Chapter 23

THE LAST SCENE OF ALL--BURIAL AND TOMBS

Whatever conceptions may have been entertained as to existence beyond the grave, there was no doubt in the Roman mind as to the claim of the dead to a proper burial and a worthy monument. It had once on a time been a matter of universal belief that the spirit which had departed from an unburied corpse could find no admittance to the company in the realms of Hades. It could not join "the majority" below. Originally no doubt the notion was simply that, as the body had not been consigned to the earth, the spirit also remained homeless above ground. Gradually this fancy shifted to the notion that, through neglect of burial, the dead man was dishonoured--he had no friends--and that his spirit was thereby disgraced and unworthy of reception by the powers beneath. It must therefore remain shivering on the near side of the river across which the grim Charon ferried the more fortunate souls. Even when the body had been decently buried, the spirit, though received into the gloomy realm, called for continued respect on the part of its friends on earth. Unless it received its periodical honours and was commemorated by a fitting sepulchre, it would meet with slights from other ghosts and would feel its position keenly. Naturally it would then do its best, by some form of haunting, to punish the living for their disregard and forgetfulness. From such considerations there arose in very ancient days in Italy, as in Greece, a great anxiety to perform scrupulously "the dues" of the defunct. Even if the body could not be found, it was obligatory to perform the obsequies and to build a cenotaph. If a stranger came across a dead body he must not pass it by without throwing at least three handfuls of dust or earth upon it and bidding it "Farewell."

Though the burial customs still employed sprang from old fancies like these, we are not to suppose that such notions were in full life in the Roman world of our period. Poets might play with them, and some ignorant folk might still vaguely entertain them. The mere belief in ghosts was doubtless general, and even the learned argued the question of their existence. Here are parts of another letter culled from Pliny already several times quoted. He writes to his friend Sura: "I should very much like to know whether you think that apparitions actually exist, with a real shape of their own and a kind of supernatural power, or that it is only our fear which gives an embodiment to vain fancies. My own inclination is to believe in them, and chiefly because of an experience which, I am told, befell Curtius Rufus." He then speaks of a phantom form which prophesied that person's fortune. "Another occurrence, quite as wonderful and still more terrifying, I will relate as I was told it. There was at Athens a house which was roomy and commodious, but which bore an ill-name and was plague-stricken. In the silence of the night there was heard a sound of iron. On closer attention it proved to be a rattling of chains, first at a distance and then close at hand. Soon there appeared the spectre of an old man, miserably thin and squalid, with a long beard and unkempt hair. On his legs were fetters, and on his hands chains, which he kept shaking. In consequence the inhabitants spent horrible and sleepless nights; the sleeplessness made them ill, and, as their terror increased, the illness was followed by death.... As a result the house was deserted and totally abandoned to the ghost. Nevertheless it was advertised, on the chance that some one ignorant of all this trouble" (note the commercial morality) "might choose to buy it or rent it. To Athens there comes a philosopher named Athenodorus, who reads the placard. On hearing the price and finding it so cheap, he has his suspicions" (the ancient philosopher had his practical side), "makes enquiry, and learns the whole story. So far from being less inclined to hire it, he is only the more willing. On the approach of evening he gives orders for his couch to be made up in the front part of the house, and asks for his tablets, pencils, and a light. After dismissing his attendants to the back rooms, he applies all his attention, as well as his eyes and hand, steadily to his writing, for fear his mind, if unoccupied, might conjure up imaginary sounds and causeless fears. At first there was the same silence of the night as elsewhere; then there was a shaking of iron, a movement of chains. The philosopher refused to lift his eyes or stop his pencil; instead he braced up his mind so as to overcome his hearing. The noise grew louder; it approached; it sounded as if on the threshold; then as if within the room. He looks behind him; sees and recognises the apparition of which he has been told. It was standing and beckoning to him with its finger, as if calling him. In answer our friend makes it a sign with his hand to wait a while, and once more applies himself to tablet and pencil. The ghost began to rattle its chains over his head while he was writing. He looks behind him again, sees it making the same signal as before, and promptly picks up the light and follows. It goes at a slow pace, as if burdened with chains, then, after turning into the open yard of the house, it suddenly vanishes and leaves him by himself. At this he gathers some grass and leaves, and marks the spot with them. The next day he goes to the magistrates and urges them to dig up the spot in question; and they find bones tangled with chains through which they were passed... These they put together and bury at the public charge. The spirit being thus duly, laid, the house was henceforward free of them."

