CHAPTER III

PROCESSES

The processes of bookbinding have been so fully covered in the books of Messrs. Cockerell, Zaehnsdorf, Crane, and others, that the need of further material of a similar character is not readily apparent. The only excuse the writer has to offer for discussing the matter of processes at any length is that there seems to exist nowhere any description of the processes that are used in the best library binderies. Mr. Dana in his "Notes on bookbinding for libraries" touches only certain points of the processes here and there. Mr. Stephen in Coutts and Stephen's "Manual of library binding" has a chapter on hand bookbinding, but confines himself closely to the general processes that have been in vogue for years; the modifications used in library binding are not touched upon. In other words the works of Cockerell, Zaehnsdorf, Crane and others are too full, while descriptions in books devoted to library binding are not full enough.

It is the purpose of this chapter to cover somewhat in detail the main processes as they are carried out in the best library binderies. Explanations of the technical terms used will be found in the list of technical terms at the end of the book.

Without discussing the composition of paper it is necessary to state that the paper of a book has a very important effect upon its binding. Its thickness, tensile strength, firmness, toughness, strength after being sawed or perforated for sewing, and strength after folding, all have an effect on its durability. Especial emphasis must be laid upon strength after folding, for it must be remembered that it is through the fold that the book is sewed. If a crease or a fold in a piece of paper weakens that piece of paper, it will be impossible to make a strong book by sewing in the ordinary way. If a fold has very little effect upon the strength of the paper ordinary sewing may be satisfactory. The folding of paper in 95 per cent of fiction and juvenile books weakens it at the fold over 50 per cent. In a good piece of paper the fold weakens it not over 5 per cent.

The problem of paper is a modern one, due to the use of wood pulp and other short-fibred materials in paper manufacture. All binders complain bitterly of the impossibility of binding it properly. The librarian, however, should know the way in which it can be bound to give the maximum amount of service and should not allow a binder to blame the paper for faults which are due to his ignorance or to poor workmanship.

While the customs of library binders vary somewhat according to the prejudices of the different men, the following description covers the binding processes carried out at most binderies.

1. TAKING APART

After the books have been checked with the statement of the librarian to see that the correct number has been received, each one is taken apart carefully and all old threads, glue, paste, etc., removed from the back. If the book is in a regular machine sewed publisher's cover it will be comparatively easy to remove old threads and glue from the back. If in an old hand sewed one, it may be a little more difficult.

The book is first removed from the cover. The first signature is then turned back and threads cut with a sharp knife. Generally this will loosen the signature so that it can be separated easily from the rest of the volume. If it is still held by glue and there is danger of injuring the back of the signature, a bone folder is used. If the book had a tight back and the leather, back-lining paper and glue form a very firm back not easily separated in the manner described, the glue may be softened with paste or warm water, with care necessary to prevent the dampness from penetrating the book.

2. COLLATION

The book should then be collated. The best library binders make themselves responsible for page collation but they do not bother to see that all plates, illustrations, maps, etc., which may be called for by the table of contents, are in proper place. In the case of periodicals they do not always discover the fact that certain parts, not included in the main paging, are missing. Their collation is that of main paging only. Periodicals must, therefore, have title page, table of contents and index in their proper places. Books with two or more main pagings or many unpaged illustrations must be collated at the library. (See Preparing for the bindery, p. 125.)

3. KNOCKING DOWN

(_a_) Backs of signatures are then pounded down so that they may be as nearly as possible the same thickness as the front of the signatures. Care must be taken to have a clean hammer and to let it fall evenly on the paper. If the backs are not properly pounded down there is likely to be too much swell in the back of the book when it is finally sewed. In all the first processes of binding the question of undue swelling of the back must be taken into consideration.

(_b_) If the book must be overcast when it comes to be sewed, the back is not only pounded down at this stage, but it is also put under the knife and entirely cut off, leaving single leaves instead of folded sections. If it is not pounded it cannot be cut properly. The success of overcasting depends largely on the amount of margin at the back, so that care must be taken not to cut more than is absolutely necessary.

4. MENDING

Leaves are mended with thin tough paper. The librarian should not, however, expect binders to mend books which have a large number of torn leaves without making an extra charge.

