sun, the herd disperses to feed, but again converges if the sun reappears.

By midsummer the old hair has been shed and the caribou are in a short blackish coat that continues to grow. Not until September is this new pelage fully developed. By then it has become a rich chocolate brown, trimmed with white. The pattern is most striking in the old bulls. A silvery cape covers the neck and part of the shoulders and forms a mane on the throat. A white line extends back along the sides of the body, and the belly is white. The blunt nose is tipped with white and an oval white patch surrounds the tail. A white patch shows the location of the upper gland on the hind legs. White anklets border each shiny black hoof. The pattern is similar, but much more subdued in the cows and younger bulls.

The magnificent antlers of the old bulls have hardened by late August. The velvet covering them during their growth is now rubbed off with a vigor suggesting the oncoming rut. At first the white antlers are often stained pinkish by the blood in the velvet. Continued rubbing on the brush removes the pinkish color and the antlers develop to a rich brown.

The bulls begin to spar soon after rubbing off the velvet. Even before serious fighting occurs, a bull may show his superiority to some of his companions. At this time two strange bulls do not hesitate to approach each other and, with no preliminaries, join antlers and try to drive each other back. These early fights are brief and on a more or less friendly basis. A sharp prong may cause a bull to pull away and be unwilling to resume sparring. But later, when a bull has acquired cows, up to a dozen or two, he herds them constantly, and fights all challengers.

The single reddish calf is generally born in May. His strength and speed develop rapidly so that he is soon able to follow the herds in their hurried travels. By autumn he has acquired a coat similar to that of the adults.

A close relationship exists between the caribou and the wolf, one that has prevailed for thousands of years. Although the wolf largely subsists on caribou over much of the north, natural adjustments have prevailed so that caribou have prospered in the presence of wolf populations. Wolves prey extensively on caribou calves in spring. When a wolf takes after a herd of caribou containing calves, both old and young hold their own for a time. But soon a calf may begin to fall behind the racing herd, its endurance not quite up to that of the others. It is overtaken and eliminated. Natural selection has operated, a culling operation that over eons of time would seem to have evolutionary significance.

Grizzly bears capture a few very young calves. Encouraged by their early-season success they continue chasing calves long after the calves have gained strength and speed enough to readily escape. After a few failures, I suspect that a grizzly learns that the calf-catching season has passed and is no longer tempted to gallop ponderously and fruitlessly with excess power but not sufficient fleetness to capture fleeing calves.

Moose _Alces alces gigas_

The northern conifer forest, stretching across the continent, is the home of the moose. In Alaska he has reached his greatest size. A mature bull weighs 12 to 15 hundred pounds, and his huge, palmate antlers have reached a record spread of about 80 inches.

At a distance the moose appears to be black except for his long, light-colored stockings. The large head is supported on a short neck, a shoulder hump is prominent, the nose is loose and bulbous. A special feature is the bell that hangs from the throat. The legs are inordinately long and the hoofs sharp.

Moose may be discovered anywhere along the park road. They are frequently to be seen between Savage and Sanctuary rivers, and along Igloo Creek. In the Igloo Creek area three or four old bulls may generally be found spending the summer together, their daily movements usually covering about a half-mile or less. We speak of the moose as a forest animal, but it is often found the year round in willow brush beyond timber. It is not uncommon to see moose in the willows on the treeless passes such as Sable and Polychrome.

The principal food of the moose is browse. In summer the leaves are stripped from the branches; at other seasons the twigs are eaten. Willows and dwarf birch are the chief browse species in the park. Aspens and cottonwoods are relished but are not plentiful enough to be very important. Alder is generally eaten only sparingly in winter. Farther south over the moose’s range, firs and hemlock are highly palatable in winter. The long legs enable the moose to reach high in his browsing. It is not unusual to find winter browsing sign 12 feet or more from the ground where the moose have stood on snow to feed. Tall willow brush and aspen saplings are often broken over in order to get at the twigs out of reach. The muzzle may be used for this, or the limb may be grasped in the mouth and pulled down. Many broken willows are evident on the bars along Igloo Creek.

The long legs and short neck make grazing difficult. In Wyoming I once saw a cow and calf feeding on mushrooms, a delicacy. Reaching the ground was not easy—the calf dropped to his knees, and the cow was for part of the time down on one knee.

In summer moose may be seen in lakes and ponds feeding on submerged vegetation. Where the water is deep the moose may disappear below the surface in his feeding.

Rutting activities begin by the first of September and continue into October. The antlers of the bulls have reached full size and hardened by the end of August, at which time the bulls begin to rub off the velvet, the skin that has covered the growing antlers. Saplings and brush are thrashed with great vigor, and this activity continues long after the antlers have been cleaned. Apparently it serves as one of the outlets for the strong rutting emotions. The bulls soon begin to spar and to determine who is boss over whom. And they begin to seek the cows. A successful bull usually has but a single cow, and he follows her closely as she moves about in her feeding. During the rut he utters at intervals a deep grunt. The cow, apparently when in an emotional state, utters a drawn-out wailing call.