Whatever the Roman beliefs on this point, so far as funeral rites and ceremonies were concerned, they were carried out simply in accordance with custom and tradition. The Romans of this date no more analysed their motives and sentiments than we do ours in dealing with such matters. They honoured the dead with funeral pomp and conspicuous monument; but, at the bottom, it was often more out of respect for themselves than because they imagined that it made any difference to the departed. In a very early age it had been considered that the spirit led in the underworld a feeble replica of human existence: it required food, playthings, utensils, money, as well as consideration. Hence food was periodically poured into the ground, playthings and utensils were burned on the pyre or laid in the coffin, and money was placed in that most primitive of purses, the mouth. Conservatism is nowhere so strong as in rites and ceremonies, and therefore the Romans continued to burn and bury articles along with the remains of the dead, and they continued to put a coin in the mouth before the burial. But it would be absurd to suppose that an intelligent Roman of our date would have offered the original and ancient motives for this conduct as rational motives still actuating himself. Enough that convention expected certain proceedings as "due" and "proper": a true Roman would not fail to perform what convention decreed.

Our friend the elder Silius dies a natural death, after completing the fullest public career. His family has its full share of both affection and pride, and therefore his obsequies will be worthy of his character and standing. When his Greek physician Hermogenes assures the watching family that life is departing, Marcia or Publius or Bassa will endeavour to catch the last breath with a kiss, and will then close the eyelids. Upon this all those who are present will call "Silius! Silius! Silius!" The original motive of this cry--which has its modern parallel in the case of a dead Pope--was to make sure that the man was actually dead and beyond reply. This point made certain, the professional undertaker is called in and instructed to take charge of all the proceedings usual in such cases. It is he who will provide the persons who are to wash and anoint the body and lay it in state, and also, on the day of the procession, the musicians, the wailing-women, the builders of the funeral pyre, and others who may be necessary, together with the proper materials and accessories. He will further see that the name of Quintus Silius Bassus is registered in the death-roll in the temple of "Juno the Death-Goddess," and that the registration fee is paid. The name will also appear in the next issue of the "Daily News." The body, anointed so as to preserve it till the third day, and dressed in the toga--which will be that of the highest position he ever occupied--is laid in state in the high reception-hall, with the feet pointing to the door. On the bier are wreaths, by it is burning a pan of incense, in or before the vestibule is placed a cypress tree or a number of cypress branches for warning information to the public.

On the day next but one after death the contractor, attended by subordinates dressed in black, marshals his procession. Though it is daytime, the procession will be accompanied by torches--another piece of conservatism reminiscent of the time when funerals took place at night, as they still did with children and commonly with the lower orders. First go the musicians, playing upon flageolet, trumpet, or horn; behind these, professional wailing-women, who raise loud lamentation and beat their breasts. Next come the wax-masks, already mentioned, of the distinguished ancestors of the Silii. These, which are life-like portraits, have been taken out of their cupboards in the wing of the reception-hall, and are worn over their faces by men of a build as nearly as possible resembling that of the ancestors represented. Each man also wears the insignia of the character for whom he stands. The more of such "effigies" a house could produce, the greater its glory. Such, however, was not the original purpose of this part of the procession, for--though it had doubtless been generally forgotten--the intention was to represent the deceased as being conducted into the underworld by an honourable company already established there. After the effigies comes that which would correspond to our hearse. It is, however, no hearse of the modern kind, but a bier or couch with the usual embellishment of ivory and with covers of purple worked with gold. On this the body lies, open to the sky, like that of Juliet. The bearers are either relatives or such slaves as have been set free under Silius's last will. Behind come the nearest relatives or heirs, the freedmen, friends, and clients, all clothed in black, except the women, who are in white, without colour or gold upon their dress. Young Publius will walk with his head covered by his toga; Bassa with her hair loose and dishevelled. The whole party will utter lamentations, though under more restraint than those of the professional women in front.