5. GLUING

Books which are to be overcast and which have had the backs cut off are slightly glued to hold the leaves together. A sufficient number can then be taken off and handled as a section without coming apart.

6. FLY LEAVES GUARDED

Fly-leaves, made of kraft or manila paper running about 60 pounds to the ream, which have previously been guarded with cloth are added to the book. In guarding, a strip of cloth is pasted around the back of the folded fly-leaf covering about one quarter of an inch on each side. When the book is sewed the needle passes through the cloth as well as the paper. Different binders use different materials for guarding fly-leaves, end papers and signatures. It must, however, be a cloth of close weave, strong, and light in weight. The English cloth called jaconet, used by some binders, is probably as satisfactory as any.

This is one part of library binding which differs radically from the custom in ordinary hand work. Old-fashioned binders, unless properly instructed, will simply fold a piece of paper, and tip it on to the first and last signatures with paste, thus forming an element of weakness instead of strength. When the fly-leaves are guarded and properly sewed they become an integral part of the book and no tipping is necessary.

7. SECTIONS GUARDED

At this point it is also necessary to guard the first and last signatures of books which are to be sewed in the regular way. Overcast books do not need such guards.

Guarding of first and last signatures is another of the distinctive features of library binding. In the case of books bound in the regular fashion the sewing invariably first gives way at the first and last signatures. Guarding with jaconet prevents the threads which lie in the middle of the signatures from pulling through the paper. This method is essential if it is supposed that the book will be much used. It is not essential for books which will be used only occasionally.

8. ILLUSTRATIONS GUARDED

Illustrations are guarded with a thin, tough paper, not with cloth. The guard folds around an adjoining signature and is sewed through.

9. SAWING

If the book is not to be overcast, it is screwed tightly into the backing-press and sawed to make the grooves in which the bands or twines are laid when the book is sewed. Grooves for three bands must be made for books eight inches high, four for twelve-inch books and five for fifteen-inch books. For fiction two bands are used. There must also be two additional grooves, much shallower than the others, about one half inch from the head and tail of the book for the kettlestitch.

After the grooves for kettlestitch have been sawed the two grooves for bands will divide the rest of the back into three equal parts. For fine work it is necessary to measure the book carefully and mark with a pencil; but in most library work measurement by the eye alone is sufficient. In sawing, care must be taken not to saw too deeply, since too deep a cut allows the signature to play back and forth and is plainly visible inside.

There are some good library binders who overcast books in the modern way, and yet who sew on bands. Such binders will at this point saw all books. There are also some good library binders who use no bands when overcasting and who sew all other books on tapes. These binders omit sawing.

10. END PAPERS ADDED

At this point it is best to add end papers. These are always guarded on the outside of the fold and sometimes on the inside. They should be made of good, strong paper somewhat heavier than that used for fly-leaves. Some binders have special papers made to order with a design which serves as a trade mark. End papers, in the same way as fly-leaves, are prepared with guards in quantity and simply need to be trimmed to the size of the book. They are not added at the same time as fly-leaves because they must not be sawed. If this is done the holes show through after the end paper is pasted down.

11. SEWING

_Regular or Bench Sewing._ When the signatures are ready for sewing, twines (or "bands" as they are commonly called) are stretched taut on the sewing bench and adjusted so that they will fit into the saw-cuts in signatures. (Fig. 1.)

FIGURE 1.--Sewing bench showing bands adjusted.

FIGURE 2.--Sewing on sunken cords. Based on illustration in Report of the Committee on Bookbinding. Edited for Society of Arts, London, 1905.

The book is placed back of the sewing bench with the fore-edge toward the sewer and with the first section on top. The first section (i. e. the end paper) to be sewed is then turned over, opened in the middle by the left hand, and placed on the sewing bench. The sewer, as she faces toward the right, with the right hand passes the needle from the outside through the sawcut for the kettlestitch, where it is taken by the left hand along the inside of the section and passed out on the near side of the first band, then in again on the far side of the first band, along the inside of the section to the second band, where the process is repeated; and so on, bringing the needle out in the far kettlestitch. (Fig. 2.) The thread is pulled tight at each stitch and about two inches of thread is allowed to hang from the first kettlestitch. In some few cases it may be advisable to bring the needle out on the far side of the band and in again on the near side, thus entirely encircling the band with the thread. The next section (i. e. the fly-leaves) is then laid on and the process repeated, except that the sewing proceeds from the far end to the near end. When the thread is brought out of the kettle stitch of the second section the end of the thread left projecting from the first section is securely tied to it, and the sewer proceeds with the third section. This will be the first signature of the book. On reaching the last sawcut at the far end in the third section the needle is put between the second and first sections carrying the thread down in such a way as to form a buttonhole stitch. (Fig. 3.)

