CHAPTER XVI

INSPECTION OF LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.

There is one subject in regard to the proper protection of buildings against the destructive effects of lightning which is generally overlooked, at least in this country, to a really surprising degree. It is the necessity that lightning conductors, once put up, should be regularly inspected, to see if they are in good order, so as to be really efficacious. That this is very rarely done, is one of the main reasons why accidents by lightning sometimes occur in places nominally protected by conductors. The neglect is the more astounding, as one would think that all intelligent persons, whose knowledge prompted them to see the wisdom of protection against lightning, would likewise come to the conclusion that the scientific apparatus set up to effect it required occasional repairs, such as the clocks in their houses and the buildings themselves. But such is very far from being the case. It is, perhaps, not too much to assert that at present not one in a thousand persons who have gone to the expense of protecting their houses by lightning conductors make the protection complete, at a merely nominal cost, by providing a regular--say, annual or bi-annual--inspection.

The causes which necessitate such inspection are numerous. In the first instance, there is the constantly acting influence of wind and weather upon those parts of the conductor which are above earth. Wonderful as is the simple machinery devised by Franklin which conducts the mysterious electric force from the clouds into the ground, depriving it of its destructive power, it is, after all, but a feeble thing in itself, and necessarily so. The upper terminal of the conductor--what the Germans call the ‘reception rod,’ and the French the ‘tige,’ or stem--cannot be very thick without becoming unsightly, and, as regards large public buildings, destroying their architectural effects; while the rope, or ribbon, running to the ground must, for the same reason, as well as that of cost, be of comparatively small diameter. Subject to the constant effects of moisture, to wind, and ice, and hailstorm, there is always a possibility of the slender metal strips being damaged, so as to interrupt their continuity, and thus destroy the free passage of the electric force. Instances have happened in which the damage done was so slight as to be scarcely visible, and still sufficient to destroy the efficacy of the conductor. Nothing but the regular testing by a galvanometer--one of which is described, with an illustration, on page 60--by an experienced person can establish the fact that the action of the conductor remains perfect.

A second important cause for inspection lies in the necessity of always ascertaining with accuracy whether the earth connection is really in a faultless state. The immense significance of the earth connection--the basis, in more than one sense, of lightning protection--having been dwelt upon in the preceding chapter, it is only necessary here to state that, even if perfectly secured at the outset, it is liable to disarrangements. One not infrequent accident causing them is a change in the soil from moisture to dryness, which may be brought about either by altered drainage or long absence of rain. The dangers which threaten a break in the earth connection by altered or improved drainage are of the most serious kind, and likely to become more so from year to year. Not only the soil of our towns and cities, but even that of our villages, and the fields themselves, is getting ever more honeycombed by drain-pipes, until almost every drop of moisture is sucked out of the ground. No doubt the pipes themselves may improve the earth connection, if of iron or any other metal. But very frequently they are of earthenware, in which case they are far more dangerous than useful, even if filled with water. To guard against the danger likely to arise from changes in the drainage, it would be wise to have a thorough examination, by means of the test galvanometer, of all lightning conductors near to or affected by alterations in the drains, whenever completed. The same recommendation may be made as regards cases where the soil has become unusually dry after a long absence of rain. Few persons, except those who have made a study of the subject, can form an idea to what depth such dryness often extends, more especially in sandy and gravelly soils.

There is a third ground, as material for consideration as each of the two preceding ones, upon which the regular inspection of lightning conductors must be strongly urged. It is, that constant alterations in the interior of buildings, private residences as well as public edifices, may serve to destroy the efficacy of a conductor which was originally good, even to perfection. Thus a roof may be repaired, and lead or iron introduced where it was not before; or clamps of iron may be inserted in the walls of houses, to give them greater strength; or, in fact, any changes may be made which bring masses of metal more or less in proximity to the conductor. Under such circumstances, the efficacy of the conductor is destroyed just in proportion as the metal forms a better path for the dispersion of the electric force than the one artificially prepared. There are hundreds of instances to prove that changes made in buildings, such as the addition of a leaden roof without, or the iron balustrade of a staircase within, diverted the current of the electric force from the conductor on its way to the earth, originally well provided for. In one rather curious case, which happened at Lyons not many years ago, even an alteration of the fixtures of a house proved destructive to the efficacy of a conductor, perfect at the outset, the latter fact being shown in that it had previously received a stroke of lightning and brought it harmlessly to earth. The case was that of a banker possessed of the piece of furniture indispensable to his profession, namely, a large iron safe. It stood at first near an inner wall, in the centre of the house; but wishing to add to its strength in resisting the attack of burglars, the banker had it embedded partly in another wall adjoining that on the outside, near a place where the masonry was held together by some large iron clamps. In delightful ignorance of the effect of this removal of his safe inside the house upon the lightning conductor outside--an ignorance which would have been the same, probably, among 999 persons out of 1,000--the banker sat quietly down to dinner with his family one day in July, when a terrific shock made the whole house tremble to its foundations, upsetting furniture and breaking glasses. The idea of an earthquake naturally came up at once; but when looking out of the window (shivered to pieces) the banker was told by a crowd assembled outside that there had been no earthquake, but that his house had simply been struck by lightning, as it had been before. But while previously the electric force had passed silently into the ground, unknown even to the inmates of the house, and its passage verified only by the accidental observation of a neighbouring meteorologist, it had this time left its appointed path, seeking a new road more strongly attractive. The lightning had found its way into the banker’s safe, filled with gold. Once inside, the electric current, not finding a farther outlet, had expended its force in shattering the walls and making the house tremble, besides melting some gold and burning banknotes. The investigation of the case at the time made some noise, but it had one most useful result--it led to the institution of a new office in connection with the Department of Public Architecture of the city of Lyons, that of an inspector of lightning conductors. He was charged to examine at stated intervals, or as often as circumstances seemed to require it, the conductors applied to all the public buildings of the city, to ascertain their efficacy, and, if not deeming them in good condition, to effect all necessary repairs. Shall we repeat, again and again, ‘They manage things better in France’?

The regular inspection of lightning conductors, as yet unknown or all but unknown in England, has been for a long time in practice in several States of Continental Europe, among them Germany and France. The origin of such inspection may be traced to Northern Germany. It has been mentioned before (Chap. IV., page 43) that the first lightning conductor set up over a public building in Europe was erected on the steeple of the Church of St. Jacob, Hamburg, and that the extension of conductors in the city and neighbourhood was so rapid, that before five years had gone by there were over seven hundred conductors. ‘To this day they are comparatively more numerous in this district than anywhere else in Europe.’ To this day, too, the scientific aspect of the question of lightning protection, and the statistics connected with it, are more appreciated here, and have been more closely investigated, than in any other part of Europe. In recent years, this has been more particularly the case in the territories to the north of the city of Hamburg, the German province of Schleswig-Holstein. Not even in the country of their origin, and the one which, as yet, has the greatest number of them in use, have the ‘Franklin rods’ given rise to so much serious study as in that part of Germany.

Thunderstorms are more numerous, on the average, in Schleswig-Holstein than in any other part of Central and Northern Europe--due, probably, to the fact of the province not only being a narrow peninsula, with the Baltic on the east, and the German Ocean on the west, but intersected by rivers and canals, producing a generally moist atmosphere. Almost all public edifices in the province, and the great majority of private buildings above the rank of mere cottages, are protected by lightning conductors; and to aid in their extension there are special laws under which damages by lightning are not made good, except to a limited extent, by fire insurance companies, unless it is proved that the edifices struck had been provided previously with efficient conductors. These laws gave rise to a curious investigation some three or four years ago. It was found that the principal fire insurance office--an institution under the patronage of the Government, called the ‘Landesbrandkasse,’ or ‘County Fire Insurance Office’--had been called upon a number of times to pay for damage caused by lightning in cases where the buildings were provided with lightning conductors of the best kind, in apparently perfect condition. Though the cases were very few indeed--namely, but four out of 552 claims for damages from lightning which had been made in the course of eight years--still, the interest taken in the subject was so great, that the managers of the institution appointed a special commissioner to inquire thoroughly into the matter as to how it could happen that buildings provided with proper conductors could ever be struck by lightning. The gentleman chosen to undertake this task was Dr. W. Holtz, of Greifswald, well known as having given much time to the study of the phenomena of electricity, as well as the construction of lightning conductors. Dr. Holtz in due course made his report, which was afterwards published in a scientific journal called ‘Nachrichten des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins für Neuvorpommern und Rügen,’ being the organ of a society under the latter title. The report--which must be completely unknown in this country--is full of interest, and well deserves being extracted from in several notable particulars.

Dr. Holtz begins his report by referring to the well-known fact, already dwelt upon, that in some instances lightning conductors have got into disrepute because houses provided with them have been struck and damaged. ‘Unhappily,’ he says, ‘there are still at the present moment many persons who question the utility of conductors, simply because it happens now and then, that lightning, apparently in entire disregard of them, falls upon dwellings. These persons completely overlook two facts, namely: first, that such cases are excessively rare; and, secondly, what is far more important and more to the point, that it is beyond dispute that whenever buildings nominally provided with conductors are struck by lightning, these conductors are not in an efficient state. Such buildings are absolutely in the same condition as if they had no conductors at all.’ Dr. Holtz then goes on to speak of his journey of inspection to inquire into the causes of failure, or so-called failure, of lightning conductors. He says that, having examined a vast number of conductors, he found that in a good many instances real use had been sacrificed to ornament. He expresses this somewhat quaintly, in scientific style, apparently with the intention of not giving offence to anybody--not even to manufacturers of lightning conductors. ‘It was found by me,’ Dr. Holtz states, ‘that the unreal was frequently placed above the real, and that many lightning conductors, although very costly in the first instance, afforded no certain protection.’ The meaning of this clearly is, that too much attention is given to the upper part of conductors, especially the pointed top--frequently covered with needless gilding--and far too little to the part underground, forming the all-important earth connection. It is a criticism true for other countries besides Germany.

