CHAPTER XIV.
VALUE OF THE DIAMOND.
The history of the commercial value of the diamond, extending back to a distant period of time, forms an interesting chapter for the philosopher as well as the merchant. It would appear that the gem had been comparatively independent of the caprice of fashion, and that it has had for many years a value quite as fixed as gold or silver. This comparative valuation only applies to the snow-white diamonds, and to those whose imperfections are not readily discernible to the naked eye.
In estimating the value of diamonds, Barbot divides their shades into fifteen degrees, as follows: In the first degree he places the rare diamonds which exhibit the vivid gleam like the flash of polished steel; second degree, snow-white, first water; third degree, white, first water; fourth degree, white, with faint shades, red, yellow, and blue; fifth degree, white, yellow, or green, second water; sixth degree, grayish-yellow or green, second water; seventh degree, orange yellow; eighth degree, translucent topaz yellow; ninth degree, translucent deep green; tenth degree, translucent brick-red; eleventh degree, translucent deep red; twelfth degree, quite opaque, dingy blue; thirteenth degree, quite opaque, deep bottle green; fourteenth degree, quite opaque, brown or blackish; fifteenth degree, quite opaque, black as jet.
In ancient times, the gem probably had no fixed commercial value, and was sought for as a curiosity or as a talisman. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the goldsmiths of Italy, which was then the richest country in the world, established a comparative valuation for the four precious stones, ruby, emerald, diamond, and sapphire. From these accounts we learn that the diamond of one karat was valued at 100 gold scudi, and that the emerald was estimated at 400, and the red sapphire, or ruby, at 800, or eight times the price of the adamas. These valuations, if we estimate the scudi at nine English shillings, make a diamond of one karat worth $225, and the ruby of the same weight at $1,800, or nearly two thousand dollars, a statement which is quite incredible.
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and even before these dates, Venice was the chief gem mart of Europe. Her merchants had control of a great part of the trade with the Eastern countries; and most of the Oriental luxuries passed through their hands. From the account of the auction sale, in the year 1606, of the effects of a diamond merchant in that city, we learn the value of diamonds of one karat weight at that time. They were then valued at £21 13_s._ 4_d._, which was an enormous sum, compared with the value of money at the present day.
In 1750, the price of the stone in Europe was $40 for one-karat gems. This was just before the discovery of the Brazilian mines. The sudden influx of the gems reduced the price shortly after to $5 per karat; but the market soon recovered from the panic, and in 1791, at the time the inventory of the French jewels was made, the price had arisen to $30 for the same class of diamonds. Since this period, the prices have varied, from the influences of the wars of Europe, sinking at the time of the disturbances of the Revolution of 1848, to $20 and $25 per karat. But after the year 1850, the price of the gem steadily advanced, and in 1865, its quotations were almost the same as that of Venice in 1606. This comparison, however, should not be made without remembering the vast difference in the value of money of the two periods.
The valuations of the diamond for more than a century past have been based upon the form of the brilliant, while those of the star, table, rose, and others, have been valued at lesser and sometimes almost nominal prices.
The price of the rose diamonds has been affected by the views of fashion for a long time, and at the present day we are unable to establish any fixed scale. We will, however, append the views of some of the gem experts as to the valuation of this pattern, during the past two centuries.
Robert de Berquen, in 1669, valued the rose cut
of 1 karat at 100 francs. ” 2 ” ” 500 ” ” 4 ” ” 1,500 ” ” 8 ” ” 6,000 ” ” 10 ” ” 9,000 ”
This estimate, however, was not founded upon any principle; and it was not until the celebrated Tavernier formed his rule for the valuation of the rose cut, that the diamond had any definite value. Tavernier, in 1692, took for an example a rose of one karat, of fine water, white, and of good form, and fixed the valuation at 150 francs, and for gems of greater weight multiplied this figure by the square of their weight. The justly celebrated jeweller and traveller also followed the same rule with fine diamonds that were not of regular form. The brilliant cut was not then known.
In 1858, in France, the comparative values were: for one karat, fine brilliant cut, 300 francs; for one karat, fine rose cut, 200 francs.
The following list has been kindly furnished me by Henry D. Morse, Esq., of Boston, as giving the value of diamonds in the United States at the present time, January, 1884. The prices have fluctuated considerably during the past year, and the estimates given are wholesale prices, and regarded as being quite low for fine stones:--
Lots averaging ¹⁄₂ karat each, $60 per karat. ” ” ³⁄₄ ” ” 80 ” ” ” ” 1 ” ” 100 ” ” ” ” 1¹⁄₄ ” ” 110 ” ” ” ” 1¹⁄₂ ” ” 125 ” ” ” ” 1³⁄₄ ” ” 145 ” ” ” ” 2 ” ” 175 ” ”
Above two karats the prices are not much increased per karat, because of their not being as much in demand. Stones of five karats and upwards, being very slow to sell, at the present time can be bought at $175 to $200 per karat, of the same qualities as the two-karat stones quoted above. Very extra white perfect stones, when well cut, bring, when sold singly or few at a time, from 20 to 25 per cent more than the prices quoted. The lower grades of stones are generally sold in lots, and the sizes do not make much difference in price. The larger they are the less desirable, and oftentimes stones of from five to ten karats are sold cheaper than stones of one to two karats; the price depending upon the shade of color and skill in cutting. Lots of this description can be bought for from $75 to $90 per karat. If the tinge is a little more decided they will bring but $60 per karat. The yellow diamonds even ranging as high as ten to twenty karats bring about $45 per karat. Flawy stones bring from $15 to $35 per karat, according to their color, size, and brilliancy. Fine rough stones of assorted sizes, varying from three to ten karats, bring from $30 to $45 per karat according to their shape and perfection. Smaller sizes are reckoned in value from $15 to $20 per karat. Cheaper grades and off-colored crystals are sold as low as $8 to $12 per karat. The bort diamonds vary in value; those coming from Africa bring but $1.50 per karat, while the same variety found in Brazil bring $6. The carbon variety of the best sizes bring about $20 per karat. Fifteen years ago the same mineral could be bought for $2.50 per karat; while the Brazilian bort was quoted at $9.