FIGURE 3.--Kettle stitch.

All other signatures are sewed in the same way, the last section sewed being securely fastened to the others. It is possible to sew a number of books one after another without removing them from the sewing-bench. If the back swells unduly the sections can be pounded down with a piece of wood, care being taken not to drive them inward. The sewing should be neither too loose nor too tight. If too loose a firm, compact book cannot be made; if too tight the threads may break in the process of backing. Bands are allowed to project about an inch on each side of the book.

Formerly it was the practice of some binders to sew in a way technically called "two-on." This simply means that the sewer when reaching the middle of the signature, passes the needle into the corresponding sawcut of the signature above and sews through to the other end. This always leaves an end of a signature unsewed. This way of sewing is permissible on books which have a large number of thin signatures, in order to prevent the thread from unduly swelling the back. It is never permissible on other books.

The foregoing account gives a very brief description of ordinary sewing. It is easily understood when once seen. Librarians who have charge of binding should keep the process thoroughly in mind for it is the most important single process in the making of a book. Such sewing will be used on a large number of books which have to be rebound, but a still larger number, practically all fiction and juvenile books, should be sewed in a different manner; that is, with some kind of an overcast stitch.

_Overcasting._ The modern overcasting stitch resembles in principle the old-fashioned whipstitching, but differs radically in actual performance. It is exceedingly strong, while the old-fashioned whipstitching is not. It has been objected that modern overcasting takes away much of the flexibility of a book and that books once sewed in this way can never be rebound. It is true that an oversewed book is not as flexible as one sewed through the signatures, yet most of them are more flexible than one might suppose. It is also true that the book can never be rebound, but if the overcasting is properly done, the sewing will last until the book is discarded. It is for this reason that it is used on practically all fiction and juvenile books.

According to the old-fashioned method of whipstitching it was the custom to cut off the backs of signatures, glue them slightly, take a few leaves and sew them over and over making five or six stitches to a section, as shown in Figure 4. The next section was then sewed in the same way, but it was not joined in any way to the section beneath except by the kettlestitch and occasionally by a little paste. When sewed in this way the leaves inside of each arbitrary section would open only as far back as the threads of the stitches, while between the sections the book would open to the back of the section. If paste had been used the strain of opening tended to pull the leaves apart. If the book was subjected to hard wear the thread cut into the paper.

FIGURE 4.--Old-fashioned whipstitching. Each section is sewed separately.

Today every progressive library binder has a special method of overcasting and each claims that his method is the best. Librarians, however, can see many points of resemblance between them, and few points of difference. In actual wearing qualities the sewing of one seems as good as that of another. When properly done the sewing prescribed by all of the methods is still in good condition when the books have to be withdrawn from circulation.

In overcasting, as in old-fashioned whipstitching, the sewer selects a certain number of sheets for sewing. Bands are placed on the sewing-bench as in regular sewing, though some binders claim that it is not necessary to sew either on bands or tapes. The sections are first perforated by a machine to facilitate the work of the sewer and to insure that all stitches shall be equidistant from the back of the book. So far as is known no machine for this purpose is on the market. It is certain, however, that the best binders have machines for this purpose. They have either designed their own machines or have adapted those made for other purposes. If the book is printed on thick, spongy paper it will increase flexibility if the paper is creased along the line of perforation.

FIGURE 5.--One kind of modern overcast stitch. There are others equally good. Note that each stitch extends through two sections.

It is difficult to give a description of modern overcasting which can be easily understood by one unfamiliar with sewing processes. The reader will be helped by looking closely at Figure 5 while reading the following description, but one can understand it best by seeing it done or by tearing a book apart and examining the sewing.