Among the many interesting remarks of Dr. Holtz, evidently based on a thorough knowledge of the subject which he treats, are some good ones about the necessity of constructing lightning conductors, not slavishly after old models, but in conformity with modern requirements, carefully considering the nature of the buildings to be protected and their materials. ‘The increase of metals,’ he says, ‘in the construction of houses, both inside and outwardly, is assuming larger proportions from year to year. An absolute consequence of it is, that the electric force called lightning is tempted, far more than was the case in older dwellings, not to go to the conductor at all, or, if attracted to it, to leave the path afterwards, seeking other attractions. I found this to have been the case, in the course of my investigations, in several instances, two of them notable ones. The first was that of the public school of the town of Elmshorm, struck by lightning away from the conductor; and the second that of the church of St. Lawrence, in the town of Itzehoe, where the conductor was struck at first, but the lightning deviated subsequently from its metal path. In both cases I found that the non-efficacy of the conductor was caused by a number of gas-pipes. But there are many other metallic masses besides gas-pipes which interfere thus with the proper action of lightning conductors. More or less, all metals do so, especially those which lead to the ground, or are in contact with moisture. Water-pipes will attract the electric force even more than gas-pipes, and likewise the metal tubes which carry the rain from the roof into the ground. But it may also happen that mere ornaments on the roof, more particularly if of thick metal, and carried all along the top and sides, may divert the electric force from the conductor, although they have no connection whatever with the ground. Even the many wires outside and inside houses, for bells and other purposes, may do mischief. There can be no doubt whatever that the large increase of the use of metals in the construction and ornamentation of modern houses has led to far greater danger to which they are exposed from lightning. At the same time there is equally little doubt that all this increased danger may be absolutely guarded against by the setting up of lightning conductors by competent persons, carefully designed to meet all cases.’ Dr. Holtz adds, further on, that one most important element of protection to be obtained from conductors consists in the regular testing of them, without which, indeed, there can be no permanent security.

What the writer says on the inspection of conductors is particularly worth quoting. ‘A lightning conductor,’ he remarks, ‘however excellent in the first instance, may lose all its good qualities, for several reasons. In the first instance it may suffer, like all mundane things, from age. The decrepitude will come on all the sooner whenever the materials are not of the best kind, or whenever little care has been taken in properly connecting the various parts. This is frequently the case in conductors of old design. But, even if all has been done that scientific skill can accomplish, age will make itself felt some time or other. Oxidation will play its part; so will the warfare of the elements. However safely secured at first, the attachment of the parts to the buildings will get loose, or perhaps even broken. Repairs consequently become indispensable. When are they to be effected? It can only be indicated by testing the conductor from time to time.’ Dr. Holtz next dwells at some length on the necessity of conductors being designed by thoroughly competent persons; not mere ‘lightning rod men,’ who are able to take into account all the particulars of the building which is to be protected, more especially the metal employed in the construction. ‘A conductor,’ he truly remarks, ‘cannot be expected to be a trustworthy protection against the destructive force of lightning, if simply set up over a house without consideration of its outer and inner features. Perhaps in buildings of olden times, into the construction of which metals seldom or never entered, a simple wire running from top to bottom, surmounted by an iron rod, was quite sufficient, but this is no longer the case, all the circumstances having been completely altered. The wire, however thin, was not merely the best, but the only path for the electric force. But at present the masses of metal used in the construction of buildings constitute a number of rival paths, and it requires very careful consideration indeed to lay down an absolutely infallible lightning conductor in such a way as to overcome all influences opposing its action. Therefore conductors of old construction can not only not be expected to be efficacious under modern exigencies, but even those made at the present time cannot be expected to be efficient under circumstances which, probably, the future may bring forth. There is really nothing else to make a lightning conductor a safe protection under all circumstances, and at all times, but regular, constant, and skilful examination.’

To the three great causes before indicated which make the regular testing of conductors an almost imperative necessity, several minor ones may be added. Among them may be cited the frequency of repairs of the walls and roofs of houses. Our modern houses, as we all know, are not built, like those of the Romans, ‘for an eternity,’ but in the vast majority, particularly in towns, are ‘leaseholds for ninety-nine years.’ Many of them, perhaps, can scarcely be expected to last ninety-nine years, being constructed by their builders on the principle of Peter Pindar’s razors, ‘not to shave, but to sell.’ Hence the absolute necessity of repairs without end. Without casting the least slur upon the character of the artisans who execute these, bricklayers, plasterers, painters, plumbers, and others, it may be fairly asserted that they are densely ignorant as to the nature of lightning conductors. It is not at all a wonder that this should be so, since they share their ignorance with many persons of far higher education, who know no more of the action of the electric force in seeking its way from the clouds into moist earth than they do of that of a voltaic apparatus, or of a condensing steam-engine. These artisans, then, in whose hands the repairs of houses are left, naturally treat the narrow strip of metal running from the top of houses to the bottom with great indifference, not having the slightest idea of its being one of the most marvellous conceptions of the human mind. It has been reported, on good authority, that there are frequently workmen to be found, such as house painters and others, whose business it is to ‘decorate’ the outside of dwellings with the stuff called ‘stucco,’ who feel a sort of mild hatred for lightning conductors, as interfering with their achievements, and, as they think, disfiguring the beauties which they are creating. Woe to the poor conductor within their reach! Unless very conspicuously placed, which is rarely the case, the tenant of a house will seldom discover in time that the slender rope, or ribbon, which gives him and his family protection against lightning has been broken by cunning hands when the last repairs were effected, and the ends stowed away in the gutter on the roof. The discovery will be made, in the absence of inspection, probably, only under the fierce light of a flash of lightning from a passing thunderstorm.

If in towns the ever increasing accumulation of gas, of water, and of drainage pipes constitutes a danger against the efficacy of lightning conductors--to be guarded against only by frequent testing--there is another source of danger arising in the country. It is in the planting of new trees and the growth of old ones which is constantly going on in the vicinity of the thousands of country houses and mansions with which Great Britain is dotted from one end to the other, more than any other country in the world. The fact has already been dwelt upon, that trees are more liable to be struck by lightning than any other natural objects, the reason of it being unknown, except in the very probable surmise that the moisture in them forms the natural cause why the electric force seeks its path through them to the earth. Whatever the cause or causes, there can be no doubt that trees are incessantly struck by lightning, and that they are the more exposed to be struck the higher they are and the wider the extent of their branches. Consequently, wherever trees are being planted, or growing up around houses, the greatest care should be taken in designing lightning conductors, so as to provide against the action exercised by them in juxtaposition to the electric force. Thus, if trees, originally small, should reach to such a height above dwellings as to make it possible that a stroke of lightning will fall upon them, in preference to the conductor, the arrangements for protection will have to be altered, so as to ensure the safety of the house nearest these particular trees. Again, if, as often happens, there are new trees planted near a building the side of which has no protection whatever, such as a greenhouse or conservatory, the conductor should be extended in this direction. In connection with trees, mention must be made of wells and fountains, as possible dangers to the proper action of lightning conductors. Many a disaster has been caused by newly-made wells to dwellings which were previously well protected by conductors. The only safeguard against danger arising from these and numerous other causes, which it would be tedious to specify, lies in careful, constant inspection and testing of conductors.

It is lamentable to think that while the regular inspection of lightning conductors has been admitted long ago to be a necessity in many countries on the Continent of Europe, we as yet have taken no steps whatever to realise it. There is, probably, not a single public building in England which has conductors systematically tested from time to time. While there are tens of thousands of edifices, private and public, that are entirely without protection against lightning, there are many thousands of others which, nominally protected, are in reality in the same position. They have conductors, but it is impossible to say whether they would be efficacious were a more than usually heavy stroke of lightning to fall upon them. The inmates of such dwellings live in fancied security, which is the more to be deplored, as it would be so easy to make it real. All that is required is a knowledge of the subject. With the growth of such knowledge it is certain that the inspection of conductors will become general, with the good effect, above all others, of setting at rest all doubts as to the infallible security they afford, if properly constructed and maintained, against damage from lightning.

APPENDIX.

_BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS BEARING UPON LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS._

1663. HIER. CARDANI de Fulgure liber unus. Opera omnia. Lugd. tom. ii. pp. 720.

1666. DR. WALLIS. A Relation of an Accident by Thunder and Lightning at Oxford. Phil. Trans. i. 222.

THOS. NEALE. Effect of Thunder and Lightning. Phil. Trans. i. 247.

1670. Effects of Lightning at Stralsund. Phil. Trans. v. 2084.

1676. On the Effects of Thunder and Lightning on Sea Compasses. Phil. Trans. xi. 647.

1683–4. DR. LISTER. On Thunder and Lightning. Phil. Trans. xiv. 512.

SIR R. S. On the Effect of Thunder on the Compass of a Ship. Phil. Trans., xiv. 520.