Of colored diamonds, those slightly tinged with various colors, especially the yellow and brown, were valued in London and Amsterdam, in 1872, as follows:--
Under 1 karat 30s. to £2 10s. per karat. 1 to 2 ” 40 ” 4 10 ” ” 2 ” 3 ” £3 ” 5 10 ” ”
The following account of Cape of Good Hope diamonds which were sold by auction at Covent Garden, February, 1872, may interest the reader in comparison with other sales at various periods of time:--
One white rough diamond, 9¹⁄₂ karats, £60; one slightly off color, 7¹⁄₄ karats, £37; a curious cabinet specimen of native diamond in matrix, £14, one large rough gem, drop shape, 14¹⁄₂ karats, £42. Among the cut diamonds the following were sold: a magnificent brilliant, 8 karats, 430 guineas; a fine yellow brilliant of great lustre, 7¹⁄₂ karats, 140 guineas; a brilliant of great spread and good water, about 7¹⁄₂ karats, 140 guineas; a large, lustrous brilliant of fine color weighing about 7 karats, 480 guineas; a court tiara of five graduated brilliant stars, 185 guineas; a brilliant necklace of forty graduated collets, £300.
The following sale by auction, in London, of some of the Imperial jewels belonging to the Empress Eugenie, may also interest the reader; and we have therefore thought proper to insert the account. It took place in July, 1872, at the rooms of Christie, Manson, & Co.:--
Lots 16 and 17. A bracelet, with forget-me-nots formed of turquoises and small diamonds, and another, with pearls and diamonds,--175 guineas. (Attenborough.)
22, 23. A heart-shaped locket, formed of bands of brilliants, and a pair of gold solitaires, with large diamond centres,--215 guineas. (Copeland.)
24. A very small keyless watch, with E. in diamonds, with gold chain, set with rubies and emeralds,--120 guineas. (Agnew.)
26. A chased gold snuff-box, the top set with flowers in brilliants, with the Pasha of Egypt’s cipher in brilliants on blue enamel,--165 guineas. (B. Benjamin.)
33. A brooch, with pendants, formed of five large turquoises and brilliants,--105 guineas. (Streeter.)
35. A brilliant brooch, with sprays set with brilliants,--120 guineas. (Attenborough.)
36. A pair of large pink pearl ear-rings in enamelled setting with brilliants,--105 guineas. (Thompson.)
37. A heart-shaped pendant, formed of a fine large turquoise surmounted by brilliants,--250 guineas. (Martin.)
38, 39. A large black pearl, with brilliant top, and a heart-shaped brilliant locket,--300 guineas. (Woodgate.)
40. A pair of shell-shaped brilliant ear-rings with pearl centres and drops,--106 guineas. (B. Benjamin.)
41. A brilliant brooch, formed as a corn-flower and group of foliage,--348 guineas. (Phillips.)
43-45. A ring with a large brilliant, a fine single stone brilliant ring, and a ring with a large brilliant and two fine emeralds,--485 guineas. (Woodgate.)
46. A ring, with a splendid ruby and two brilliants,--300 guineas. (Challens.)
47, 48. Three very fine emeralds, set as a ring, and a pair of hairpins formed as rosebuds, of pink pearls and brilliants,--275 guineas. (Gibbons.)
49. A marquise ring, with a pink diamond surrounded by brilliants, formerly the property of the Empress Josephine,--400 guineas. (Martin.)
50. A beautiful pendant, the centre a fine emerald, surrounded by bands of brilliants, with emerald and pearl drop,--605 guineas. (Brown.)
51, 52. A group of three wheat-ears tied with a ribbon formed of fine brilliants, making a brooch or head ornament, and the companion group,--975 guineas. (Lennox.)
53, 54. A group of two wheat-ears, en suite, and the companion group,--£810. (Martin.)
55. A fine pendant, with a large square emerald, surrounded by brilliants, with very large pearl drop,--620 guineas. (Ford.)
56. A scroll-pattern brilliant brooch, for a miniature, with large pearl drop,--470 guineas. (Challens.)
57. A broad chain-band bracelet, with sapphire and two large brilliants,--340 guineas. (Lomax.)
58. Two fine emeralds and three large brilliants, mounted as a bracelet,--810 guineas. (Hancock.)
59. A beautiful cross, formed of eleven large brilliants,--900 guineas. (Carter.)
60. A ribbon tie brilliant brooch,--335 guineas. (Grindley.)
61. A handsome pendant of brilliants and pearls, with a fine large black pearl centre and drop,--420 guineas. (Martin.)
62. Two fine large brilliants and an emerald mounted on a buckle set with small brilliants,--430 guineas. (Harborough.)
64. A splendid brooch, formed as a rosebud and leaves, composed entirely of brilliants,--820 guineas. (Attenborough.)
65. A magnificent bracelet, with sapphire centre, surrounded by rubies, brilliants, and emeralds,--£650. (Rothschild.)
67. A fine large pearl, mounted as a hairpin of chased gold, with chain set with small diamonds,--188 guineas. (Chapman.)
68. A splendid fly brooch, the body a very large opal, the head and wings set with rubies, brilliants, emeralds, sapphires, and opals,--£320. (Greenwood.)
69. A beautiful watch, in blue enamel setting, surrounded by eleven large brilliants, suspended from a hook, set with a cluster of brilliants,--£1,660. (James.)
70, 71. A fine polished emerald, surrounded by brilliants, and a bracelet with splendid ruby centre and large brilliants,--975 guineas. (Hancock.)
72, 73. A brooch, formed as an anchor, composed entirely of brilliants, and the companion brooch,--£2,150. (Eaton.)
74. A tiara, formed of a band of brilliants, the centre a cluster of fine brilliants and emeralds, surmounted by a large oval emerald, with brilliant sprays and pearl drop,--780 guineas. (Challens.)
75. A bracelet, the centre a very fine sapphire surrounded by large brilliants, with trellis pattern open-work bands, studded with brilliants,--£1,105. (Martin.)
76, 77. A brilliant set as a brooch, with fine pearl drop, and a brilliant brooch with colored stone centre and pearl drop,--730 guineas. (Keane.)
78. A brilliant tiara, formed as a group of leaves,--£970. (Carter.)
79. A pearl necklace, composed of forty-one large pearls of the highest quality, with cluster brilliant snap,--£2,400. (Marquis of Bristol.)
80-84. A pair of polished emerald drops, four pairs of larger ditto, and a single ditto,--750 guineas. (Masters.)
85-89. Two pairs of emerald drops, with brilliant tops, three pairs of larger ditto,--550 guineas. (Carter.)
90-92. Three pairs of very large emerald drops,--£1,275. (Garrard.)
93-103. A brooch, with a fine large emerald surrounded by brilliants, nine larger ditto, and one with a square emerald,--5,000 guineas. (Keane.)
104-106. A brooch with emerald centre, surrounded by fine brilliants, with emerald and brilliant drop, and two larger ditto,--£3,525. (Graham.)