The first section of the book is sewed over and over in the same way as in the old-fashioned method of whipstitching, except that a great many more stitches are taken. The second section, when placed on the first, is also sewed over and over but a certain number of stitches are also made which connect the second section with the first. In the same way the third section is sewed to the second and so on through the book, so that when the book is finally sewed it is tight and compact; its weakness lies in the paper itself, not in the sewing. Some binders add three kettlestitches at the end of the book instead of one, believing that when all kettlestitches are placed in one sawcut the swell at the head and tail of the book is too great.

FIGURE 6.--From "About Public Library Books and Their Binding" by Cedric Chivers.

FIGURE 7.--Sewing on tapes. Sawcuts made only for kettle stitches. Based on illustration in Report of the Committee on Leather for Bookbinding. Edited for Society of Arts, London, 1905.

Overcasting is the most expensive way of sewing a book, so that it is advantageous to binders to place as large a number of leaves as possible in a section. The more careful binders, however, regulate the number of leaves in a section according to the kind of paper in the book. A larger number of leaves can be taken in books printed on thin paper than in those printed on thick, spongy or heavy papers.

FIGURE 8.--Stitching.

In deciding how a book ought to be sewed one must consider: (_a_) The use the book is to receive. If it will not receive hard usage sew through the signatures; otherwise overcast. (_b_) Paper on which the book is printed. Poor paper should be oversewed. (Fig. 6.)

_Tapes._ When it does not seem necessary to overcast it may be advantageous to sew on tapes instead of bands. This method eliminates saw-cuts since the narrow tapes are simply laid against the back of the book and the needle passed around them, as indicated in Figure 7. Sewing on tapes makes a book much more flexible than it can be made any other way except by sewing on raised bands. Music should always be sewed in this way. Until recently it was supposed that tapes added strength, but it is certain that they do not if the book is properly bound in other respects. If used at all, tapes should be narrow. Wide ones take up a great deal of surface and when glue is applied this surface remains untouched, unless the sewer has sewed through them instead of around them.

_Stitching._ Stitching is the process of sewing loose leaves lengthwise on a sewing machine, after which the stitched sections are sewed in the regular way on bands. (Fig. 8.) The objection made to old-fashioned whipstitching, that between the sections the book opens all the way to the back while inside the section it opens only as far as the threads, is equally applicable to a stitched book. Any one who has read a book sewed in this way will remember how difficult it was to hold in the hands. Stitching makes a stronger book than the old-fashioned whipstitching but cannot compare in strength with the modern overcasting. In some few cases it may be used advantageously on the first and last signatures of a book, but its use on the entire book cannot be too strongly condemned.

It may be inferred by what has been said about sewing that it is a comparatively simple matter to sew books properly. It is right at this point, however, that the librarian and the binder who does not understand the requirements of library work will come into conflict. The binder will insist that all books must be sewed on bands. When the backs of sections are very badly worn he will agree to whipstitch, but will use the old method. The librarian will insist not only that nine-tenths of fiction and juvenile books must be overcast, but that a special kind of overcasting must be used. The binders who make a specialty of library work do all this as a matter of course. At least one binder tests the thickness, tensile strength and other qualities of the paper and sews each book in the way that experience has shown to be the best.

FORWARDING

After the book is sewed it goes to the forwarder who has charge of the book during all processes which the book passes through between sewing and finishing. Forwarding includes trimming, gluing, rounding, backing, putting on back-lining, making the case (or lacing-in, see page 42), casing-in, pressing.

12. FLY LEAVES PASTED

The end papers and fly-leaves which lie together are pasted together, making one thick fly-leaf. When it is remembered that both end papers and fly-leaves are guarded with cloth, it will be seen that pasting the two together adds materially to the strength of the book.

13. BANDS FRAYED

The bands which project about an inch and a half on each side of the book are frayed out at the end and pasted to the end papers. The fraying is done so that they will paste down flat, and the pasting so that they will be out of the way during succeeding processes.

14. TRIMMING

The book is squared up by tapping on a flat surface, and trimmed at the head, fore-edge and tail. As little as possible must be trimmed, but binders find that if less than an eighth of an inch is cut the cutting machine does not work well. Trimming makes the edges even and what is more important in rebound books, removes much dirt.