1685. On some Remarkable Effects of a Great Storm of Thunder and Lightning at Portsmouth. Phil. Trans. xv. 1212.

1696. DR. GEO. GARDEN. On the Effects of a very Extraordinary Thunder-Storm near Aberdeen. Phil. Trans. xix. 311.

1697. DR. WALLIS. On Hail, Thunder, and Lightning. Phil. Trans. xix. 653.

DR. WALLIS. On the Effects of Thunder and Lightning. Phil. Trans. xx. 5.

1708. S. MOLYNEUX. On the Effects of Thunder and Lightning. Phil. Trans. xxvi. 36.

O. BRIDGMAN. On the Effects of Thunder and Lightning. Phil. Trans. xxvi. 137.

WALL. Experiments on the Luminous Qualities of Amber, Diamonds, and Gum Lac. Phil. Trans. xxvi. 69.

JOS. NELSON. On the Effects of Thunder and Lightning. Phil. Trans. xxvi. 140.

1709. R. THORESBY. On a Storm of Thunder and Lightning. Phil. Trans. xxvi. 289.

1725. REV. JOS. WASSE. On the Effects of Lightning. Phil. Trans. xxxiii. 366.

1730. EVAN DAVIES. On the Effects of Thunder, &c. Phil. Trans. xxxvi. 444.

1734. J. HENR. A. SEELEN. De Tonitru existentiae Dei teste. Miscellanea. P. I. 81. Lub.

1735. STEPHEN GRAY. On the Electrical Light. Phil. Trans. xxxix. 24.

1739. SIR JNO. CLARK. On the Effects of Thunder on Trees. Phil. Trans. xli. 235.

1742. LORD PETRIE. On the Effects of Lightning. Phil. Trans. xlii. 136.

1744. J. H. WINKLER. Gedanken von den Eigenschaften, Würkungen und Ursachen der Elektricität. 8vo. Leipzig.

1745. J. H. WINKLER. Die Eigenschaften der elektrischen Materie und des elektrischen Feuers aus verschiedenen neuen Versuchen erklärt. 8vo. Leipzig.

1746. J. H. WINKLER. Abhandlung von dem elektrischen Ursprung des Wetterleuchtens.

J. H. WINKLER. Von der Stärke der elektrischen Kraft des Wassers in gläsernen Röhren. 8vo. Leipzig.

1747. MAFFEI. Della Formazione dei Fulmini. 4to. Verona.

WM. WATSON. On the Velocity of Electricity. Phil. Trans. xlv. 49.

1748. WM. WATSON. Of the Experiments made by some Gentlemen of the Royal Society to measure the absolute Velocity of Electricity. Phil. Trans. xlv. 491.

1749. ABBÉ NOLLET. Recherches sur les Causes particulières des Phénomènes électriques. 8vo. Paris.

1750. BARBERET. Dissertation sur le Rapport qui existe entre les Phénomènes de Tonnerre et ceux de l’Electricité. 4to. Bordeaux.

1751. B. FRANKLIN. Experiments and Observations in Electricity, made at Philadelphia, in America. 8vo. London.

B. FRANKLIN. Concerning the Effects of Lightning. Phil. Trans. xlvii. 289.

BARBERET. Discours, qui a remporté le Prix de Physique, au jugement de l’Acad. de Bordeaux, en 1750: S’il y a quelques rapports entre les Phénomènes du Tonnerre et ceux de l’Electricité. 4to. Bordeaux.

A. G. KÄSTNER. Nachricht von einer besonderen leuchtenden Erscheinung, so auf einem Thurme zu Nordhausen gesehen worden. Hamburger Magazin, vii. 420.

1752. ABBÉ MAZEAS. On the Analogy of Lightning and Electricity. Phil. Trans. xlvii. 534.

B. FRANKLIN. On the Electrical Kite. Phil. Trans. xlvii. 565.

H. EELES. On the Cause of Thunder. Phil. Trans. xlvii. 524.

A. G. KÄSTNER. Nachricht von einem besonderen Lichte. Hamb. Magaz. ix. 359.

J. G. KRULL. Versuche zur Bestätigung der Meinung, dass die elektrische Materie mit der Materie des Donners und Blitzes eine grosse Aehnlichkeit habe. Hannover: Gelehrte Anzeigen vom J. 1752.

LE MONNIER. Observations sur l’Electricité de l’Air. Mém. de math. et de phys. de l’Acad. R. d. Sc. de Paris, A. 1752, p. 233. Paris. Biblioth. d. Sc. et d. Beaux Arts. vi. 38.

CH. MYLIUS. Extract of a Letter from Mr. Mylius, of Berlin, to Mr. W. Watson, On extracting Electricity from the Clouds. Phil. Trans. xlvi. 559.

CH. MYLIUS. Nachrichten und Gedanken von der Elektricität des Donners. Physik. Belustigungen. 8vo. p. 457. Berlin, 1752.

ABBÉ NOLLET. Extracts of two Letters of the Abbé Nollet to Mr. W. Watson, On extracting Electricity from the Clouds. Phil. Trans. xlvii. 553.

W. WATSON. Concerning the Electrical Experiments in England upon Thunder-Clouds. Phil. Trans. xlvii. 567.

1753. P. A. BINA. Elektr. Versuche, Gewitter und Regen betreffend. Hamburger Magaz. xii. 57.

J. BUNSEN. Versuch, wie die Meteora des Donners und Blitzes, des

Aufsteigens der Dünste, incl. des Nordscheins, aus elektr. Versuchen, herzuleiten und zu erklären. 8vo. Lemgo.

G. BECCARIA. Dell’ Elettricismo artifiziale e naturale. 4to. Torino, 1753.

W. WATSON. On Nollet’s Electricity. Phil. Trans. xlviii. 201.

M. MAZEAS. Electricity of the Air. Phil. Trans. xlviii. 377.

M. LOMONOSOW. Oratio de Meteoris vi electrica ortis, habita 1753 4to. Petrop.

CH. RABIQUEAU. Le Spectacle de la Nature du Feu élémentaire, ou cours d’Electricité expérimentale, où l’on trouve l’explication, la cause et le mechanisme du feu dans son origine, de là dans les corps, son action sur la bougie, sur le bois, etc. etc. 8vo. Paris.

DE ROMAS. Neuer elektr. Versuch mit dem fliegenden Drachen am 14. Nov. 1753. Journ. d. Sav. Dec. 1753.

J. G. TESKEN’S Abhandlung von dem Nutzen der Electricität in Abwendung des Ungewitters. Wöchentl. Königsb. Frag. und Anz. Nachr. No. 20 des J. 1753.

Lettre au R. P. J. sur une Expérience électrique. Journ. d. Sc. 1753. 241.

J. H. WINKLERI de avertendi Fulminis Artificio secundum Electricitatis doctrinam Commentatio. 4to. Lips.

1754. J. P. EBERHARD’s Gedanken von den Ursachen der Gewitter und ihrer Aehnlichkeit mit der Elektricität. No. 31–33. Wöch. Hall. Anzeig. vom J. 1754.

E. M. FAIT. Observations concerning the Thunder and Electricity. Essays and Observations physical and chemical literary, read before a Society in Edinburgh. 189. Edinburgh.

J. LINING. Extract of a Letter from J. Lining of Charlestown, in South Carolina, to Charl. Pinckney in London, with his Answers to several Queries sent to him, concerning his Experiment in Electricity with a Kite. Phil. Trans. xlviii. 757.

B. FRANKLIN. New Experiments and Observations. London.

1755. T. MARINI de Electricitate cœlesti, sive, ut alii vocant, naturali, Dissertatio. Commentar. de Bononiensi Scientiar. et Artium Instituto atque Academia, p. 205. Bonon.

DE ROMAS. Mémoires, où après avoir donné un moyen aisé pour élever fort haut, et à peu de frais, un corps électrisable isolé, on rapporte des Observations frappantes, qui prouvent, que plus le corps isolé est élevé au-dessus de la terre, plus le feu de l’Electricité est abondant. Mém. de Math. et de Phys. prés. à l’Acad. à Paris, p. 393.

LE ROI. Mémoire sur l’Electricité résineuse, où l’on montre qu’elle est réellement distincte de l’Electricité vitrée, comme feu Mr. du Fay l’avoit avancé, et quelle nous fournit de nouvelles lumières sur les causes de l’Electricité naturelle et du Tonnerre. Mém. de Paris pour 1755, p. 264. Paris.

J. VERATTI. Dissert. de Electricitate cœlesti. Comm. de Bononiensi Scientiar. et Artium Instituto atque Acad. p. 200. Bologna.

J. VERATTI. Nachricht von einem elektrischen Versuche mit dem Gewitter. Hamburger Magazin, xv. 602.

1756. E. M. FAIT. Beobachtungen vom Donner und der Elektricität. Aus d. Engl, in Edinb. neuen Versuche und Bemerk. aus der Arzneykunst und übrigen Gelehrs. i. 217. Altenburg.

DE ROMAS. Electrical Experiments made with a Paper Kite raised to a very considerable height in the Air. Gentleman’s Magazine for Aug. 1756, 378.

1757. M. BUTSCHANY. Dissert. de Fulgure et Tonitru ex phænomenis electris. 4to. Gotting.

TH. MARINI. Abhandlung von der himmlischen, oder wie Andere sie nennen, natürlichen Elektricität. Allgem. Magaz. de Nat. Kunst und Wissenschaft, ix. 268. Leipzig.

JNO. SMEATON. Effects of Lightning on a Steeple. Phil. Trans. 1. 198.