107. A tiara, composed of ten fine large emeralds, surrounded by bands of brilliants,--£2,625. (Keane.)
108. A brilliant brooch, formed as a group of leaves, with six large brilliant drops and pendants, set with smaller brilliants,--1,050 guineas. (Keane.)
109-111. Three brilliant pendants composed of very fine large stones, with brilliant drops and pendants of false pearls,--2,600 guineas. (Keane.)
112. A bracelet, composed entirely of brilliants, the centre an oval sapphire,--£2,250. (Carter.)
113. A pair of long ear-rings composed of very large brilliants,--£3,255. (Stevens.)
114. A brilliant brooch, formed as a double pink,--£1,470. (Stevens.)
The whole realized upwards of £50,000 ($250,000) gold.
The quantity of diamonds now in circulation in fashion, and hoarded by commerce, is enormous, and may be estimated by the ton. Yet the requirements of society and the arts are so vast that the gem apparently seems to be a rare stone, while in reality it ranks low down in the scale of rarity.
Although we believe that there are immense diamond placers yet to be discovered in Africa, Asia, and America, we do not think that the gem will ever lose its high rank in the wants of fashion and ornamentation, or that its price will ever again descend to the valuation of 1848 except in transient times of far-extended commercial distress. The misfortunes of any one country will not affect the established price to any great extent, since the demand from other countries is so great as to preserve a well-marked equilibrium.
India, with its millions of people who prefer to invest their gains in a gem to all other known property, will furnish an eager market for the diamond for many ages to come. The history of the influx and absorption of silver by that country furnishes an interesting parallelism.
Most of the people of the earth entertain superstitious fancies, and especially invest the gems with spiritual powers or special attributes. Hence the innate love of ornament, combined with the desire of possessing a rare treasure, will always give to the gems a prestige and a commercial value above all other things. Puritanical morality may rail against the gems as luxuries; but the nature of man must be changed before these ideas can be universally adopted. The refinements of civilization, as well as the follies of barbaric ages, call for the ornamentation of jewels and gems. And modern economy may, with Tiberius, complain in vain of that “rage for jewels and precious stones which drains the empire of its wealth, and sends, in exchange for its baubles, the money of the commonwealth to foreign nations.”
A brilliant writer has lately stated that “Pictures, gems, china, bronzes, _bric-à-brac_ of every sort, rare shawls, rare engravings, and even rare fruits, flowers, and dogs are steadily tending upwards in value, as if their price depended upon a want and not a caprice. It is the most curious illustration of the unchangeableness of the law which governs even caprices that we are acquainted with; and tends to indicate that the desire for the rare, which we all notice and smile at, in bibliopoles, antiquarians, entomologists, and every variety of the genus collector, is not an exceptionable eccentricity, but a permanent attribute of the human mind, though only noticed in those who have wealth to indulge in some unusual or splendid form. It is like the desire of accumulation, one of the passions, and not one of the mere tastes of men; and may be relied on in business, almost as certainly as self-interest, vanity, or ambition.”
The relative worth of the diamond has never been better described than by the following lines from the pen of an able English author:--
“It is in truth the very essence of property. It is riches condensed and wealth secured; too small to be seen by the midnight burglar; too easily hid to be seized by the tyrant; and too quickly carried away to be wrested from the patriot exile or torn from the hunted outlaw. In vain would the vanquished monarch strive to remove his bags of gold, or transport his territorial domains; but a diamond is an empire made portable, with which he might purchase a better kingdom, and mount a prouder throne. Had the treasure of Crœsus been invested in brilliants he might have founded a nobler Lydia beyond the reach of his Persian invader.”
THE EMERALD.
“The emerald burns intensely bright, With radiance of an olive light; This is the faith that highest shines, No need of charity declines, And seeks no rest and shuns no strife, In working out a holy life.”
MARBODEUS.
THE EMERALD.
Dutens and several others who have written upon gems and precious stones during the last two centuries, have asserted that the ancients were unacquainted with the true emerald, and that Heliodorus, when speaking nearly two thousand years ago of “gems green as a meadow in the spring,” or Pliny, when describing stone of a “soft green lustre,” referred to the peridot, the plasma, the malachite, or the far rarer gem, the green sapphire. But the antiquary has come to the rescue with the treasures of the despoiled mounds of Tuscany, the exposed ashes of Herculaneum and Pompeii, and now exhibits emeralds which were mounted in gold two thousand years before Columbus dreamed of the New World, or Pizarro and his remorseless band gathered the precious stones by the hundred-weight from the spoils of Peru.
Although these specimens of antique jewelry set with emeralds may be numbered by the score or more in the museums and reliquaries of Europe, but very few engraved emeralds have descended to us from ancient times. This rarity is not due to the hardness of the stone, for the ancient lapidaries cut the difficult and still harder sapphire; therefore we must believe the statement of the early gem-writers that the emerald was exempted from the glyptic art by common consent on account of its beauty and costliness.
Stones possessing a green color have been used for ornamental purposes from the very earliest periods of the social life of man. And as we review the archæological history of the human race, it would seem as though minerals of this hue had been especially selected among all others for ornamental purposes.
For instances of this primitive selection, we will refer to the green stone hatchets found among the ancient tombs of Brittany; the axe heads of jade in New Caledonia; the green serpentine implements of Africa; the articles carved from green zoisite, revered among the Chinese from time immemorial; as well as the green jade and amazon stones, which the Mexicans wrought with wondrous skill into strange and grotesque forms, and which they prized above even their magnificent and matchless emeralds. It is also clearly evident that the emerald was discovered in very ancient times, and that it was early adopted in ornamentation, and was prized as among the most valuable of the gems, if not the highest in estimation, for its color and fancied virtues.
Pliny was undoubtedly familiar with the true emerald, and expressed his satisfaction in the following language:--
“There is no color so pleasing to the eye as that of the emerald. Whoever delights in the verdure of herb and leaf must enjoy infinitely more the contemplation of emeralds; for no verdure can compare to theirs. They are the only stones that charm the eye without wearying it. It loses its lustre neither in sun nor in shade, nor in artificial light. It shines continually with the same soft glow.”
In the time of Alexander, the emblems of authority of the Persians consisted of golden imitations of vines, loaded with clusters of emeralds, carbuncles, and other gems. At the famous marriage feast of Alexander and his eighty companions with their beautiful Persian brides, emeralds appear to have been the favorite gem used, and to have been esteemed above all other ornaments except the beautiful pearls of the Persian Gulf.
In ancient times this gem was not only prized as an ornament, but also as a talisman, and even as a medicine in the powdered state. Its beauty captivated the vain and frivolous, and its supposed virtues endeared it to the rich and the wise. It was supposed to exercise a good effect upon the eyesight; hence it was worn as a seal to be looked at; when worn as an amulet it endowed the wearer with courage, drove away evil spirits, assuaged terror, and prevented attacks of epilepsy.