15. SPRINKLING

At this point edges are sprinkled. This process is not essential either for strength or beauty, but it helps to keep the book from becoming soiled, or at least from showing dirt. It cannot be expected on cheap work. The process was formerly done by hand, using a brush and shaking the coloring matter on the book. It can now be done with a machine operated by hand which sprays the coloring matter on the book. Occasionally the top of the book is burnished with an agate or blood stone.

Occasionally also it may be desirable to gild the top of a book which is being rebound. When this occurs it is not a process to which the librarian need give much attention, except to be sure that good gold is used.

16. GLUING

The back of the book is then slightly glued. The glue must be very hot and quite thin, and must be thoroughly worked into the back. By placing books in a pile a number can be done at a time.

17. ROUNDING

As soon as the glue has stiffened but before it is hard the book is rounded. This must be done by experts and is a process which must be seen to be understood. The book is placed on the table with the fore edge toward the workman who then hammers the part of the back lying uppermost in such a way as to force the upper part of the book toward the workman. The book is then turned over and the process repeated. After a few operations like this the back of the book becomes rounded and the fore edge concave.

18. BACKING

The book is then placed in a backing press allowing about an eighth of an inch to project, and screwed very tight. With a backing hammer the rounding process is continued and the sides of the book forced down over the edge of the press to form a projection against which the edge of the board for the side rests, forming the joint. In hammering, the workman begins at the proper distance from the center of the back so that he can force the backs of the other signatures over on each side toward the edge. (Fig. 9.)

FIGURE 9.--A book rounded and backed.

This process is the most important one in forwarding, calling for skilled labor. If the hammer is not used in exactly the right way the backs of the signatures may be crushed in, the stitches broken, or the paper or bands cut. In any case the book is materially weakened. A good workman will make a sharp joint and round the book perfectly without injuring its strength in any way.

19. BACK LINING

All books have a lining of one kind or another on the back. Machine-bound books are generally lined with a coarse "super," as it is called in this country, or "mull" as it is called in England. Some library binders use a thin muslin, but the best material is canton flannel cut in strips wide enough to cover the back of the book and also to project about one inch on each side. The back of the book is glued, while the nap or fuzzy side of the canton flannel is pasted and then put on the back and well rubbed down. It is very important that both the glue and the paste be used. Experience has proved that when only one is used the canton flannel will come off, but when both are used, it becomes an integral part of the book.

The flannel which projects on the sides must be pasted to the end papers. When the paste and the glue have dried, the canton flannel shrinks tight to the back and adds materially to the strength of the book. After drying the flannel is trimmed at the head and tail close to the back.

If the book is a valuable one that will receive hard usage and therefore should be as strong as possible, the flesh side of a piece of split goat skin can be used for back-lining, covering the back from joint to joint. It will seldom be necessary, however, to employ this method.

Perhaps nothing better shows the difference between old methods of library binding and new than this one item of back-lining. In the old methods the binders depended for strength largely upon the bands. In the new the bands are practically immaterial when the book is fastened into the cover.

20. REBACKING

At this point some binders reback to make a sharp joint, and to make the book open more easily. When the canton flannel dries it may pull the back somewhat out of shape. It is doubtful, however, if rebacking is always necessary.

21. BOARDS CUT

The book is then measured for boards which are cut to the proper size. In measuring it must be remembered that the boards must project an eighth of an inch on all edges (except the back) forming what is called the "squares." It will also make a difference in measuring if the book is to have a French joint. (See page 46.)

22. CLOTH CUT

If the book is to be bound in cloth, this is cut the proper size. If leather backs are to be used the covering material consists of two pieces of cloth and one of leather, all of which must be cut to the proper size.

23. LOOSE BACK

If the book is to be made a loose back, a piece of coarse paper is cut the size of the book from joint to joint and the length of the back. This is placed in the book.

24. MAKING THE CASE

(_a_) The cloth for a full cloth book is now glued all over on the inside. The boards are adjusted on the book ("setting the square," as the binders call it) as they ought to be when the book is finally bound, and the book is placed on the right-hand side of the glued cloth, with the back toward the middle of the case, leaving enough cloth projecting on all sides to turn in. The other side of the case is then drawn up over the board on top and pressed down firmly enough so that when it is laid back again, the board which has been uppermost goes with it. The book itself is laid aside. The paper which is to prevent the glued cloth from sticking to the back of the book is then placed in the space between the two boards, and all edges of the cloth turned in on the boards. This forms the complete cover or case.