DE ROMAS. Letter from M. de Romas to the Abbé Nollet, containing Experiments made with an Electrical Kite. Gentlem. Magaz. 109. March 1764.

J. VERATTI. Abhandlung von der himmlischen Elektricität. Aus. d. Lat. im Allg. Magaz. der Nat., Kunst u. Wissensch. ix. 261. Leipzig.

WILKE. Dissertatio de Electricitatibus contrariis. 4to. Rostock.

J. B. BECCARIA. Brief von der Elektricität an den Hrn. Abt Nollet gerichtet. Aus d. Franz. im Hamb. Mag. xviii. 378.

1758. DE ROMAS. Elektrischer Versuch mit einem sehr hoch in die Luft gestiegenen Papiernen Drachen. Aus dem Franz. im Brem. Magaz. iii. 114. Hannover.

B. FRANKLIN’s Briefe von der Electricität. Aus d. Engl. von C. Wilke. Leipzig.

G. BECCARIA. Lettere dell’ Elettricismo. 4to. Bologna.

1759. J. A. UNZER’s Abhandlung vom Verhalten bei Gewittern, und von den Mitteln, die Gewitter, ehe sie noch reif werden, zu vernichten, oder wenigstens von einer Person und einem Hause abzuleiten. Medicin. Wochenschrift (der Arzt), i. 257. Hamburg.

J. C. WILKE. Von den Versuchen mit den eisernen Stangen, den Donnerschlag abzuwenden, und dem dabei beobachteten Merkwürdigsten. Abh. d. k. schwed. Akad. d. Wiss., deutsche Uebers. aus d. J. 1759. xxi. 81.

HARTMANN. Von der Verwandtschaft und Aehnlichkeit der elektrischen Kraft mit den erschrecklichen Lufterscheinungen. 8vo. Hannover.

1760. BARBERET. Abhandlung von der Aehnlichkeit, die sich zwischen den Erscheinungen bei dem Donner und der Elektricität findet, etc. etc. (Preisschrift). Aus d. Franz. im 1. St. des gemeinnütz. Natur- und- Kunst- Magaz. 1. Berl.

J. LINING. Elektrische Versuche mit einem Papiernen Drachen. Aus d. Engl. im Hamburger Magaz. xxiv. 588.

1761. M. BUTSCHANY. Der Blitz entsteht nicht durch die Entzündung einiger brennbaren Theilchen, die in der Luft schweben, und es ist auch kein Feuer. Aus d. Lat. im 48. und 49. St. der Hannover. Beitr. z. Nutzen und Vergn. v. J. 1761.

1762. W. WATSON. Some Suggestions concerning the preventing the mischiefs which happen to Ships and their Masts by Lightning. Phil. Trans. lii. 629.

PET. VON MUSSCHENBROEK. Introductio ad Philosophiam naturalem. T. ii. Lugd. Bat. 4.

1763. J. F. HARTMANN. Gedanken über den Ursprung der Luftelektricität bei Gewittern. Im 55. und 56. St. des I. Jahrg. des Hannover. Magaz. v. J. 1763.

1764. T. BERGMANN. Tal on möjeligheten at förexomma åskans skadeliga werkningar. 4to. Stockholm.

Method of preserving Buildings from Lightning. Gentlem. Mag. June 1764, 284.

WILSON. Considerations to prevent Lightning from doing mischief to Great Works, High Buildings and Large Magazines. Phil. Trans. liv. 247.

WATSON. Some suggestions concerning Lightning-Storms. Phil. Trans. liv. 204.

MENASSIER. Elektr. Entladungen an Mastbäumen. Mem. d. l’Acad. R. d. Sc. an 1764, p. 408.

NOLLET. Mémoire sur les effets du Tonnerre comparés à ceux de l’Electr., avec quelques considérations sur les moyens de se garantir des premiers. Mém. de l’Acad. 1764.

W. HEBERDEN. On the Effects of Lightning. Phil. Trans. liv. 198.

T. LAWRENCE. Effects of Lightning. Phil. Trans. liv. 235.

ED. DELAVAL. On the Effects of Lightning on St. Bride’s Church. Phil. Trans. liv. 227.

1765. Vorschlag, wie man Häuser vor dem Blitze bewahren könne. Aus d. Gentlem. Mag. 1764 übers, im Brem. Magaz. vii. 508.

1766. DALIBARD. Histoire abrégée de l’Electricité. 8vo. Paris.

PONCELET. La Nature dans la formation du Tonnerre. 8vo. Paris.

1767. B. FRANKLIN. Sur le Tonnerre et sur la Méthode que l’on employe communément aujourd’hui en Amérique pour garantir les hommes et les bâtimens de ses effets désastreux. Oeuvres i. p. 250. Paris.

LIND. Maison d’épreuve du petit Tonnerre. Oeuvres de Franklin, i. 302.

J. PRIESTLEY. The History and Present State of Electricity, with original Experiments. 4to. London.

1768. T. BERGMANN. Von der Möglichkeit, den schädlichen Wirkungen der Gewitter vorzubeugen. Aus d. Schwed. im Schwed. Magaz. i. 39, übers, v. C. Weber. Copenhagen.

J. C. LOEHE. Ehre Gottes aus der Betrachtung des Himmels und der Erde. 8vo. Bd. v. Nürnberg.

P. DIVISCH. Längst verlangte Theorie von der meteorologischen Elektricität. 8vo. Frankfurt.

D. ROBERT. Von dem Abfluss der elektrischen Materie aus den Wolken in die Glocken. 233. Alton. gel. Merc. a. d. J. 1768.

1769. J. A. H. REIMARUS. Die Ursache des Einschlagens vom Blitze, nebst dessen natürlichen Abwendung von unseren Gebäuden, aus zuverlässigen Erfahrungen vor Augen gelegt. 8vo. Hamburg, 1768. Langensalza. 1769.

B. FRANKLIN. Experiments and Observations on Electricity, &c. &c. 4to. London.

D. J. G. KRÜNITZ. Von der natürlichen oder himmlichen Elektricität: Literatur. Verzeichn, d. vorn. Schriften, etc. etc. 8vo. 129. Leipzig.

NOLLET. Vergleichung der Wirkungen des Donners mit den Wirkungen der Elektricität, nebst einigen Betrachtungen über die Mittel sich vor dem Ersteren zu bewahren. Aus dem Franz. 8vo. Prag.

Royal Society. To secure St. Paul’s from Lightning. Phil. Trans. lix. 160.

1770. BERTHOLON DE ST. LAZARE. Mémoires sur les Verges ou Barres métalliques destinées à garantir les édifices des Effets de la Foudre. Mém. de Par. 1770. 63. Electric. de Météores, i. 228.

J. PRIESTLEY. Additions on the History and present State of Electricity. 4to. London.

TODERINI. Filosofia Frankliana delle Punte preservatrici dal Fulmine. Modena.

1771. J. F. ACKERMANN. Programma, quo morbus et sectio fulmine nuper adusti enarratur. 4to. Kilæ.

D. J. P. EBERHARD. Vorschläge zur bequemeren und sichereren Anlegung der Pulver-Magazine. 8vo. Halle.

J. J. V. FELBIGER. Kunst-Thürme oder andere Gebäude vor den schädlichen Wirkungen des Blitzes durch Ableitungen zu bewahren, angebracht an dem Thurm der Sagan’schen Stifts- und Pfarrkirche. 8vo. Breslau.

SAUSSURE. Manifeste ou Exposition abrégée de l’utilité des Conducteurs Electriques. 8vo. Genève.

1772. J. F. ACKERMANN. Nachrichten von der sonderbaren Wirkung eines Wetterstrahles. 8vo. Kiel.

G. BECCARIA. Deila Elettricità terrestre atmospherica a cielo sereno. Osservazioni dedicate a sua Altezza Reale il Signor Principe di Piemonti. 4to. Torino.

P. MAKO. Physikalische Abhandlungen von den Eigenschaften des Donners und den Mitteln wider das Einschlagen. Aus den Lat. von Retzer. 8vo. Wien.

J. PRIESTLEY. Geschichte und gegenwärtiger Zustand der Elektricität. Aus d. Engl. nach der 2. Ausg. von J. G. Krünitz. 4to. 9, 110, 206, 228, 254, etc. Berlin und Stralsund.

MR. HENLY. Effects of Lightning. Phil. Trans, lxii. 131.

1773. C. STEIGLEHNER. Observationes phænomenoruni electricor. in Hohen-Gebrachin et Prifling. 4to. Ratisb.

CAVENDISH, WATSON, and FRANKLIN. A Report of the Committee appointed to consider a Method for securing the Powder Magazine at Purfleet from Lightning. Phil. Mag. lxiii. 42.

WILSON. Observations on Lightning and the Method of Securing Buildings from its effects. Phil. Trans, lxiii. 49.

1774. W. HENLY. On Pointed and Blunt Conductors. Phil. Trans, lxiv.

J. N. TETENS. Ueber die beste Sicherung seiner Person bei einem Gewitter. 8vo. Bützow und Wism.

J. J. V. FELBIGER. Die Kunst-Thürme und andere Gebäude vor den schädlichen Wirkungen des Blitzes durch Ableitungen zu bewahren. 8vo. Breslau.

PH. P. GUDEN. Von der Sicherheit wider die Donnerstrahlen. 8vo. Götting, u. Gotha.