Pliny states that Paulina, at the Banquet, was literally covered with emeralds and pearls, arranged over her dress in alternate rows.
The famous and fatal ring which Polycrates cast into the sea, as an offering to the gods in return for forty years of prosperity, was set with a beautiful emerald.
The ancient Etruscans carved the emerald at a very remote period, and the fact is proven by the scarabeus in the Townley collection.
The Castellani collection exhibits ear-rings of gold set with pendants of emeralds which were found in the tombs at Bolsena.
In the Devonshire gems there is a large emerald cut into a Gorgon’s head, in high relief,--evidently a gem of great antiquity and of exceeding value at the time of its conversion into a work of art.
Within the sarcophagus of Maria Honorii fifty rings set with different stones were found, and among them an emerald set in gold and engraved with a head supposed to be that of Honorius himself. It was probably fashioned for a royal signet and buried with the remains of its owner.
The famous mirror or lens, in or through which the cruel and near-sighted Nero was wont to view the bloody combats in the arena at Rome, is supposed to have been cut from an emerald; but it was probably a lens cut from green glass.
It appears, however, from the researches of the antiquaries, that the gem was very rare until the Imperial epoch, when they were introduced from Asia and other countries in accordance with the luxury and extravagance of the age. Castellani’s collection displays some fine examples of the jewelry of this period set with emeralds. Among them there is a beautiful necklace formed of sixteen natural crystals of emerald fastened in gold; and also another composed of ten natural crystals of emerald set in double chains of gold. Among the engraved gems may be seen an emerald intaglio, representing a Nereid on a sea bull, and two other intaglios of beryl, with pictures of Mars, and a portrait of Julia Paula.
From the earliest times of history monarchs and potentates of all ranks and races, from Solomon to Montezuma, were wont to wear signet rings, which were sometimes engraved, and were then often used to impart authority either by the exhibition of the ring itself, or its impression upon papyrus, parchment, or wax. The most celebrated ring of this description we have any authentic knowledge of, was that formed of a large emerald set in gold and worn by Alexander the Great, whose portrait was engraved upon the stone. The hero, when dying, bestowed it upon his favorite general, Perdiccas, and thereby invested him with the authority of succession. History refuses to make known the fate of this splendid gem. It is probable that Ptolemy Soter obtained possession of it when Perdiccas was slain in Egypt, and that eventually Augustus Cæsar may have worn it for his first imperial seal, which was an emerald engraved with the head of Alexander.
After the death of Pompey in Egypt, his seal ring, which represented a lion holding a sword in his paw, was taken to Rome and presented to Cæsar, who burst into tears on receiving the signet of his former associate and unfortunate rival.
The practice of interring with the dead some of the jewels worn in life, has been practised in recent times. When Cardinal Borromeo was buried at Milan two hundred years ago or more, a large gold cross, containing seven large and fine emeralds surrounded with diamonds, was placed in his tomb. When Lord Palmerston was buried at Westminster Abbey, the officiating clergyman threw into the grave several diamond and gold rings as a peace offering. In ancient times the custom was of frequent occurrence, and to this habit we owe the preservation of many beautiful gems and jewels, which have in this manner escaped the pillage and fury of thieves and iconoclasts.
The mineral has borne the name of emerald since the middle of the seventeenth century, at which time it was adopted by the mineralogist, Wallerius. But whence it is derived, and on what particular grounds, we are not informed. In Asia, in ancient times, it was described under the Sanskrit name, “marakat,” which is connected with “esmark,” signifying a sea monster, or “makara,” meaning the sea. As it passed westward, among the Persians it became “zabargat,” and still farther on its journey it was changed by the Greeks and Latins into “smaragdus.” The derivation of its ancient terms is also exemplified by the use or purposes in which the gem and its varieties were used. It was therefore frequently chosen by the antique gem cutters and engravers, as the proper material for the representation of all maritime subjects or any allusions to the sea gods.
The emerald is now one of the rarest of gems; and its scarcity gives rise to the inquiry as to what has become of the abundant shower of emeralds which fairly rained upon Spain during the early days of the conquest of Mexico and Peru, bringing down the value of fine stones to a trifling price. As with all commercial articles, there is a waste and loss to be accounted for during the wear of three centuries; but this alone will not explain their present rarity in civilized countries. Even in the times of Charles II., when the destitution of the country was extreme, the Dukes of Infantado and Albuquerque had millions in diamonds, rubies, and precious stones, yet hardly possessed a single sou. So impoverished was the land, and so slender were the purses of all, that the Duke of Albuquerque dined on an egg and a pigeon, yet it required six weeks to make an inventory of his plate. At this period, when the nobles gave fêtes the lamps were often decorated with emeralds and the ceilings garlanded with precious stones. The women fairly blazed with sparkling gems of fabulous value, while the country was starving. Most, if not all, of this missing treasure was transferred to Asia, and with the silver current which flowed steadily from the Spanish coffers into India went many of the emeralds also; for in those regions this gem is regarded as a foreign stone, and the natives, investing it with the possession of certain talismanic properties, prize it above all earthly treasures.
When the Spaniards commenced their march toward the capital of Mexico, they were astonished at the magnificence of the costumes of the chiefs who came to meet them as envoys or join them as allies; and among the splendid gems which adorned their persons they recognized emeralds and turquoises of such rare perfection and beauty that their cupidity was excited to the highest degree. During the after years of conquest and occupation the avaricious spoilers sought in vain for the parent ledge where these precious stones were found. Recent times have, however, revealed the home of the Mexican turquoise, which has proved to be in the northern part of Mexico, as the Totonacs informed the inquiring Spaniards. The first of these mines, which is of great antiquity, is situated in the Cerrillos Mountains, eighteen miles from Santa Fé. The deposit occurs in soft trachyte, and an immense cavity of several hundred feet in extent has been excavated by the Indians while searching for this gem in past times. Probably some of the fine turquoises worn by the Aztec nobles at the time of the Spanish Conquest came from this mine. Another mine is located in the Sierra Blanca Mountains in New Mexico, but the Navajos will not allow strangers to visit it. Stones of transcendent beauty have been taken from it, and handed down in the tribe from generation to generation as heirlooms. Nothing tempts the cupidity of the Indians to dispose of these gems, and gratitude alone causes them to part with any of these treasures, which, like the mountaineers of Thibet, they regard with mystical reverence. The Navajos wear them as ear-drops, by boring them and attaching them to the ear by means of a deer sinew. Lesser stones are pierced, then strung on sinews, and worn as necklaces. Even the nobler Ute Indians, when stripping the ornaments of turquoise from the ears of the conquered Navajos, value them as sacred treasures, and refuse to part with them even for gold or silver.