(_b_) If the book is to have a leather back, the boards are tipped lightly with paste to the end papers, allowing for the French joint. The leather is pasted and the book is then laid on the leather in the right position so that the rest of the leather can be pulled up over the back on the top board. The top cover is then laid back, the paper forming a loose back inserted, the leather turned in, and cloth sides put on and turned in.

25. MAKING OF A FRENCH JOINT

The book is now set back in the cover just described and the space between the boards and the back is creased with a bone folder while the cloth or leather is damp. This forms the French joint.

26. PASTING DOWN END PAPERS

End papers are then pasted down to the boards and the book, so far as strength is concerned, is finished. It will be remembered that the end papers were guarded with muslin, or jaconet, that the bands projected beyond the sides and were pasted to the end papers, and that the canton flannel also projected beyond the sides and was pasted to the end papers. Therefore, when the end paper is pasted to the board it carries with it first the canton flannel, then the bands and lastly the jaconet guard. This is as true of leather-backed books as of full cloth.

Strictly speaking, this makes what is technically known as a "cased" book, i. e., the case is made in one whole piece and the book fastened into it. Because leather bound books have always been considered stronger than others, and because they have always been laced-in to the boards (see page 42) before the leather has been put on, a prejudice against cased books has arisen. If the prejudice be directed against the usual commercial binding it is justified, but if directed against library books properly cased it is not justified.

27. PRESSING

At this stage the book is put under heavy pressure in the standing press until dry. A number of books are placed in the press at one time, separated by backing boards having metal projections which fit into the French joints. They should be left twelve hours at least, longer if necessary. After pressing, the book goes through a general cleaning process. In applying the glue or paste there are many chances of soiling the book. The great pressure which is applied also squeezes out glue at the head and tail. This must all be cleaned off before the book goes to the finisher.

FINISHING

28. GILDING

The gilding of a library book is a simple matter compared with that of books bound for individuals. Such books are usually meant to be artistic and their covers bear elaborate designs in gold, generally limited only by the size of the owner's pocketbook or by his taste.[1] In library binding gilding is confined to the furnishing of necessary information. Tooling of all kinds, with the possible exception of that which divides the back into panels, is unnecessary. A description of finishing processes is unnecessary here since they add nothing to the strength of a book. A description of the method of gilding call numbers will be found on page 194.

There are three different ways of lettering books bound in light colored cloths on which gold cannot be used: (_a_) In gold on leather labels pasted to the back. (_b_) In gold on panels which have been stained black. (_c_) In black ink directly on the back. The first two methods make more attractive-looking books but the process adds to the expense, and in the first case the labels have a tendency to peel off. The last method is the one generally used.

In this description of processes numerous details have been omitted, because they would add little, if anything, to the librarian's ability to criticize properly the work being done by his binder.[2] In some respects the order here outlined may differ in different binderies, but the majority follow it closely.

The processes as outlined are those which should be used in library binding. There are, however, several additional points relating to binding processes with which it is well to be familiar.

Footnote 1: Finishing from the artistic point of view with an excellent description of tools, materials and processes will be found in Cockerell's "Binding and the care of books," Chapter 14.

Footnote 2: For instructions to the binder about type, space, lettering, etc., see under Lettering, page 141.

RAISED BANDS

In looking at many old books bound in the eighteenth or early part of the nineteenth century, or at books bound within recent years for individuals, one will find many that have the back divided by ridges. These are known as "raised bands." They are formed by sewing the book differently from either of the methods described up to this point.

According to this method the bands are not placed in grooves which sink them below the surface of the back, but are simply laid against the back. In sewing the thread may come out at the near side of the band and in at the far side, thus going around the band on the back of the book; or it may come out at the far side and in at the near side, thus entirely encircling the band. In either case the sewing is exceedingly strong. Since the bands are entirely on the surface, the leaves open all the way to the back of the signatures and greater flexibility can be obtained thereby. (Fig. 10.)