L. CH. LICHTENBERG. Verhaltungs-Regeln bei nahen Donnerwettern, nebst den Mitteln sich gegen die schädlichen Wirkungen des Blitzes in Sicherheit zu setzen. Zum Unterricht für Unkundige. 8vo. Gotha.

1775. JOS. SCUDERY. Fernglas der Arzeneiwissenschaft, nebst einigen anderen Abhandlungen, Schiffe und Häuser vor dem Blitze zu bewahren, ingleichen ganze Städte und Distrikte vor dem Erdbeben in Sicherheit zu setzen. Aus dem Ital. 8vo. Münster.

P. R. ARBUTHNOT. Abhandlung über die Preisfrage: Ob und was für Mittel es gebe, die Hochgewitter zu vertreiben etc. Abhandl. d. churfürstl. bayer. Akad. der Wiss. ix. 399.

1776. M. VAN MARUM. Verhandeling over het Electrizeeren. 8vo. Groningen.

J. F. GROSS. Elektrische Pausen. 8vo. Leipzig.

P. CAVALLO. Extraordinary Electricity of the Atmosphere. Phil. Trans. lxvi. 407.

G. BECCARIA. A Treatise upon Artificial Electricity. 8vo. London.

1777. F. X. EPP. Abhandlung von dem Magnetismus der natürlichen Electricität. 8vo. München, Kl.

W. HENLY. Experiments and Observations in Electricity. Phil. Trans. lxvii. 85.

1778. L. CHR. LICHTENBERG. Verhaltungs-Regeln bei nahen Donnerwettern, nebst den Mitteln, sich gegen die schädlichen Wirkungen des Blitzes in Sicherheit zu setzen. Zum Unterricht für Unkundige. 8vo. Gotha.

NAIRNE. Experiments in Electricity, being an Attempt to show the Advantage of Pointed Conductors. Phil. Trans. lxviii. 823.

J. A. H. REIMARUS. Vom Blitze. 8vo. Hamburg.

J. TOALDO. Dei Conduttori per preservare gli Edifizii da Fulmini. 4to. Venez.

BENJN. WILSON. On the Nature and Use of Conductors. Phil. Trans. lxviii.

Royal Society. Report of the Committee on Accident at Purfleet. Phil. Trans. lxviii.

B. WILSON. On the Termination of Conductors. Phil. Trans, lxviii. 999.

MR. BODDINGTON. Accident from Lightning at Purfleet. Phil. Trans. lxviii.

1779. B. TINAN. Mémoires sur les Conducteurs pour preserver les Edifices de la Foudre. 8vo. Strasbourg.

DR. INGENHOUSZ. New Experiments and Observations concerning Various Subjects. 8vo. London.

J. TOALDO. Mémoires sur les Conducteurs pour préserver les Edifices de la Foudre. Trad. de l’Italien, avec des notes et des additions par Barbier de Tinan. 8vo. Strasbourg.

B. FRANKLIN. Experiments on the Utility of long pointed Rods for securing Buildings from damage by Strokes of Lightning. Polit. Misc. and Phil. Pieces. 487. London.

1780. LORD MAHON. Principles of Electricity. 4to. Elmsly.

B. FRANKLIN. Sämmtliche Werke. Aus dem Englischen und Französischen übersetzt. Nebst des franz. Uebersetzers B. Dubourg Zusätzen und mit einigen Anmerk. versehen von G. T. Wenzel. Dresden.

1781. BERTHOLON. Mémoire ou Nouvelles Preuves de l’efficacité des Paratonnerres. Assemblée publique de la Soc. Royale de Montpellier. 69.

KERKHOF. Beschreibung einer Zurüstung, welche die anziehende Kraft der Erde gegen die Gewitterwolke und die Nützlichkeit der Blitzableitung sinnlich beweiset. 8vo. Berlin.

1783. J. J. HEMMER. Kurzer Begriff und Nutzen der Blitzableiter. 8vo. Mannheim.

J. J. HEMMER. Kurze und deutliche Anweisung, wie man durch einen an jedem Orte wohnenden Schmied, oder andere im Metall arbeitende Handwerker, eine sichere Wetterableitung mit sehr geringen Kosten an allerhand Gebäuden anlegen lassen kann. 8vo. Friedrichsstadt.

LUTZ. Unterricht vom Blitze und Wetterableitern. 8vo. Nürnberg.

1784. J. INGENHOUSZ. Vermischte Schriften physisch-medicinischen Inhaltes. Uebersetzt und herausgegeben von N. C. Molitor. Wien.

1785. J. PH. OSTERTAG. Archäologische Abhandlung über die Blitzableiter und die Kenntnisse der Alten von der Electricität. Neue philos. Abh. der baier. Akad. der Wiss. iv. 113.

J. HELFENZRIEDER. Verbesserung der Blitzableiter. 8vo. Eichstädt.

M. SIGAUD DE LA FOND. Précis historique et expérimental des Phénomènes Electriques. 8vo. Paris.

J. WEBER. Theorie der Electricität. Nebst Helfenzrieder’s Vorschlag etc. 8vo. Salzburg.

M. LANDRIANA. Dell’ utilità di Conduttori Elettrici. 4to. Milano.

1786. J. J. HEMMER. Anleitung Wetterableiter an allen Gattungen von Gebäuden auf die sicherste Art anzulegen. Mannheim und Frankfurt.

T. CAVALLO. A complete Treatise on Electricity. 8vo. London.

M. LANDRIANA. Abhandlung von Nutzen der Blitzableiter. Auf Befehl des Guberniums herausgegeben. Aus dem Italienischen von G. Müller. 8vo. Wien.

1787. BERTHOLON. De l’Electricité des Météores. 2 vol. Paris.

1788. A. PINAZZO. Diss. sopra alcuni buoni fisici Effetti che nascono da’ Temporali. Mantova. Disser. 99.

1789. P. PLAC. HEINRICH. Abhandlung über die Wirkung des Geschützes auf Gewitterwolken. Gekrönte Preisschrift. Neue philos. Abh. der baier. Akad. der Wiss. v. 1.

1790. Einige gegen die Gewitterableiter gemachte Einwürfe, beantwortet. 8vo. Frankfurt.

BOKMANN. Beschreibung eines bequemen Apparates zur Beobachtung der Luftelektricität, nebst einigen Beob. und Versuchen. Gren Journ. i. 219, 385.

1791. BOECKMANN. Ueber die Blitzableiter. 8vo. Karlsruhe.

BUSSE. Beruhigung über die neuen Blitzableiter. 8vo. Leipzig.

C. G. VON ZENGEN. Ueber das Läuten bei Gewittern, besonders in Hinsicht der deshalb zu treffenden Polizeyverfügungen. 8vo. Giessen.

DE LUC. Ueber das Elektrische Fluidum. Gren Journal de Phys. iii. 91.

H. MEURER. Abhandlung von dem Blitze und den Verwahrungs-Mitteln gegen denselben. 4to. Trier.

1792. BERTHOLON. Von der Elektricität der Lufterscheinungen. Deutsch von —— Liegnitz. 8vo.

F. A. WEBER. Abhandlung vom Gewitter und Gewitterableiter. Zürich.

J. W. WALLOT und CASSINI. Beobachtungen über die Oscillationsbewegung der Magnetnadel unmittelbar nach dem Vorüberziehen eines Gewitters. Gren Journ. v. 83.

1793. A. VOLTA. Meteorologische Briefe. Aus d. Italien. 8vo. Leipzig.

1794. J. A. H. REIMARUS. Neuere Bemerkungen vom Blitze, dessen Bahn, Wirkung, sicheren und bequemen Ableitung. Aus zuverlässigen Wahrnehmungen von Wetterschlägen dargelegt. 8vo. Hamburg.

J. A. H. REIMARUS. Ausführliche Vorschriften zur Blitz-Ableitung an allerlei Gebäuden. Aufs Neue geprüft etc. 8vo. Hamburg.

1795. CHAPPE. Ueber die Eigenschaft der Spitzen, elektr. Materie aus bedeutenden Entfernungen aufzunehmen. Gren n. Journ. d. Phys. i. 115.

1796. J. F. GROSS. Grundsätze der Blitzableitungskunst. Nach dem Tode des Verf. herausgegeben von J. F. Wiedemann. 8vo. Leipzig.

1797. T. CAVALLO. Vollst. Abhandl. der Lehre v. d. Elektr. Aus d. Engl. 4. Ausgabe. 8vo. Leipzig.

K. G. KÜHN. Die neuesten Entdeckungen in der Elektr. 2 Theile. ii. 1–173. Leipzig.

1798. FR. K. ACHARD. Kurze Anleitung, ländliche Gebäude vor Gewitterschäden sicher zu stellen. 8vo. Berlin.

1799. A. VOLTA. Meteorologische Beobachtungen, besonders über die atmosphärische Elektricität. Aus d. Italienischen mit Anmerkungen des Herausgebers. (Herausgeg. von Lichtenberg, übers. von Schäffer.) 8vo. Leipzig.

VAN MARUM. Versuche für Blitzableiter. Gilbert’s Ann. i. 263.

1800. V. HAUCH. Von der Luftelektricität, besonders mit Anwendung auf Gewitterableiter. Kopenhagen.

H. HALDANE. Versuche, den Grund zu entdecken, weshalb der Blitz in Gebäude einschlug, die mit Gewitter-Ableitern versehen waren. Gilbert’s Ann. v. 115. Nicholson’s Journal of Natur. Philos. i. 433.