All the Spanish accounts of the invasion of Mexico agree in the great abundance of emeralds, both in the adornment of the chiefs and nobles and also in the decoration of the gods, the thrones, and the paraphernalia. The Mexican historian Ixtlilxochitl says the throne of gold in the palace of Tezcuco was inlaid with turquoises and other precious stones; that a human skull in front of it was crowned with an immense emerald of a pyramidal form.
The great standard of the republic of Tlascala was richly ornamented with emeralds and silver-work. The fantastic helmets of the chiefs glittered with gold and precious stones, and their plumes were set with emeralds. The mantle of Montezuma was held together by a clasp of the green chalchivitl (jade), and the same precious gem, with emeralds of uncommon size, ornamented other parts of his dress.
The Mexicans carved the obdurate jade and emerald with wonderful skill, using, like the Peruvians, nothing but silicious powder and copper instruments alloyed with tin. They also worked with exquisite taste in gold and silver, and they represented Nature so faithfully and so beautifully that the great naturalist Hernandez took many of these objects thus portrayed for his models when describing the natural history of the country.
When Cortez returned home he displayed five emeralds of extraordinary size and beauty, and presented them to his bride, the niece of the Duke de Bejar. On his famous expedition along the Pacific coast and up the Gulf of California he was reduced to such want as to be obliged to pawn these jewels for a time. One of them was as precious as Shylock’s turquoise, and Gomara states that some Genoese merchants who examined it in Seville offered forty thousand golden ducats for it. One of the emeralds was in the form of a rose; the second in that of a horn; the third like a fish with eyes of gold; the fourth was like a little bell, with a fine pearl for a tongue, and it bore on its rim the following inscription in Spanish: “Blessed is he who created thee!” The fifth, which was the most valuable of all, was in the form of a small cup with a foot of gold, and with four little chains of the same metal attached to a large pearl as a button: the edge of the cup was of gold, on which was engraved in Latin words, “Inter natos mulierum non surrexit major.” These splendid gems are now buried deep in the sand on the coast of Barbary, where they were lost in 1529, when Cortez was shipwrecked with the Admiral of Castile whilst on their way to assist Charles V. at the siege of Algiers.
Mariana, in his history of Spain, declares that Cortez had, besides the five great historical emeralds, also two emerald vases which were valued at 300,000 ducats. Whether these remarkable treasures were swallowed up by the sea with the other five when the conqueror of Mexico was shipwrecked, history does not relate.
Among the presents sent to Charles V. of Spain by the first Spanish commissioners, Puerto Carreso and Montijo, in 1519, and also by Montezuma through his governor Teuthlili, were the following articles, according to the description given by Peter Martyr, the learned Italian, who enjoyed the friendship of Columbus and the confidence of the Spanish Court. The Chronicles of Gomara also contain the same list: a gold necklace composed of seven pieces with 183 small emeralds set in it, and 232 gems similar to small rubies, from which hung 27 little bells of gold and several fine pearls; another necklace composed of four pieces of gold with 102 red gems like small rubies, 172 emeralds, and 10 fine pearls, with 26 little bells of gold attached.
The historians, Gomara and Martyr, mention among the prizes which fell into the hands of Cortez, an immense emerald of a pyramidal form, whose base was as large as the palm of the hand; and which may have been the identical stone which crowned the skull which stood before the throne in the palace of Tezcuco. At all events, an emerald of this description Cortez sent as a present to the Emperor of Spain, together with his letters of explanation, after the fall of the city of Mexico. The letters and the various presents were intrusted to the care of two of his confidential officers, Quinones and Avila. Arriving at the Azores, Quinones lost his life in a brawl, and jeopardized the mission; but Avila escaped and put to sea, to be captured shortly after by a French privateer; and the rich spoils of the Aztecs were presented to the King of France, instead of the Emperor of Spain. Francis I. gazed with delight upon the splendors of the gem, and with a feeling of envy exclaimed that he “would like to see the clause in Adam’s testament, which entitled his brothers of Castile and Portugal to divide the New World between them.” What has become of this historic stone?
The quantity of emeralds obtained by the Spaniards in their pillage of Mexico was large; but it was trifling when compared with that collected by Pizarro and his remorseless followers in the sack of Peru. Many large and magnificent stones were then obtained by the Spaniards; but the transcendent gem of all, called by the Peruvians the Great Mother, and nearly as large as an ostrich egg, was concealed by the natives, and all the efforts of Pizarro and his successors to discover it proved unavailing.
Previous to the plunder of America by Cortez and his followers, emeralds were not numerous in Europe; but early in the sixteenth century they began to appear in Spain, and were soon afterwards distributed among the powerful and wealthy throughout Europe. England seems to have had at one time a large share of them, and perhaps many of them were taken by her freebooters from the richly laden Spanish galleons. In the days of Queen Elizabeth emeralds were exhibited in profusion, if we can give credence to the chronicles and inventories of that period.
The parure of emeralds which the Queen of Navarre bequeathed in 1572, to her daughter Catherine, must have been of wonderful beauty and perfection.
What is the stone lately given to Mustapha, the ex-premier of Tunis, by the Bey, and described as the famous emerald once belonging to the Spanish Crown? Was it one recovered from the shipwreck of Cortez, or was it one of those given away by the Spanish rulers in the early days of the conquest of Peru, when they imagined the emerald mines were as broad and exhaustless as the silver beds of Potosi?
The finest emerald in Europe is said to belong to the Emperor of Russia. It weighs but thirty karats; but it is of the most perfect transparency, and of the most beautiful color. There are many other fine emeralds among the imperial jewels of the Czar, some of which are of great size and rare beauty. The ancient crown of Vladimir glitters with four great stones of unusual brilliancy. The grand state sceptre is surmounted by another emerald of great size. The sceptre of Poland, which is now treasured in the Kremlin, has a long green stone, fractured in the middle. It is not described, and may be one of the Siberian tourmalines, some of which closely approach the emerald in hue. The imperial orb of Russia, which is said to be of Byzantine workmanship of the tenth century, has fifty emeralds. This fact alone would seem to prove that emeralds were known in Europe or Asia Minor long before the discovery of America; but, on the other hand, the ancient crown which was taken when Kazan was subjugated in 1553, is destitute of emeralds. And hence we are inclined to believe the imperial orb to be of modern workmanship, especially as some of the ancient state chairs do not exhibit emeralds among their decoration of gems and precious stones.