FIGURE 10.--Sewing on raised bands. No saw cuts except for kettle stitches. Based on illustration in Report of the Committee on Leather for Bookbinding. Edited for Society of Arts, London, 1905.

As it is much more difficult to sew and forward books with raised bands, they are not used in ordinary library work. It may be advisable, however, to use them occasionally on a few large reference books such as dictionaries, where great flexibility combined with strength is essential. In fact the merits of binding in this way are not recognized as generally as they should be.

Many books look as if they were sewed on raised bands when in reality they are sewed in the ordinary way, with false raised bands pasted on the back. They add nothing to strength and have no place in library binding.

LACING-IN

Lacing-in is a method of attaching the bands to the book, which is in general use for all leather books bound by hand. This method requires that the boards which have been cut to the proper size be laid against the grooves formed in backing and marks be made about half an inch in from the back, opposite each band. At these points holes are punched through the board which is then turned over and other holes are punched about half an inch from the first ones. It is generally desirable to cut a groove in the board from the first holes to the edge of the board, for the bands to lie in, so that there will not be an unsightly protuberance when the book is bound. The bands which have been frayed out are then threaded through the first holes from the outside of the board inward and again through the second holes. They are drawn up tightly enough so that the board will fit close to the joint, but not enough to prevent it from lying flat. The ends of the bands are spread out fan-wise, pasted, and hammered down smooth on the board. Before any back-lining has been put on, the boards are attached to the book simply by these bands. (Fig. 11.)

FIGURE 11.--Bands laced in, and ends frayed out. Based on illustration in Report of the Committee on Leather for Bookbinding. Edited for Society of Arts, London, 1905.

When bands are laced-in it is not customary to use anything stronger than paper for back lining; the strength of the book lies in the bands and the leather which covers the back. As long as the leather remains strong and the book does not receive hard usage this method is satisfactory. As soon, however, as the leather begins to disintegrate more strain is placed upon the bands. When the leather breaks completely the bands bear the entire burden at the joint, and eventually break. With the process as outlined in the preceding pages one need never fear that the book will come out of the cover, or that the sides will break at the joint. Even if the leather should break the canton flannel will hold. The best library binders do no lacing-in at the present time.

FIGURE 12.--Split boards. In actual work the back-lining would cover the entire back.

SPLIT BOARDS

While the old method of lacing-in is not desirable in library binding, the method of using split boards makes a very strong book. Instead of making a case of cloth, or cloth and leather, the back lining and the bands (or tapes) are inserted in boards which have been split, or between two thin boards glued together with a space left unglued for this purpose. The covering material is put on after the book is in boards and the book is made tight backed. This is probably the strongest method of attaching a book to the boards. In fact it is stronger than is necessary for any except very heavy books which receive hard wear. (Fig. 12.)

TIGHT AND LOOSE BACKS

For years there has been a certain mild controversy regarding the relative merits of tight and loose backs for leather bound books. Tight backs are those in which the material used for covering the book is pasted or glued to the back. Loose backs are those which, by means of folded paper or a piece of paper put in as described on page 37, are prevented from adhering to the back. When the book is opened the back springs out. (Fig. 13.)

The tight back book always forms a hinge at the place where the book is opened. Since the place of the hinge is constantly changing the back of the book after much use becomes concave instead of convex, and the appearance of the book is seriously marred. Also the constant creasing of the back tends to erase the gold lettering, so that it becomes indistinct. If labels are put on they speedily come off. It is customary to use tight backs on very heavy books, though there are cases where such books have been put in loose backs.

FIGURE 13.--Tight back and loose back.

The loose-back book always preserves its shape and good appearance, even when the paper on the inside may be so badly worn that the book should be withdrawn. The strain, however, always comes at the joint; therefore if poor leather is used it will quickly wear out at this point.

Each method has its advocates, but so far as the present writer can learn, there seems to be little to choose from the standpoint of strength. It might seem that the tight-back book would be the stronger, but as a matter of fact in actual wear loose-back books seem to hold their own with the others. In fact when the soft, spongy papers are used the loose backs are obviously stronger. It seems clear that there is little choice one way or the other, and the question must be decided by the personal preference of the librarian.