The one or two calves are generally born in late May or early June. They are reddish without spots. The mother must sometimes protect her calf from prowling grizzlies and this she generally seems fully capable of doing, judging from incidents in which the bear is chased away by an infuriated mother. A large male grizzly, however, is apparently not easily discouraged. By autumn the calves have made a surprising growth and have a new coat that resembles that of the adults. They remain with the mother until near the time for a new calf, when she no longer tolerates their presence.

The moose is a wilderness animal, requiring for his haunts big country. The picturesque bull, silhouetted on a hill or on a lake shore, adds repose and serenity to the wilderness.

Dall Sheep _Ovis dalli_

The Dall or white sheep is one of the outstanding wildlife features of the park. The north side of the greater part of the Alaska Range is excellent sheep habitat. Within the park the most extensive sheep country extends from the Nenana River to the Muldrow glacier, a distance of about 70 miles by road.

Most of the sheep spend the winter north of the road. This is favorable winter range because the snowfall is relatively light and strong winds keep the exposed ridges free of snow.

Many sheep remain on the winter range all year, but more of them migrate toward the heads of the rivers in May and June. In making the migration, the sheep must in places cross 2 or 3 miles of low country. They are fully aware of their vulnerability to grizzlies and wolves in these crossings. Before venturing away from a safe take-off ridge, they may scrutinize the low country for a day or two, until they feel that no danger lurks along the way. A band of 60 or 70 sheep may move across slowly in a rather compact group; at other times urgency replaces caution and they frequently break into a hurried gallop. Having reached the safety of rough country again, the sheep may gambol about as though the weight of tension has suddenly been lifted. The return migration is made in August and September.

The large amber-colored horns of the rams with transverse ridges and sweeping outward curl have a rugged, graceful beauty. They may spread widely at the tips or curl rather close to the head. The ewes are less imposing. Their horns are slender spikes that extend upward in a slight curve, resembling those of the mountain goat but they lack the shiny jet black color and are not as sharp. The horns are never shed and continue to grow throughout the sheep’s life span of 11 to 14 years. The growth is slight during the later years. Growth takes place during the summer when food is highly nutritious. In winter only a groove or ridge encircling the horn is formed. By counting these annual rings the age of a sheep can be determined.

For detecting danger the sheep depend on their sharp eyes. They appear to disregard scent which for many animals is the final decisive word on any situation. But this seems quite logical, because the sheep generally have a strategic view, and in the varying air currents no dependence can be placed on getting scent messages. Noises are considered rather unimportant unless the sheep have already caught a glimpse of movement nearby.

To approach sheep for photography it is usually best to move slowly toward them from below with no attempt to hide. They at once become suspicious if they glimpse someone stalking. However, I have at times stalked sheep where the opportunity for undetected close observation was obvious. On one occasion, from a ragged rocky ridge top, I spent most of an afternoon watching a band of rams some 50 yards away without being discovered. Some bands are wilder than others and the same band does not always behave uniformly. A band that has rested and is ready to move may take your approach as an excuse for a romp.

The food of sheep consists of grasses, herbaceous species and browse, chiefly willow. Scattered over the range are a number of salt licks which the sheep seek for minerals.

The most active mating period extends from about the middle of November to the middle of December. The rams who have been fraternizing on friendly terms for many months, now and then showing mating behavior such as gentle joustings, begin to take greater notice of the ewes. The old rams continue to associate, but now serious battling takes place. The fighting follows rather uniform conventional rules. The two matched battlers move apart several yards, then, as though by a signal, they turn and face each other and at the same time rise up on their hind legs, then charge full speed at each other, their horns crashing together with a loud thud. If the joust is even, they may repeat the performance until the superiority of one of the combatants is evident. But there is some tolerance among the rams, for two or more may breed with ewes in a band indiscriminately.

The numbers of sheep on a range under natural conditions may vary considerably. In the park, a very high population, possibly as high as 5,000 or more, suffered severe losses during 1929 and again in 1932, due to extremely deep snow conditions, and an icy crust in the latter year. In 1945 the population was down to about 500. Since 1945 there has been a steady increase. The numbers in 1959 were up to about 2,000.

Sheep are subject to wolf predation, especially when the numbers are so high that part of the population must graze on hills too gentle for safety. Sheep legs are strong and sturdy but for their effective functioning steep country is needed. The steep terrain is, so to speak, part of their legs. In my studies in the park, the losses showed that it was the very old, the ailing, and the lambs in their first winter that were most vulnerable to predation. The lynx (when rabbit numbers have crashed and these animals have become scarce), wolverine, and grizzly may capture an occasional sheep but their effect is unimportant. The golden eagle may capture an occasional young lamb, but all my observations and food-habit studies indicate that any eagle predation that takes place is insignificant. If the park is large enough to support the sheep and their predators (natural conditions), we have a situation ideal for the future of the sheep.