L. A. V. ARNIM. Einige Elektrische Bemerkungen. Gilbert’s Ann. vi. 116.

1801. WOLFF. Versuche über Blitzableiter. Gilbert’s Annalen, viii. 69.

1802. J. A. EITELWEIN. Kurze Anleitung, auf welche Art Blitzableiter an den Gebäuden anzulegen sind. 8vo. Berlin.

GEORG CHRISTOPH LICHTENBERG. Ueber Gewitterfurcht und Blitzableitung. 8vo. Göttingen.

1803. G. CH. LICHTENBERG. Neueste Geschichte der Blitzableiter. Aus d. Jahre 1779. Math. und Phys. Schriften etc. i. 210.

G. CH. LICHTENBERG. Vorschlag den Donner auf Noten zu setzen. Math. und Phys. Schriften etc. i. 478.

G. CH. LICHTENBERG. Versuche zur Bestimmung der zweckmässigsten Form der Gewitterstangen. Math. und Physik. Schriften, iii. 3.

1804. MICHAELIS und LICHTENBERG’S Briefwechsel über die Absicht oder Folgen der Spitzen auf Salomon’s Tempel. Math. und Physik. Schriften, iii. 251.

BODDE. Grundzüge zu der Theorie der Blitzableiter. 8vo. Münster.

J. F. LUTZ. Lehrbuch der theoretischen und practischen Blitzablitungslehre. Neu bearbeitet von J. K. Gütle. 2 Thle. 8vo. Nürnberg.

SAXTORPH’S Elektricitätslehre. 2 Theile. ii. 1–101. Kopenhagen.

1805. J. K. GÜTLE. Allgemeine Sicherheitsregeln für Jedermann bei Gewittern. Merseburg.

W. A. LAMPADIUS. Versuche und Beobachtungen über Elektricität und Wärme der Atmosphäre. 8vo. Leipzig.

W. A. LAMPADIUS. Ein Schneegewitter, und ein Vorschlag zur Vervollkommung der Blitzableiter. Gilbert’s Ann. der Physik. xxix. 58.

1809. J. J. HEMMER. Der Rathgeber, wie man sich vor Gewittern in unbewaffneten Gebäuden verwahren soll. 8vo. Mannheim.

BODDE. Grundzüge zur Theorie der Blitzableiter. 8vo. Münster.

1810. J. PH. OSTERTAG. Antiquarische Abhandl. über Gewitterelektricität. Auswahl aus den kl. Schriften des.... Sammlung ii. 455. Salzbach.

J. A. H. REIMARUS. Ueber die Sicherung durch Blitzableiter. Gilbert’s Ann. xxxvi. 113.

1811. L. VON UNTERBERGER. Nützliche Begriffe von den Wirkungen der Elektricität und der Gewittermaterie, nebst einer practischen Belehrung 8vo. Wien.

M. V. IMHOF. Ueber das Schiessen gegen heranziehende Donner- und Hagelgewitter. 4to. München.

B. COOK. On the Prevention of Damage by Lightning. Nicholson’s Journal of Philosophy and Chemistry. Aug. 1811, and Feb. 1812.

1812. J. K. GÜTLE. Neue Erfahrungen über die beste Art Blitzableiter anzulegen. 8vo. Nürnberg.

1814. G. J. SINGER. Elements of Electricity and Electro-Chemistry. 8vo. London.

1815. — — — Ueber Blitzableiter aus Messingdraht. Anzeiger für Kunst- und Gewerbefleiss in Bayern. No. 7. 81. München.

BENZENBERG. Nachrichten über das Gewitter vom 11. Jan. 1815. Gilbert’s Ann. l. 341.

BODDE. Ueber Blitzableiter. Gilbert’s Ann. li. 80.

1816. M. V. IMHOF. Theoretisch practische Anweisung zur Anlegung zweckmässiger Blitzableiter. 8vo. München.

Ueber Blitzableiter. Anzeiger für Kunst- und Gewerbefleiss in Bayern. No. 26. 418. München.

1818. C. A. W. WENZEL. Ueber Blitzableiter. Aus d. Französ. (?) Wesel.

1820. — — — Nothwendigkeit der Blitzableiter. Kunst- und Gewerbeblatt f. d. Königreich Bayern. Jahrg. 1820. No. 21. 166.

F. TRECHSEL. Bemerkungen über Blitzableiter und Blitzschläge, veranlasst durch einige Ereignisse im Sommer 1819. Gilbert’s Ann. lxiv. 227.

LA POSTOLLE. Traité des Parafoudres et des Paragrêles. 8vo. Amiens.

1821. LA POSTOLLE. Ueber Blitz- und Hagelableiter aus Strohseilen. Aus d. Französ. Mit einer Abbildung. 8vo. Weimar.

GAY-LUSSAC’S Bericht über La Postolle’s Blitzableiter aus Stroh. Gilb. Ann. lxviii. 216.

MÜLLER und HOFMANN. Einige prüfende Versuche hierüber. Gilbert’s Annalen, lxviii. 218.

LINDNER. Blitzableiter von Strohseilen. Magazin der neuesten Erfindungen, Entdeckungen und Verbesserungen von Poppe, Kühn und Baumgärtner. Neue Folge, ii. 18.

VINCENT. Blitzableiter von Stroh. Journ. d. Connaiss. Usuell. et Pratiques, et Recueil des Notions etc., par Gillet de Grandmont et C. de Lasteyrie et d’autres. 8vo. xix. 281. Paris.

1822. DAVY. Neue tragbare Blitzableiter. Polyt. Journ. ix. 133.

WEBER. Die Sicherung unserer Gebäude durch Blitzstrahlableiter, theor. und pract. beleuchtet und bewährt, sammt einer Beurtheilung der Ableiter aus Stroh. Landshut.

1823. HARRIS. Observations on the Effect of Lightning on Floating Bodies; with an Account of a New Method of applying Fixed and Continuous Conductors of Electricity to the Masts of Ships. 8vo. London.

HARRIS. Ueber den Nutzen der Blitzableiter in der Oeconomie. Polyt. Journ. x. 372.

GAY-LUSSAC. Instruction sur les Paratonnerres. Ann. de Ch. et de Phys. xxvi. 258. Poggendorff’s Ann. i. 403. (S. Seite 203.)

J. C. V. YELIN. Ueber den am 30. April 1822 erfolgten merkwürdigen Blitzschlag auf den Kirchthurm zu Rossstall im Rezatkreise, Bayern. 8vo. München.

1824. J. C. V. YELIN. Dasselbe. Auch unter dem Titel: Ueber die Blitzableiter aus Messingdrahtstricken etc. 8vo. 2. vermehrte Auflage. München.

ZIEGLER. Blitzableiter von Platina. Allgem. Handlungszeit. v. Leuchs. 175. Ann. de l’Indust. nation, et étrang. etc. xviii. 320.

1825. FISCHER. Ueber die Nachtheile magnetischer eiserner Ableitungsröhren. Kastner’s Archiv f. d. gesammte Naturlehre, iii. 421.

PFAFF. Ueber Blitz und Blitzableiter. Gehler’s physikalisches Wörterbuch, neu bearbeitet von Brandes, Gmelin, Horner, Muncke und Pfaff Bd. i. Abth. 2. 981--1093. Leipzig.

1827. HEHL. Anleitung zur Errichtung und Untersuchung der Blitzableiter für Bauverständige, Bau- und Feuerbeschauer und Gebäude-Inhaber. Stuttgart.

1828. MURRAY. Treatise on Atmospheric Electricity, including Observations on Lightning-Rods. 8vo. London.

R. HARE. Ueber die Ursachen, warum Wetterableiter in einigen Fällen nicht schützen, und die Mittel, dieselben vollkommen schützend zu machen, nebst einer Widerlegung der herrschenden Idee, dass Metalle die Elektricität vorzüglich anziehen. Aus. Gill’s Technological Repository. Nov. 1827, im Polyt. Journ. xxvii. 268.

1830. D. BREITINGER. Instruction über Blitzableiter im Canton Zürich. 4to Zürich.

BÖCKMANN. Ueber Blitzableiter. Eine Abhandl. auf höchsten Befehl bearbeitet. Neue Aufl. von Wucherer. Karlsruhe.

POPPE. Gewitterbuchlein zum Schutz und zur Sicherstellung gegen die Gefahren der Gewitter, besonders auch über die Kunst, Blitzableiter auf die beste Art anzulegen. Stuttgart.

PREIBSCH. Ueber Blitzableiter, deren Nutzbarkeit und Anlegung. 8vo. Leipzig.

HARRIS. On the Utility of fixing Lightning Conductors on Ships. 8vo. Plymouth.

1831. MURRAY. Treatise on Atmospheric Electricity &c., traduit par Riffault. Paris.

BLESSON. Verbesserung an Blitzableitern. Verhandl. des Vereins zur Beförderung des Gewerbefleisses in Preussen. Jahrg. 1831. 250.

W. S. HARRIS. Ueber Blitzableiter an Schiffen. Aus Register of Arts. Oct. 1831. 211, in Polyt. Journ. xlii. 415.

1832. L. F. KÄMTZ. Von den elektrischen Erscheinungen der Atmosphäre. Lehrbuch der Meteorologie. Bd. ii. Abschnitt vii. 389. Halle.

1833. A. DE TAVERNIER. Blitzableiter, genannt Antijupiter, oder Tavernier’s Gewitterableitende Säule. 8vo. Leipzig.

G. MAYR’S Abhandlung über Elektricität und sichernde Blitzableiter für jedes Gebäude, für Reise- und Frachtwagen, Schiffe und Bäume. 8vo. München.