JOINTS

In library binding French joints are now used in place of regular joints. Figure 14 shows plainly the difference between the two. In the regular joint it will be noticed that when the book is opened there is a sharp crease in one line from head to tail. In the French joint the strain is distributed over a much greater area. In regular joints the leather is sometimes pared at the joints to permit of easier opening of the book. In French joints the full thickness of the leather can be used. French joints are made by setting the boards away from the back about one-eighth of an inch. When the cover is put on it is necessary to crease between the board and the back while the leather is still damp.

An excellent illustration showing the anatomy of a joint may be found on page 51 of Dana's "Notes on bookbinding for libraries," ed. 2.

Illustration: A Section of an Ordinary Joint with the board open shows that the creasing of the leather is concentrated on one line.

Illustration: A Section of a "French Joint" shows how this creasing is distributed over a great surface, and so enables sufficient flexibility to be obtained with much thicker leather than can be used with an ordinary joint.

FIGURE 14.--French joint. From Report of the Committee on Leathers for Bookbinding. Edited for Society of Arts, London, 1905.

CORNERS

Corners on library books should be rounded to prevent the board from breaking if the book falls and to prevent the cloth from wearing through at this point. Rounded corners are peculiar to library binding. As a rule they are not made by cutting off a corner of the board, but by turning in the cloth diagonally from the corner and then from the side and end. Sometimes both methods are adopted. If government specification cloth is used it is probable that "library corners" will not be necessary.

In some libraries pieces of leather or vellum are put on corners. Leather is put on in order to raise the bottom of the boards from the shelf, while vellum is used to make the corners hard and prevent them from breaking or showing signs of wear. While both serve the purpose for which they are intended, the process of putting them on adds materially to the expense, and in most cases this is not warranted by the increased use of the book.

TRIMMING

Binders should be instructed to trim as little as possible. This is important for all books, but most of all for periodicals. In fiction and juvenile books it is important to have wide margins, because the text will remain legible for a longer period of time if protected by a margin from the contact of hands. Non-fiction books which are likely to remain in use for a longer period of years may need to be rebound and trimmed again. Therefore wide margins are essential to good wear as well as to good appearance.

It is customary to bind front covers of periodicals. Sometimes it is desirable to bind advertising pages, and it is necessary to do so when the publishers follow the pernicious practice of continuing regular articles on advertising pages. Covers and advertising pages are generally printed with much narrower margins than the body of the magazine and unless great care is taken in trimming parts of the printed matter will be cut off.

HEADBANDS

Cotton headbands can be added during the forwarding but inasmuch as they are simply pasted on they add nothing to the strength and very little to the beauty of the book. When silk headbands are carefully sewed on they add both strength and beauty. An excellent description of the process of putting on headbands will be found in Cockerell's "Binding and the care of books," page 147.

HOW TO RECOGNIZE A WELL BOUND BOOK

The ability to recognize a well bound book is necessary when comparing the work of different binders. A book should be bound in material suitable for the use which the book is to receive and in such a way as to give the maximum amount of service. It should also be as attractive in appearance as is compatible with these two requirements. In deciding whether a book is suitably bound for library use the following points should be kept in mind:

1. A volume must show evidence of neat and careful workmanship.

2. If the book is to be used constantly leather is essential; if occasionally only, leather is an element of weakness.

3. All books that receive hard usage should have end papers and fly-leaves guarded with cloth. If sewed regularly the first and last signatures also should be guarded.

4. Saw cuts should not be deep.

5. The book should be flexible and stay flat wherever opened. (This is not always possible in the case of overcast books or books printed on stiff, brittle paper.)

6. When the book is lying flat the top should remain flat. When standing on end the sections should not separate slightly at the back.

7. The book should feel firm and compact to the hand.

8. When opened the volume should not make a crackling noise due to too much glue on the back.

9. The book should have a well rounded back and the cover should fit well at the joint. Flat backs are not desirable.

10. Margins should be wide and cut straight. Periodicals should not be trimmed so that printing on covers or advertisements is cut off.

11. The book should have French joints.

12. The cover should not separate easily from the book when pressure is applied.

13. Lettering on the back should be legible and put on straight.

14. On opening the book sections at the back should be perfectly smooth, showing that they have not been crushed in backing.

15. Guards for plates, maps, sections, etc., should be so applied as to leave the paper unwrinkled.