Silius having been a senator and a man of other official standing, the procession passes from the Caelian Hill along the Sacred Way to the Forum, as far as the Rostra or speaking-platform. There the bier is set down, the "ancestors" seat themselves on the folding-stools which were the old-fashioned chairs of the higher officers, and one of the relatives delivers an oration in praise, not only of Silius, but of his family as represented in the ancestors.

The procession then forms again, and the party proceeds to whatever place outside the walls may contain the family tomb of the Silii. No burial is allowed within the city proper, and for our purposes we will assume that the place is distant nearly a mile along the Appian Way. We will assume also that Silius is to be cremated, and not simply buried in a coffin or a marble sarcophagus. Few persons of the higher classes, except certain of the Cornelii, are buried at this date, although there is nothing in law or custom to prevent the choice. There exists no "crematorium," and the Silii are regularly burned at their own sepulchral allotment beside the "Queen of Roads."

If you were with the procession on this day you would find yourself before one of an almost continuous chain of monuments, built in all manner of shapes and sizes--such as great altars, small shrines, pyramids (like that of Cestius on another road), or round towers like the beautiful tomb of Caecilia Metella. The exterior of these structures is often adorned with commemorative or symbolic carvings, and the inside, which may be wholly above the surface or partly sunk beneath--is a chamber surrounded by niches, in which are placed the urns containing the ashes of the dead. Perhaps an illustration of the present state of the "Street of Tombs" at Pompeii will afford some notion, although the sepulchres of that provincial place by no means matched those upon the various roads outside the Roman gates. Often the monumental chamber stands somewhat back from the road, leaving space for a large semicircular seat of stone open to public use, its back wall being inscribed with some statement of honour to the family. Round the sepulchre--"where all the kindred of the Silii lie" is a space of ground, planted with shrubs and trees, and surrounded by a low wall. Somewhere near, on an open level, the funeral pile has been built of pine-logs, with the interstices stuffed with pitch, brushwood, or other inflammable material. It is natural that the pyre should take the shape of an altar and that cypress branches should lean against the sides.

Upon the summit of this pile is laid Silius on his bier; incense and unguents are shed over him; wreaths and other offerings, often of no little value, are cast upon the heap. While loud cries of lamentation are being raised by the company present, a near kinsman approaches the pile with a torch, and, turning his face away, sets fire to the whole structure. It speedily burns down, the last embers are quenched with wine, the general company thrice cries "farewell," and, except for the nearest relatives, the procession returns to the city. The relatives who stay take off their shoes, wash their hands, and proceed to gather up the bones--which they cleanse in wine and milk--and the ashes, which they mix with perfume. These remains are then placed in the urn of bronze, marble, alabaster, or maybe of coloured glass, and the urn fills one more niche in the chamber of the monument.