The immense uncut Peruvian emerald, given by Rudolph II. to the Elector of Saxony, is still preserved in the Green Vaults at Dresden.
Queen Elizabeth of England sent to Henry IV., the champion of the Reformed faith, a beautiful emerald, which she herself had worn. She gave it as a token of esteem, and reminded the gay monarch that the gem possessed the virtue of not breaking so long as faith remains entire and firm.
It has been stated that the Emperor Charlemagne regarded the gift from the Empress Irene as the dearest of all his talismans. This treasure consisted of a piece of the true cross, enclosed in a large emerald, which was attached to a strong chain of golden links. When his sepulchre was rifled of the treasures deposited with the deceased monarch, this relic was removed with the rest of the jewels; and in 1811 was presented to Napoleon by the Burghers of the city of Aix-la-Chapelle. Bonaparte one day playfully threw it over the neck of Queen Hortense, declaring that he had worn it on his breast in the bloody battles of Austerlitz and Wagram, as Charlemagne had worn it on the field of battle in the Middle Ages. Hortense wore it until the day of her death.
The emeralds of the French Crown at the time the famous inventory was taken in 1781, do not appear to have been of very great purity. Several of them exhibited fine color, but had many faults. Five of the best were valued at that time at fifty thousand francs, or ten thousand dollars, each.
In the famous Hungarian crown, the large sapphire is surrounded with four green stones of oblong form, whose species are unknown. It is also a mystery how they came there, as they are not mentioned in the inventory made of the jewel when Queen Elizabeth of Hungary pledged it to the Emperor Frederick IV.
The Sultan of Turkey is known to possess some exquisite emeralds; and Rambusson, a French writer on gems, declares that they are the finest in the world. One of them is said to weigh one hundred and twenty-five ounces, and is probably another lump of antique glass. Another of three hundred karats weight, and of less doubtful character, is a gem of great purity and perfection of color. It adorns the handle of a poniard.
In the museum at Florence there is a small vase carved in emerald, and also another ornament of similar form, fashioned from a fine beryl. The mineralogical collection at Munich boasts of some immense emeralds which are supposed to have been obtained from Spain, and part of her Peruvian booty. There are also some splendid specimens of uncut emeralds in the cabinet of minerals at Vienna. The Saxon and the Papal crowns contain very beautiful emeralds.
Probably the most beautiful specimen of the natural emerald in the world is that presented to the renowned shrine of Loretto in Italy, by Don Pierre Daragon, when Spanish ambassador at Rome. He was formerly viceroy in Peru and obtained the treasure at that time. The specimen is a mass of white limestone, crowned with great crystals of emeralds more than an inch in diameter and of exquisite color and lustre.
The name of Emerald Isle is generally supposed to have been derived from the ever green appearance of its shores but an antiquary asserts that it arose from the ring which was set with “Optimo Smaragdo,” and which Pope Adrian sent to King Henry II. as the instrument of his investiture with the dominion of Ireland.
There is a very fine and large crystal of emerald in the museum at Leiden, but its history is unknown.
Dhuleep Singh of India possesses a flattened crystal of three inches in length by two in width, and half an inch in depth, which is regarded as of great value in India. It is said to be of very fine color and with but few imperfections.
The Duke of Devonshire’s crystal in its natural state is reckoned as one of the finest, if not the finest single specimen in the world. It is from Muzo in New Granada, and more than two inches in length. Its form is that of a hexagonal crystal, and its weight is 8 oz. 18 dwts. The color of the stone is beautiful, but several flaws impair the value as a gem.
During the visit of the Prince of Wales to India, many fine emeralds were exhibited to the royal party by the Hindoo nobility. At the grand reception given them at Madras, the Prince of Virianagram wore a bracelet composed of three splendid emeralds of very great size. At Kandy, in Ceylon, the Buddhist priests brought forth from their sanctuary for the inspection of the Prince, an immense emerald four inches long by two inches in depth.
A ring cut out of a single emerald, 1¹⁄₄ inches in diameter, with the name of the Emperor Jehangir engraved upon it, was presented to the East India Company.
One of the most costly and difficult works in engraving upon the emerald in modern times, was that executed by Carlo Costanzi during the last century. Upon a table of emerald two inches in diameter, the head of Pope Benedict and those of St. Peter and St. Paul were engraved. Two years and a half were required by the lapidary for the execution of his task. The engraved gem may now be seen in the treasury of St. Petronio at Bologna.
Some very fine emeralds are said to be preserved in the royal collection at Madrid, one quite as large as the Devonshire emerald and without many flaws.
The Spanish freebooters, returning home from their American fights laden with gems, did not forget the shrines of Spain in their peace offerings. Marshal Lannes, in sacking the church of our Lady of the Pillar, which was one of the richest in Spain, obtained an immense booty. Madame Junot declares in her memoirs that it was not far below five millions of francs in value.
Harsh stories are also told of the acts of vandalism of Marshal Junot while he was military governor of Spain. It is related that when he visited the Cathedral of Toledo, the church dignitaries freely exhibited to him the magnificent jewels and treasures which belonged to the church and had been accumulating for many ages. The crown of the Virgin, which was beautifully constructed of gold and adorned with exquisite gems, was placed in his hands for close examination. The summit of this admirable and holy piece of human art was surmounted by a large emerald of almost transcendent beauty. The French freebooter examined the beautiful jewel for a few moments, and then coolly twisted off the emerald from its setting and placed it in his pocket, exclaiming, with a Parisian grimace, “Ceci doit être à moi.”
Finely formed crystals of emerald, when not too large, were in early times mounted in gold and in jewelry without receiving any artificial polish from the lapidary. Examples are often found in the tombs of antiquity. The Princess Bariatinsky has a valuable necklace of ancient emeralds fashioned in this manner.
The Orientals, taking advantage of the facility with which the prisms are broken at right angles to the axis, frequently used slices of the crystals, sometimes artificially polished, but often with the natural planes of cleavage preserved. This practice was quite common prior to the fifteenth century. They also adopted the unfortunate custom of engraving them with condensed quotations from the Koran, and often drilled holes through the centre of the stones so as to string them as necklaces or as ear ornaments.
One of the finest gems that adorned the gorgeous harness of Runjeet Singh was a beautiful emerald maltreated in this manner. Major Pearse found in a Punjaub tope a reliquary formed from an emerald three inches long and two inches thick, with the ends rounded off. It was originally a gem of fine color, but had been bored half through its axis to contain two finger joints of some revered Buddhist saint or petted monkey.