1834. P. BIGOT. Anweisung zur Anlegung, Construction und Veranschlagung der Blitzableiter für angehende Baubeamte, Bauhandwerker, insbesondere Metallarbeiter, und zunächst Hauseigenthümer und Oekonomen. Glogau.

J. HANCOCK. On the Cause of Heat Lightning. Phil. Mag. iv. (s. 3), 340.

1835. PLIENINGER. Ueber die Blitzableiter. 8vo. Stuttgart und Tübingen. Legirung für Blitzableiterspitzen. Journ. des Conn. xxii. 129. Polyt. Journal, lviii. 479.

1837. MARTYN ROBERTS. On Lightning Conductors, particularly as applied to Vessels. Read before the Electrical Society of London, June 24, 1837. Annals of Electricity, i. 468. 8vo.

K. W. DEMPP. Ueber Blitzableiter. Förster’s Bauzeitung. Jahrg. 1837.

1838. ARAGO. Sur le Tonnere. Annuaire du Bureau des Longit. pp. 249, 255, 257, 451. Paris.

P. RIESS. Zusammenstellung der neueren Fortschritte über Atmosphärische Elektricität. Repertorium der Physik, ii. 87.

W. SNOW HARRIS. On the Protection of Ships from Lightning. Annals of Electricity, ii. 81.

MARTYN ROBERTS. Reply to W. Snow Harris’s Paper on Lightning Conductors. Ib. ii. 241.

MR. STURGEON. On the Principle and Action of Lightning Conductors. A Paper read before the London Electrical Society, March 7. Ib. ii. 383.

J. MURRAY. Lightning Rods. Ib. iii. 64.

1839. WM. STURGEON. On Marine Lightning Conductors. Addressed to the British Association, Birmingham Meeting, Sept. 8. Ib. iv. 161.

WM. STURGEON. Supplementary Note on Marine Lightning Conductors. Ib. iv. 235.

W. SNOW HARRIS. On Lightning Conductors, &c., being an Investigation of Mr. Sturgeon’s Experimental and Theoretical Researches in Electricity, published by him in the Annals of Electricity, &c. Ib. 310.

W. S. HARRIS. On Lightning Conductors. Phil. Mag. xv. (s. 3), 461.

M. BREGNOT. On the Thunder Clap which struck the Dome of the Hôtel des Invalides, June 8. Compt. Rend. June 17.

BÖCKMANN. Ueber Blitzableiter. 3. Auflage von G. F. WUCHERER. 8vo. Carlsruhe.

1840. Report of the Committee appointed by the Admiralty to examine the Plans of Lightning Conductors. Sturgeon’s Ann. v. 1.

LIEUT. GREEN. On Lightning Conductors. Ib. iv. 330.

W. S. HARRIS. On Lightning Conductors, and the Effects of Lightning on certain Ships in H. M. Navy. Phil. Mag. xvi. (3 s.), 116, 404.

STURGEON. On the Subject of Marine Lightning Conductors. Annals of Electricity, iv. 496.

W. S. HARRIS. On Lightning Conductors. Ib. v. 208.

W. STURGEON. On Marine Lightning Conductors. Ib. v. 53, 220.

1841. M. FARADAY. On some supposed Forms of Lightning. Phil. Mag., June 22.

W. S. HARRIS. On Lightning Conductors, and on Experiments relating to the Defence of Shipping from Lightning. Phil. Mag. xviii. (3 s.), 172.

J. MURRAY. On Lightning Conductors. Annals of Electricity, vii. 82.

J. ARROWSMITH. On the Use of Black Paint, in averting the Effects of Lightning on Ships. The Transactions and the Proceedings of the London Electrical Society from 1737 to 1840, p. 103. 4to. London.

W. STURGEON. A Paper on the Principle and Action of Lightning Conductors. Ib. p. 142.

W. L. WHARTON. The Effect of a Lightning Stroke. Ib. p. 162.

LHOTSKY. Some Remarks on Lightning on the High Seas. (Abstract.) Ib. 174.

W. STURGEON. Electric Storms. Annals of Electricity, vii. 400.

1842. C. V. WALKER. On Lightning Conductors. Phil. Mag. xxi. (3 s.), 63, 310.

W. S. HARRIS. Observations on a Paper by C. V. Walker, entitled, On the Action of Lightning Conductors. Phil. Mag. xxi. (3 s.), 313.

W. STURGEON. Description of a Thunderstorm as observed at Woolwich; with some Observations relative to the cause of the deflection of Electric Clouds by High Lands; and an Account of the Phenomena exhibited by means of a Kite elevated during the Storm. Annals of Electricity, ix. 167.

CHANTRELL. Ueber Blitzableiter. Polyt. Journ. lxxxvi. 179.

P. RIESS. Ueber Atmosphärische Elektricität und Schutzmittel gegen Elektrische Meteore. Repertorium d. Physik, vi. 277.

K. W. DEMPP. Vollständiger Unterricht in der Technik der Blitzableitersetzung nach 66 Modellen. Kl. 8. München.

1843. C. V. WALKER. Memoir on Lightning Flashes. Phil. Mag. xxii. (3 s.), 490.

W. B. O’SHAUGHNESSY. On the use of Lightning Conductors in India. Phil. Mag. xxiii. (3 s.), 177.

W. S. HARRIS. On the Nature of Thunderstorms, and the Means of Protecting Buildings and Shipping against Lightning. 8vo. London.

1844. M. A. FARGEAUD. On Lightning Conductors at Strasbourg Cathedral. Builder, ii. 39.

Edinburgh Review. On the best Method of Protecting Buildings from Lightning. (Abstract.) Builder, ii. 550.

MR. WALKER. On the Lightning Conductor on Royal Exchange. Builder, ii. 573.

1845. MR. WHITE. On Protection of Buildings from Lightning. Builder iii. 413.

CORNAY. Sur quelques Effets de l’Ouragan du 19 août observés dans les Environs de Paris. Compt. Rend. xxi. 534.

MARIANINI. Du ré-électromètre comme moyen de découvrir la direction de la Foudre. Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. xiii. 245.

HENRY. Method of Protecting from Lightning Buildings covered with Metallic Roofs. Proceed. of the Americ. Philos. Soc. iv. 179.

1846. F. REICH. Electrische Versuche I. Abh. b. Begründ, der Königl. Sächs. Gesellsch. der Wiss. p. 197.

STRICKER. Ueber Anwendung des Galvanismus zur Prüfung der Blitzableiter. Pogg. Ann. lxix. 554. Polyt. Journ. ciii. 265.

HENRY. Ueber ein einfaches Verfahren, Gebaüde mit metallischer Bedeckung vor dem Blitz zu schützen. Polyt. Journ. ci. 43.

1847. OLMSTED. A New Effect of the Magnetic Telegraph. Mech. Mag. xlvii. 262.

A. KUNZEK. Atmosphärische Elektricität. Leicht fassliche Darstellung der Meteorologie. Wien. Gr. 8. 174.

MR. HIGHTON. A Paper on Lightning Conductors, read before Society of Arts. Builder, v. 18.

W. SMITH. On the Protection of Buildings from Lightning. Builder, v. 196.

M. BONJEAN. On the Presence of Sulphur in Substances struck by Lightning. Phil. Mag. xxx. (3 s.), 222.

HARRIS. On some Recent and Remarkable Examples of the Protection afforded by Metallic Conductors against heavy Strokes of Lightning. Proc. British Assoc. 1848.

1848. ISHAM BAGGS. On the Proximate Cause of Lightning. Proceedings of Royal Society, v. 731.

H. POSELGER. Berichte über atmosphärische Elektricität aus d. J. 1846. Fortschritte d. Physik, herausgegeben von d. Phys. Gesellsch. zu Berlin (oder Berl. Ber.) f. 1848. 8vo. p. 363. Berlin.

C. BRUNNER. Elektrische Lichterscheinungen ohne Donner. Fror. Not. ix. x. p. 152.

LADAME. Sur les Phénomènes électriques de l’Air. Bibl. Univ. ix. 286.

W. EISENLOHR. Anleitung zur Ausführung und Visitation der Blitzableiter. 8. Karlsruhe.

1849. T. H. DIXON. On Rain, the Cause of Lightning. Phil. Mag. xxxv. (3 s.), 392.

R. BIRT. On the Production of Lightning by Rain. Phil. Mag. xxxv. (3 s.), 161.

PORRO. Bleiröhren für Blitzableiter. Polyt. Journ. cxv. 397.

E. HIGHTON. Action perturbatrice de l’Electricité atmosphérique. Compt. Rend. xxix. 126.

MORLET. Resultats de Recherches nouvelles sur l’Arc lumineux qui accompagne souvent les Aurores Boréales. Compt. Rend. xxviii. 744, 789.

DE LA RIVE. Sur les Aurores Boréales. Arch. d. Sc. Phys. et Nat. xii. 222.

1850. R. PHILIPPS. On the Connection of the Electricity of Condensation with Electricity and the Aurora. Phil. Mag. xxxvi. (3 s.), 103.

W. R. BIRT. On the Connection of Atmospheric Electricity with the Condensation of Vapour. Phil. Mag. xxxvi. (3 s.), 161.

W. R. BIRT. Ueber die Veränderungen der Messingdrahtseile bei Blitzableitern. Bayer. Kunst und Gewerbebl. 148.

PELTIER. Sur l’Electricité atmosphérique. Bull. d. Brux. xvii. 1. p. 5.