Now and then there were more magnificent obsequies than those of Silius. A "public" funeral might be decreed to a man who had deserved conspicuously well of the state. On such an occasion the crier would go round, calling "Oyez, come all who choose to the funeral of So-and-So." The invitation meant, not merely participation in a solemn procession, but also in the funeral feast, and probably an exhibition of gladiators. On the other hand the majority of burials were naturally of a far more simple and inexpensive kind. The poor could not afford to use unguents and keep their dead till the third day; they could not afford real cypress trees, but must use cheaper substitutes, if anything at all. They could not afford all the processionists and paraphernalia of the undertaker, but must be satisfied with four commonplace bearers, who hurried away the corpse in the evening, not on a couch but in a cheap box, and carried it out to the common necropolis beyond the Esquiline Gate. Seldom could they afford the fuel to burn the body, and in many cases it must simply be thrown into a pit roughly dug and there left without monument. To secure more respect and decency there were many burial clubs, whether connected with the trade-guilds or not, and these procured a joint tomb of the kind known as a "dovecote," or columbarium, from the resemblance of its niches to so many pigeon-holes. These cooperative sepulchres were underground vaults, and it is perhaps hardly necessary to point out their direct relation to the Christian catacombs. Similar tombs were sometimes used by the great Roman families for the remains of the freedmen and slaves of their house.

INDEX

Actors, contempt for, 268 Advertisements, 257 Aemilia, Basilica, 108 Africa, 45 Age, coming of, 332 Agriculture, implements of, 252 Alexander the Great, 34 Alexandria, 14, 25, 34, 44 Amphitheatres, 280 performances, 282 Amulets, 318 Andalusia, 36 Antioch, 14, 43 Appian Way, 22, 118 Aqueducts, 136 Architecture, 112, 422-424 Argiletum, the, 108 Aristocrat, clients of, 206 daily life of, 193 dress of, 196 as pleader in law-courts, 216 social duties of, 217 Army, the, 12, 52, 338-358 artillery, 356 auxiliaries, 352 camping arrangements, 349 cavalry, 339, 353, 356 composition, 339 dress and equipment, 342 Imperial Guards, 353 infantry, 339, 352 legionaries, 339 pay and rations, 344 promotion, 347 terms of service, 340 training, 340, 345 typical soldier's life, 342-350 Art, 416-433 apparent lack of artistic feeling, 429 contempt for professional artists, 428 influence of Greece, 421 profession and quality of, 416-420 statues, 418, 424 wall-paintings, 425-428 Artemis, temple of, 42 Artillery, 356 Asia Minor, towns of, 42 Astronomy, 359 Athens, 40 Athletics, 263 Auctioneers, receipt tablets of, 250 Augustus, title of emperor, 55 Augustus, Forum of, 188 mausoleum of, 120 Authors, amateur, 219, 235

Baetica (_see_ Andalusia) Bakers, 248 Bandits, 24 Banking, 216, 239 Basilica Aemilia, 108 of Julius, 106 Baths, 122, 124 Beard, method of wearing, 195 Beds, 182 Beggars, 243 Betrothal ceremony, 296 Boadicea, 39 Books, size and shape of, 335-337 Booksellers, 109, 247 Boots (_see_ Shoes) Boxing-gloves, 265 Breakfast, 200 Britain, 39 Burial, 434-447 funeral rites, 439-445 offerings to the dead, 438 tombs, 444, 446

Caligula, 73, 95, 115, 234 Camps, military, 349 Campus Martius, the, 120 Carpets, absence of, 180 Carriages, 19 regulation of traffic, 131 Cavalry, 339, 353, 356 Census of Augustus, 85 Chariot-races, 263, 274, 280 colours in, 274, 278 horses, 275 prizes, 278 procession of chariots, 277 Charts, 18 Chemistry, 402 Children: ceremony at birth and naming, 317 coming of age, 332 early life, 319 education, 320-335 parental power over, 315-317 privileges of parents, 314 registration, 318 Christians, earlier tolerance towards, 383 their subsequent persecution, 79, 384-387 Circus Maximus, 128, 173 Citizens: as clients of the wealthy, 206 doles of corn and money to, 242 freed slaves may become, 204 rights of, 56, 92 Civilisation, Roman, 30 Greek, 32 Asiatic, 33 _Claqueurs_, in law-courts, 217 in theatres, 273 Nero's use of, 77 Class distinctions, 66 Clients, 206, 222, 245 dinner to, 235 escort to patron, 211 literary, 208 Cloaks, 220 Clocks, water, 192 "Colony," formation of, 84 Columbarium, joint sepulchre, 447 Commerce, 36 Concord, Temple of, 105 Concrete, extensive use of, in building, 138 Consulship, the, 359 Cook-shops, 258 Corinth, 40 Corn, monthly allowances of, 242 corn-lands, 45 Couches, 181, 226 Cremation, 445 Crops, rotation of, 252 Customs duties, 87 Cynics, the, 412