The emerald has been a subject of controversy among the chemists and mineralogists, and its character, especially the cause of its beautiful color, is not clearly defined even at the present day. But that distinguished chemist, Professor Lewy of Paris, seems to offer, thus far, the most correct and plausible theory. More than ten years ago he boldly asserted that the hue is not due to the oxide of chromium, and with this opinion he confronted such eminent men as Vauquelin, Klaproth, and others of high rank in the scientific world. Not content with his researches in his laboratory in Paris, he resolutely crossed the ocean and sought the emerald in its parent ledges in the lofty table-lands of New Granada. Here he obtained new information of a geological character which goes far to strengthen his position. The experiments of M. Lewy indicate, if they do not prove, that the coloring matter of the emerald is organic, and readily destroyed by heat, which would not be the case if it was due to the oxide of chromium. All my own fire-tests with the Granada emerald corroborate the views of M. Lewy, for in every instance the gem lost its hue when submitted to a red heat.
Nevertheless, the recent researches of Wöhler and Rose give negative results. These experienced chemists kept an emerald at the temperature of melted copper for an hour, and found that, although the stone had become opaque, the color was not affected. They therefore considered the oxide of chromium to be the coloring agent, without, however, denying the presence of organic matter. The amount of the oxide of chromium found by many chemists varies from one to two per cent, while Lewy and others found it in a quantity so small as to be inappreciable, and too minute to be weighed.
Before the ordinary blowpipe the emerald passes rapidly into a whitish vesicular glass, and with borax it forms a fine green glass, while its sub-species, the beryl, changes into a colorless bead; with salt of phosphorus it slowly dissolves, leaving a silicious skeleton.
M. Lewy visited the mines at Muzo in Granada, and from the results of his analyses, together with the fact of finding emeralds in conjunction with the presence of fossil shells in the limestone in which they occur, he arrived at the conclusion that they have been formed in the wet way,--deposited from a chemical solution. He also found that when extracted they are so soft and fragile that the largest and finest fragments can be reduced to powder by merely rubbing them between the fingers, and the crystals often crack and fall to pieces after being removed from the mine, apparently from loss of water. Consequently, when the emeralds are first extracted they are laid aside carefully for a few days until the water is evaporated.
This statement relative to the softness of the gem and its subsequent hardening has been met with a shout of derision from some of the gem-seekers,--none louder than that of Barbot, the retired jeweller. Barbot seems to forget that the rock of which his own house in Paris is constructed undergoes the same change after being removed from the deep quarries in the catacombs under the city.
This phenomenon is observed with many rocks. Flints acquire additional toughness by the evaporation of water contained in them. The yellow gneiss of Ceylon is soft when quarried, but hardens on exposure to the atmosphere. The Egyptian verde antique marble, which was named after Augustus and Tiberias, was easily quarried with steel implements, but quickly hardened on exposure to the external air. The mosaic plates of this mineral which are inlaid in the decorative work of the Tuscan Gothic buildings are yet quite hard. The steatite of Saint Anthony’s Falls grows harder on exposure, and other minerals, when quarried from considerable depths, become firmer on exposure to the action of the air. Observations of this kind led Kuhlman to investigate the cause; and he believes that the hardening of rocks is not owing solely to the evaporation of quarry-water, but that it depends upon the tendency which all earthy matters possess to undergo a spontaneous crystallization by slow desiccation, which commences the moment the rock is exposed to the air.
The coloring matter of the emerald seems to be derived from the decomposition of the remains of animals who have lived in a bygone age, and whose remains are now found fossilized in the rock which forms the matrix of the gem. This rock in Granada is a black limestone, with white veins containing ammonites. Specimens of these rocks, exhibiting fragments of emeralds _in situ_ and also ammonites, are to be seen in the mineralogical gallery of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. Lewy believes that the beautiful tint of these gems is produced by an organic substance, which he considers to be a carburet of hydrogen, similar to that called chlorophyll, which constitutes the coloring matter of the leaves of plants; and he has shown that the emeralds of the darkest hue, which contain the greatest amount of organic matter, lose their color completely at a low red heat, and become opaque and white; while minerals and pastes which are well known to be colored by chromium, like the green garnets (the lime-chrome garnets) of Siberia, are unchanged in hue by the action of heat.
At the present time the composition of the emerald is supposed to be a silicate of alumina and glucina, with traces of organic matter and also other earths and oxides; but silica, alumina, and glucina are the principal component parts. It resembles quartz in some of its physical properties, having a specific gravity of 2.6 to 2.7, and a refractive energy of 1.58, but its degree of hardness is slightly greater, ranging from 7.5 to 8.0, while that of quartz is but 7.0.
The Peruvians maintain that the emerald ripens and deepens in color after having been mined and exposed to the air and light. Whether this assertion has been corroborated or not we cannot yet say; but it is a well-substantiated fact that some minerals do gain in color and hardness on exposure, and equally well proved that many others lose their tints very perceptibly. Strange to say, the cystine calculi undergo a similar change of color, and assume a fine greenish-blue tint when exposed to the light, changing from a fawn color. The specimens in Guy’s Museum described by Dr. Marcet in 1817 were of a pale brown, but according to the report of Golding Bird they now resemble the green sulphate of iron. Dr. Peter observed the same mysterious change of color in the two cystine calculi preserved in the museum of Transylvania University, and noted the fact that the change takes place on the side exposed to the light.
But one locality thus far has been discovered in the United States or even in North America, and this occurs in North Carolina. For several years previous to the year 1880, Mr. J. A. Stephenson, a collector of minerals, had obtained in Alexander County a number of beryls and crystals of transparent minerals which had the shape of beryl with a tint of the emerald hue, also other crystals of acicular form which exhibited the true color of the finest Granada specimens of emeralds.