Mountain sheep have a high esthetic appeal. In part this may be due to their setting, for we associate them with their beautiful haunts, the precipitous cliffs and ledges intermingled with green slopes spangled with flowers. This is idyllic country in which to hike and climb. Here we encounter the golden eagle who shares the ridge tops with the sheep; the wheatear, who comes all the way from Asia to nest; the gray-crowned rosy finches; the flashing black and white snowbirds nesting in rock crevices; and the surfbird that has left the ocean beaches to nest in these remote mountains. And up high, the saxifrages, delicate yellow poppies, forget-me-nots and spring beauties add color to it all.

Mountain Goat _Oreamnos kennedyi_

On May 27, 1955, a goat was discovered on Igloo Mountain on the slope directly above the cabin I was occupying. It remained on the mountain for 3 weeks before wandering away. It has not been seen since. This is the only verified record for the park. But two road men reported seeing a goat cross the road at Mile 3, on August 8, 1950. I believe this to be a good record because both men are reliable observers. In the fall of 1950 a goat was shot at Cantwell, not far from the park boundary.

The nearest known goat range is about 60 miles from the park in the Talkeetna Mountains. The goats that reached the park may have been sporadic wanderers for it is not unusual for goats to occasionally wander 25 or 30 miles from their known ranges. On the other hand, it is possible that the goats are expanding their range toward the park. In 1959, I was told that a band of a dozen goats had been reported at the head of Jack River where they had not been reported before. Jack River lies between the goat range and the park.

Identification is not difficult. The goat’s horns are short, slightly curved spikes, similar to the horns of the female sheep, but shiny black and smooth rather than grayish and rugose. The goat’s chin whiskers are identifying, as is the shoulder hump, and the knee length pantaloons of long hair. Also the goat’s face is noticeably longer than that of sheep. The goat sexes are similar.

It is not unlikely that goats will continue to be occasionally seen in the park. Any lone “sheep” might turn out to be a goat.

Wolf _Canis lupus pambasileus_

Wolves vary considerably in size and color. The average male weighs about 100 pounds and the female somewhat less, about 85 pounds. Their color may be almost white, black, gray, or brown. Most wolves in interior Alaska are either black or brownish like a coyote. The facial markings show some variation and there may occasionally be noticeable patterns over the rest of the body. A few wolves have a blackish saddle; one that I knew had a black robber-mask across the eyes. Individual disposition and behavior also varies. A handsome male had an extra touch of spirit in his gallop; a male parent had a dour expression and seemed, to my imagination, weighted with care. Wolves raised in captivity from puppyhood are extremely friendly.

For a den, the wolf considers an enlarged fox burrow both convenient and suitable. Dens have been found in a variety of situations. One was located on a wooded rock bluff, another was beyond timber near the top of a bluff bordering a river, and one was on a wooded island between old river channels. The four to six young, probably the average size of litter, are born the early part of May. The mother remains at home with the pups and the male provides the victuals.

At one den that I observed closely there were two extra males and an extra female with the pair. These wolves all fraternized in the most friendly manner. Before departing for the night hunt, the five would sometimes assemble in a close group, wag tails and frisk about, and sitting on haunches sing in chorus. Later in the season this group of five adults was joined by two additional males.

The following year the same pair returned to the den. They were accompanied by one of the extra males that had been at the den the previous year. The extra female and one of the bachelors set up their own housekeeping farther down the river. But when their pups were large enough to travel, they all came up the river and joined the original pair. Young and old combined added up to 15 wolves. This wolf pack was composed of two pairs, an extra adult, and 10 pups. Some of the extra wolves of the previous year were not seen—they may have been trapped or poisoned beyond the park boundaries during the winter months.

The wolf’s food varies with the seasons and the prey species available. When voles and lemmings are plentiful, the wolves may spend hours in the grass and sedge areas pouncing on them. During the summer months the ground squirrel has at times been one of the more important food items. Occasionally an unfortunate marmot is surprised and in years when rabbits are plentiful, the snowshoe rabbit becomes a food source. I have found remains of several porcupines eaten by wolves, the spine-covered hide neatly inverted.

But the wolf also, and primarily, feeds on the ungulates—the mountain sheep, caribou, and moose. Under natural conditions the relationship between the wolf and these prey species is old and tried. There is the aphorism, “nothing in nature offends nature.” In the hunting of these animals the wolf appears to be an evolutionary force in that there is a tendency for the weaker individuals to succumb.

In spring the wolf hunts the caribou calves, which early develop surprising speed, so that when a wolf chases a group of caribou, the calves race along with the adults. But after a time a weak calf, one not up to the others in endurance, may begin to drop behind, and it is this weak individual that is overtaken, an example of the elimination of the weak, the survival of the fittest. In the winter hunting, the old and weak animals are the most susceptible. It is a struggle, a testing for all, but through the ages, the sheep, moose, and caribou have survived and come down to us adapted to their particular way of life, with the wolf as one of the environmental factors.