Damascus, 44 Dancing girls, 232 Dead, offerings to the, 438 Decoration, house, 150, 164 in theatres, 267 Deities, festivals of, 261 household, 376 official duties to, 374 variety of, 362, 366, 368 Delphi, 40 Dicing, 232, 258 Dinners: conversation and entertainment at, 231, 235 description of, 229, 234 exaggerated accounts, 228 extravagance of Court, 234 to clients, 235 wine at, 233 Dissection, human, prohibition of, 404 Divorce, 304 Doles of corn and money, 242 Doors, 145 Dowry, 299 Drainage, 161 Drama, low level of the, 268, 270 Dress: distinctions of, 65 for dinner, 226 hats, 212 mantles, 221, 274 military, 342 toga, 197, 332 theatrical, 269 typical aristocrat's, 196 women's, 308-313 Druids, the, 382

Education: of boys, 321-326 of girls, 327 ideal of, 320 physical training, 331 primary and secondary, 327-331 Egypt, 45 Elections, municipal, 255 Emblems, city, 47 Emperor, the: dependence upon the army, 52 nomination of Senators by, 60 powers of, 50 and the Senate, 57 symbolic character of statue, 386 Empire, the Roman: Eastern and Western halves, 35 extent, 6, 8 expeditions, 7 government, 9 military and naval forces, 12 provinces, 30 roads, 16 security under, 12 Ephesus, 42 Epicureans, the, 407-409 Etiquette, exactions of, 217 Euclid, 401

Festivals, 261 Field-glass, primitive, 275 Fingers, use of, at meals, 228 Fires, destructive, 98, 133 Floors, 149, 180 Flour-mills, 248 Food, 200, 230, 258 Foreigners, 67 Forum, the, 102 public life in, 214 "Free" towns, 90 Freedmen, 204, 245 wealth of, 205 Freethought, 378-381 "Friends of Caesar," 211 Frontiers, protection of, 12 Fullers, 250 Funeral rites, 439-445 Furniture: beds, 182 chairs and couches, 181 chests, 185 kitchen utensils, 189 lamps, 186 mirrors, 186 silver and glass ware, 188 tables, 183 tripods, 184

Games, 214, 222, 232, 262 Gaul, 37 tribes of, 38 Geographical knowledge, 398-401 Ghosts, belief in, 435-437 Gladiators, 264, 280, 282, 285-288 female spectators at combats, 288 "Golden House," the, 116 "Golden Milestone," the, 105 Goldsmiths, 250 Government, system of, 49 emperor, 50 "knights," 63 provinces, 82-95 Senate, 56 tribunes, 53 Governors, provincial, dress of, 93 duties, 91 emoluments, 94 Greece, indebtedness to, 32 influence of art of, 421 language and culture, 34 scientific thought, 397 Greeks, prominence of, 67 Greeting, manner of 211 Guards, Imperial, 353 Guides, professional, 19 Guilds, _trade_, 254