PORRO. Substitution d’un Tube de Plomb à la Corde métallique communément employé comme Conducteur pour les Paratonnerres. Compt. Rend. xxx. 86.

PORRO. Deuxième Note sur les Paratonnerres. Institut. 149.

E. HIGHTON. Action de l’Electricité atmosphérique sur les Télégraphes électriques. Institut. 80.

CH. FR. SCHÖNBEIN. Ueber den Ursprung der Wolkenelektricität und der Gewitter. In der Denkschrift: Ueber den Einfluss des Sonnenlichtes auf die Chemische Thätigkeit des Sauerstoffes und den Ursprung der Wolkenelektricität und des Gewitters. 11. Basel.

R. PHILIPPS. On the Theory of Thunder-Storms. Phil. Mag. xxxvii. (3 s.), 510.

J. P. JOULE. On a Remarkable Appearance of Lightning. Phil. Mag. xxxvii. (3 s.), 127.

ED. LOWE. Observations on 287 Thunder-Storms. Proceedings of Royal Society, v. 957.

PETER CLARE. On some Thunder-Storms and Extraordinary Electrical Phenomena. Phil. Mag. xxxvii. (3 s.), 329.

Prof. WM. THOMSON. On some Remarkable Effects of Lightning. Ib. (3 s.), 53.

1851. M. QUETELET. On Atmospheric Electricity. Ib. i. (s. 4), 329.

E. LOOMIS. On the proper Height of Lightning Rods. Silliman’s Journ. (2), x. 320.

W. STURGEON. On Lightning and Lightning Conductors. Mem. of the Manch. Soc. (2), ix. 56.

CASASECA. Cas de Foudre observé à la Havane. Compt. Rend. xxxiii. 209.

J. LAMONT. Messung der Atmosphärischen Elektricität. Abhandl. der Math. Physik. Cl. d. k. b. Akademie d. Wiss. vi. 2. p. 437.

J. LAMONT. Beobachtungen der Luft-Elektricität an der Münchener Sternwarte vom 1. Mai 1850 bis Ende October 1851. Pogg. Ann. lxxxv. 494.

ARNOLD. Blitzableiter zum Schutz der Wärterbuden. Polyt. Centralblatt. 650.

1852. H. POSELGER und G. KARSTEN. Berichte über ‘Atmosphärische Elektricität.’ Berl. Ber. 1848. 275. Berlin.

A. D’ABBADIE. Sur les Orages d’Ethiopie. Compt. Rend. xxxiv. 894.

W. HAIDINGER. Niedrigste Höhe der Gewitterwolken. Wiener Sitzungsberichte, iv. 338.

K. FRITSCH. Die tägliche Periode der Gewitter und ihre Ursache. Wiener Sitzungsberichte, ix. 809.

M. QUETELET. On Atmospheric Electricity. Phil. Mag. iv. (4 series), 249.

R. PHILLIPS. On the Electrical Condition of the Atmosphere. Phil. Mag. iv. (4 s.), 126.

1853. J. SPRATT’S. Fangstange für Blitzableiter. Polytechn. Centralbl. 1142.

BEETZ. Berichte über Atmosphärische Elektricität. Berl. Ber. f. 1849. 258. Berlin.

ARMITAGE. Lightning Rod. Mech. Mag. lix. 204.

E. B. BRIGHT. Lightning Conductors. Mech. Mag. lix. 246.

C. BEECK. Einige Worte über Blitzableiter. Zeitschrift f. die gesammten Natur-Wissenschaften, ii. 229.

P. TH. RIESS. Entladungs-Erscheinungen der Atmosphärischen Elektricität. Die Lehre von der Reibungs-Elektricität. Gr. 8. Bd. ii. Kap. 3. 528. Berlin.

1854. F. ARAGO. Le Tonnerre. Œuvresuvres de F. Arago. Notes scientifiques I. Cosmos. V. 30, 700. Edinb. Journ. (2), iii. 150.

F. ARAGO. Ueber das Gewitter. Arago’s sämmtliche Werke. Mit einer Einleitung von Alexander v. Humboldt. 8vo. Leipzig.

F. COHN. Ueber die Einwirkungen des Blitzes auf die Bäume. Jahresberichte der schlesisch. Gesellsch. 1853, p. 1.

T. DU MONCEL. Théorie des Eclairs. Mém. de la Soc. de Cherbourg, ii. 49.

LECLERQ. Sur la Cause qui produit le Bruit prolongé du Tonnerre. Compt. Rend. xxxix. 694.

POUILLET. Supplément à l’instruction sur les Paratonnerres.

C. DUPIN. Observations au sujet du Rapport sur l’Etablissement de Paratonnerres à bords des Vaisseaux. Compt. Rend. xxxix. 1159.

NASMYTH. FARADAY. On Lightning Conductors. Athenæum (1854), 1182.

J. L. GATCHELL. Lightning Rod. Mech. Mag. lxi. 174.

R. B. FORBES. Lightning Conductors for Ships. Mech. Mag. lxi. 178.

WITTCKE. Ueber das Gewitter. Vorgelesen am 1. April 1844 in der Sitzung der Erfurter Akademie gemeinnütziger Wissenschaften. S. Cassels Wissenschaftliche Berichte, ii.-iii. 68. Erfurt.

1855. J. LAMONT. Berichte über Atmosphärische Elektricität. Berl. Ber. 1850–1851. 879. Berlin.

W. S. HARRIS. Protection of the New Palace of Westminster from Lightning. Mech. Mag. lxii. 392.

F. ARAGO. Meteorological Essays. Translated by Colonel Sabine, with an Introduction by Baron von Humboldt. 8vo. London.

Colonel SABINE. On Thunderstorms. Proc. Royal Society, vol. vii. 347.

1856. DELLMANN. Berichte über Atmosphärische Elektricität, 612. Ber. Ber. 1853. Berlin.

BECQUEREL. Recherches sur l’Electricité de l’Air et de la Terre, et sur les effets chimiques produits en vertu d’actions lentes avec ou sans le concours des forces électriques. Compt. Rend. xliii. 1101.

S. MÄSTERMANN. Observations on Thunder and Lightning. Smithsonian Report for 1855, 265.

BAILLARD. Sur les Eclairs sans Tonnerre et les Tonnerres sans Eclairs. Compt. Rend. xliii. 816.

LENZ. Sur combien de pieds carrés de la surface de la toiture doit-on, en construisant un Paratonnerre, établir un Conducteur à terre?--Bullet. de la Classe phisico-mathématique de l’Acad. Impériale de St.-Pétersbourg, xv. 63.

J. MÜLLER. Atmosphärische Elektricität. Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik. 8vo. Braunschweig.

C. S. M. POUILLET. Eléments de Physique expérimentale et de Météorologie. 7th edition, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris.

GUIOT. Sur la substitution du Cuivre au Fer. Compt. Rend. xliii. 1205.

1857. BABINET. Ib. Compt. Rend. xliv. 636.

COUNT DU MONCEL. Note on Thunder and Lightning. Compt. Rend. 49.

1858. M. RONNEAU. Paratonnerres. De leur emploi pour mettre les cultures à l’abri de la grêle. Compt. Rend. xlvi. 589, 743.

M. POUILLET. Rapport fait à l’Académie sur la question de Paratonnerres. Compt. Rend. xlvii. 287.

M. PIMENTA. Sur un Nouveau Système de Paratonnerre. Compt. Rend. 157.

1859. G. A. ROWELL. An Essay on the Cause of Rain and its allied Phenomena. 8vo. Oxford.

C. TOMLINSON. The Thunderstorm. 8vo. London.

1861. DURET. Lettre sur un cas d’inefficacité des Paratonnerres. Compt. Rend. liii. 23.

GUIOT. Sur les Indications à remplir dans l’installation des Paratonnerres. Compt. Rend. liii. 290.

1862. POUILLET. Rapport sur le Coup de Foudre qui a frappé le Magasin à Poudre, Place de Bethune, le 16 Juin 1862. Compt. Rend. lv. 267.

C. TOMLINSON. On Lightning Figures. British Association Report, 1862.

SACRÉ. Sur la Construction des Paratonnerres. Compt. Rend. lv. 444.

CALLAUD. Lettre sur Certaines Dispositions qu’il donne aux Paratonnerres au but d’en augmenter l’Efficacité. Compt. Rend. lv. 697.

PERROT. Note sur les Résultats d’Experience entreprises dans le but d’accroître l’efficacité de ces Appareils. Compt. Rend. liv. 852.

PERROT. Note sur les Moyens d’augmenter l’Efficacité des Paratonnerres. Compt. Rend. lv. 361, 465.

PERROT. Sur les Paratonnerres armés d’une couronne de Pointes aiguës. Compt. Rend. lv. 642.

1863. PERROT. Nouvelles Expériences tendant à prouver que lorsqu’un Paratonnerre ordinaire est foudroyé, son Conducteur devient foudroyant pour les corps voisins. Compt. Rend. lvi. 397.

PERROT. Note sur les Rapports des Distances auxquelles s’étendent les actions neutralisantes de la Pointe du Paratonnerre ordinaire et d’une Pointe très-effilée. Compt. Rend, lviii. 115.

1865. MELSENS. Sur les Paratonnerres à Conducteurs multiples. Compt. Rend. lxi. 84.

1866. CARL KUHN. Handbuch der angewandten Elektricitätslehre.