Hair, method of wearing, 37, 195 298, 311 Hairpins, 311 Hats, 212 Health resorts, 174 Heating, domestic, 161 Holidays, 254 number of, 260 Homestead, country, 169 Horses, in chariot-races, 275 Hotels, scarcity of, 22 Hour of rising, 195 House, country, 175-179 House, typical town, 143-163 decoration, 150, 164 dining-rooms, 155 doors, 145 exterior, 144 floors, 149 garden, 154, 156 hall, 148 heating system, 161 kitchen, 156 library and picture-gallery, 158 lighting, 145, 150, 153, 160, 186 peristyle, 154 reception-room, 153 roofs, 141, 162 shrine, 157, 376 water-supply and drainage, 160 vestibule, 146 Houses, 131 height of, 131, 139 lighting of, 141 tenement blocks,140

Imperial Guards, 353 Infantry, 339, 352 Inns, 20 Instruments, musical, 430 Interest, rates of, 239 Isis-worship, 373 Italy, 30

Janitors, 209 Janus, Temple of, 110 Jerusalem, 14, 44 Jewelry, female love of, 297, 312 Jews, colony of, 67 rebellious among, 10 toleration shown to, 382 Jove, Temple of, 105 Julius, Basilica of, 106 Jurymen, 217 Juvenal, on marriage, 293

Kissing, excessive, 211 Kitchens, 156, 170, 189 "Knights," order of: composition, 63 dress, 66 occupations, 238 privileges, 64 Knives and forks, absence of, 189, 228

Lamps, 186 Land-tax, 85 Land-travelling, 16-25 Language, 32, 36, 91 of the people, 258 predominance of the Greek, 34 Law-courts, pleaders in, 216 president and jury, 217 Learning, tastes in, 398 Legacies, 314 Legions, number and name of, 341 strength, 339 Life, social, aristocratic, 193-237 middle and lower class, 238-259 Literature, 394-396 literary dependants, 208 Litter, 211 Loafers, 241 Local government, 89 Lugdunum (Lyons), 14, 38 Luncheon, 219

Macedonia, 40 Marriage, 220 betrothal ceremony, 296 divorce, 304 dowry, 299 festivities, 300 two forms of, 290 Juvenal on, 293 legal age for, 294 not based on love, 292, 294 matrimonial freedom, 291 morganatic, 295 wedding ceremony, 297 Mars, Temple of, 118 Martial on country life, 172 Masks: at funerals, 152, 440 theatrical, 268 Mathematics, 401 Mausoleum of Augustus, 120 Meals: breakfast, 200 luncheon, 219 dinner, 226, 229 Medicine, 403 Mediterranean Sea, 46 Milestones, 18, 28 Mines, 37 Mirrors, 186 Money-lending, 238 Morals, 378 Municipal elections, 255 Music, as part of education, 331, 341 fondness for, 430 instruments, 430 Mysticism, 372

Names, family, 194 of slaves, 204 Navy, 12 Nero: musical eccentricities of, 78 persecution of Christians by, 79, 383, 387 personal appearance, 80, 213 powers vested in, 55, 71 reception by, 213 reign, 74 vices and follies 75, 116 New Year's Day, 262 News-sheets, official, 215 Noises, street, 134, 195

Oath of obedience, military, 342 Officials, public, 358 Oratory, school of, 329 Ornament, architectural, 112, 423

Paintings, wall, 325-328 Palatine Hill, 115 Pantheon, the, 121 Papyri, 336 Passes, Alpine, 39 Patriotism, municipal, 90 Paul, St., 34, 42, 80, 197, 383, 413 _Pax Romana_, the 9, 12 Pedigrees, 152 "People," the, 67, 241 doles of corn and money to, 242 Person-tax, 87 Philosophy, study of, 332-335, 380 Pipes, lead, 160 Pliny the elder, literary industry of, 390-392 Pliny the younger, 236, 294, 305, 321, 392, 435 Plutarch, 334, 395 Police, soldiers as, 14 Polytheism, 364 Population of the city, 101 Portugal, 37 Present-giving, prominence of, 262 Priests, 361 Processions: chariot, 227 funeral, 440 wedding, 300 Proconsuls, 93 Provinces, 30 civilisation of, 31 commerce, 36 contributions by, 85 distinctions between, 35 government, 82-95 language, 32 Public service, 358-360 Publicans (tax-collectors), 89, 240

Record Office, the, 105 Religion, 333, 361-387 attitude of state towards, 361-364, 370 conservatism in, 364, 368 free-thought, 378-381 mixed elements, 370 mysticism in, 372 polytheistic character of, 364 priests, 361 private observances, 375 superstitions in, 371 tolerance in, 381 treatment of Christians, 383-387 Rhodes, 42 Rings, 200 Roads, military, 16 construction and upkeep, 18 variety of traffic, 22 Rome in A.D., 64 appearance, 96-100 baths, 122 extent and population, 100-102 habits of the people, 102 public buildings, 102-129 streets, 130-138 theatres, 123 Roofs 141, 162 Rostra, the, 104

Sandals, 309 Saturn, Temple of, 105 Saturnalia, the, 261 Schools, 321-331 Science, 396-405 Sculpture, 418, 424 Sea-travelling, 25-28 Senate, the, 56, 71 imperial nomination to, 60 qualifications for membership, 59 relations with the emperor, 57, 72 senators' dress, 65 training of members, 62 Senate-House, the, 109 Seneca, 395 Sewers, 130 Ships, 26 Shoes, 197,310 Shops, 133, 141, 222 Shrine, household 159, 376 Sidon, 44 Signs, trade, 251 Slaves, 68, 206, 211, 240 citizenship bestowed on, 204 domestic, 201 dress, 202 licence at Saturnalia, 261 as musicians, 431 names, 204 occupations, 246 treatment, 203 Smyrna, 42 Snails, breeding of, 46 Social life, of aristocrats, 193-237 of middle and lower classes, 238-259 Spain, 36 Spoons, 228 Sports, 178, 263 Statues, 418, 424 Stoics, the, 409-412 Strabo, 379 Streets, 130 narrowness of, 132 noisiness, 134, 195 paving, 137 regulation of traffic, 131 Suicide, attitude regarding, 23 Sun-dials, 191 Superstitions, 371 Surgery, 404

Tarragona, 37 Tarsus, 42 Taxes: collection 89, 240 farming of, 239 land, 85 miscellaneous 88 personal, 87 Temple, description of, 123, 265 Temples: of Concord, 105 Janus, 110 Jove, 105 Mars, 118 Saturn, 105 Vesta, 114 Theatres, 123, 265 actors' status 268 _claqueurs_, 273 compared with Greek, 266 curtain, 267 decoration, 267 masks and dresses, 268 music and dancing, 270 plays performed, 268, 270-273 scenery, 267 seats, 267 women's presence not encouraged, 266 Tiles, 157, 162 Time, method of telling, 192 Toga: colours of 218 compulsory use on formal occasions 198 distinctive meaning of, 197, 214 Toleration, religious, 381 Tombs, 253, 444 Trade guilds 254 signs, 251 Trade routes, 27 Travelling, land and sea: accommodation, 20 dangers 24, 29 modes, 19 period and routes, 25 speed, 25, 28 "Tribunes of the commons," 53 Tunics, 196, 308 Tyre, 44, 45

Utensils, kitchen, 189

Vehicles, 19 Vesta, Temple of, 114

Water-clocks, 192 Water-supply, 135, 160 Wedding ceremony, 297 Wild-beast fights, 282, 284 Windows, 141, 145, 150, 60 Wine, 233, 241 Women: fondness for jewelry, 297, 312 divorce, 304 domestic virtues, 307 dowry, 299 dress, 308-313 marriageable age, 294 position after marriage, 289, 301 presence at theatres not encouraged, 266 property after marriage, 299, 302 types of, 302, 306 Working-classes, the, 214 competition with slave-labour 246 dress and food 258 language 258 life of 253, 256 professions all ranked among, 258 Writing materials, 323, 337

Youths: coming of age of 218, 382 military training, 338