Some of these minerals were shown in 1880 to William E. Hidden, a young naturalist then engaged in searching the mineral belts of North and South Carolina and Georgia for rare minerals. The beauty of these specimens led the young enthusiast to make a thorough search for the parent ledge; and, after a few weeks of earnest labor in cutting deep ditches in the soil near the spot where a number of crystals had been found, he was rewarded with the discovery of the original deposit in a rock of gneiss. In this rock, in which felspar preponderates, he found implanted in open pockets and lenticular fissures crystals of emeralds, quartz, rutile, monazite, beryl, and also many crystals of long and slender shapes which appeared to be diopside, but which exhibited colors of white, yellow, and green of the most beautiful emerald hues. The mineral which appeared to be diopside was submitted to the examination of the distinguished chemist, J. Lawrence Smith, who soon pronounced it to be a new form of spodumene, and named it Hiddenite after the young explorer. Since then the explorations have been continued, and have yielded many very beautiful specimens of both the emerald and the hiddenite. At the depth of thirty-three feet below the surface of the rock several pockets were discovered which yielded some beautiful emeralds and hiddenites. They occurred at the bottom of the pockets, just as the finest crystals of tourmaline are found in the cavities of the granite ledges at Mount Mica in Maine. Twelve of these pockets were found within an area of forty feet square, extending to thirty feet in depth. The largest crystal of emerald found was more than three inches in length and three quarters of an inch in breadth, but its color, although of the true emerald hue, is, however, rather faint. Some of the smaller crystals are of much deeper tint, and resemble the pure specimens from Granada. But the most interesting treasures of the mineral kingdom revealed by this exploration were the crystals which analysis proved to be composed of a silicate of alumina and lithia, otherwise known as spodumene. Some of these crystals were white or light yellow, others were of a rich yellow hue shading into brown, while others exhibited the purest prismatic green of various depths of hue. In some of the green crystals the color has been uniform, while in others it is more intense at one end of their extremities.
Quite a number of the crystals and their fragments have been cut and polished into gems which rival, by their lustre and beauty of color, the best of the South American emeralds. On account of their extreme rarity, as well as their beauty, they have been sought for by amateurs, and have commanded high prices. As the field of deposit thus far known is quite limited, we fear that the yield of this charming mineral will not meet even the demands of science.
Professor Cleaveland, who was one of the best authorities of his day, maintained more than half a century ago that emeralds which exhibited a lively and beautiful green hue were found in blasting a canal through a ledge of graphic granite in the town of Topsham in Maine. Several of the crystals presented so pure, uniform, and rich a green, that he ventured to pronounce them precious emeralds. But to-day we are unable to verify the assertion, or point to a single specimen similar in hue to the emerald from the above-mentioned locality.
The nearest approach to the emerald in color, with the exception of the incomparable green tourmalines from Maine, and the emeralds and hiddenites of North Carolina, are the beryls of North and South Royalston, in the State of Massachusetts. These beautiful stones exhibit the physical characteristics of emeralds, with the exception of the color, in which they differ very perceptibly. But to appreciate fully the difference in hue we must compare the two gems. Then the lively green of the beryl fades away before the overpowering hue of the emerald, whose rich prismatic green may be taken as the purest type of that color known to the chemist or the painter.
Several years ago we visited the localities in Massachusetts which were famous in the days of Hitchcock and Webster. We found that the beryls occurred in a very coarse granite, where the quartz appeared in masses and the felspar in huge crystals. These also occur in finer granite, and exhibit no indications of veins or connection with each other. They are few in number, and are soon exhausted by blasting, being generally very superficial. After removing several tons of the rock at the locality at North Royalston, where the beryls appear on the summit of the loftiest hill, our labors were at length rewarded with two beautiful crystals. One of them was a fine prism an inch in diameter, of perfect transparency and of a deep sea-green color, which, however, is far from being similar to the transcendent hue of the Granada emeralds, which exhibit an excess of neither blue nor yellow. The other was yellowish-green, resembling the chrysoberyls of Brazil.
Other but imperfect crystals were brought to light, some fragments of which exhibited the deepest golden tints of the topaz, and others the tints of the sherry-wine colored topazes of Siberia. Magnificent crystals have been found in these localities in times long past, and from the fragments and sections of crystals found in the _débris_ of early explorations, we observed the wide range of color, and the deep longitudinal striæ which characterize the renowned beryls from the Altai Mountains, in Siberia. Lively sea and grass green, light and deep yellow, also blue crystals of various shades, have been found here.
At the quarries on Rollestone Mountain in Fitchburg, beryls of a rich golden color have been blasted out. Some of these approach the chrysoberyl and topaz in hardness and hue. Others so closely resemble the yellow diamond that they may readily be taken for that superior gem. The refractive power of these yellow stones is remarkable; and the goniometer will probably reveal a higher index than is accorded to all the varieties of beryl by the learned Abbé Haüy.
Beautiful transparent beryls have been found among the granite hills of Oxford County in Maine; and the late Governor Lincoln, nearly half a century ago, possessed a splendid crystal, quite three inches in length and of great purity and brilliancy. Some very beautiful transparent blue crystals of beryl have recently been found in the western part of Oxford County, Maine, which have yielded gems of considerable value. Probably active search for this mineral in this region will bring to light some charming specimens.
New Hampshire is famous for its gigantic beryls; and the localities of Acworth and Grafton have yielded some enormous crystals. One was removed by Mr. Alger, of more than a ton in weight; and a still larger one was observed by Mr. Hubbard, who estimated its weight at two and one half tons. These gross specimens are generally opaque, with patches of translucent or even transparent mineral on their sides. The regularity of their crystalline forms is also much impaired or distorted.
At Haddam, in Connecticut, beautiful crystals of beryl have been discovered; and one of these of fine green color, an inch in diameter and several inches in length, was preserved in the cabinet of Colonel Gibbs. Professor Silliman possessed another fine one, seven inches in length.
The mountains in Colorado have yielded some fine specimens. But the finest of the beryl species come from Russia. In the Ural Mountains the crystals are small, but of fine color; in the Altai Mountains they are very large and of a greenish-blue; but in the granitic ledges of Odon Tchelon in Daouria, on the frontier of China, they are found in the greatest perfection. They occur on the summit of the mountain in irregular veins of micaceous and white indurated clay, and are greenish-yellow, pure pale-green, greenish-blue, and sky-blue. The chief matrix of the beryl all over the world is graphic granite, but it may occur in other rocks. The light green stones of Limoges, in France, appear in a vein of quartz traversing granite. At Royalston we observed them to spring seemingly from the felspar and project into smoky quartz, becoming more transparent as they advanced into the harder stone.
The beryl possesses the same crystalline form and specific gravity as the emerald, but its hardness, especially in the blue and white varieties, is sometimes greater. They are both silicates of alumina, and the only perceptible difference in the two stones is in the color. Cleaveland thought that as the emerald and beryl had the same essential characters, they might gradually pass into each other; and Klaproth, finding the oxides of both chrome and iron in one specimen, was led to take the same view. The crystals of true emerald are almost always small, with the exception of those found in the Wald district in Siberia, whilst those of the beryl vary from a few grains to more than a ton in weight. The crystals of both are almost invariably regular hexahedral prisms, sometimes slightly modified. Those of the beryl we sometimes find quite flat, as though they had been compressed by force; then again they are acicular and of extraordinary length, considering their slender diameter. Sometimes their lateral faces are longitudinally striated, and as deeply as the tourmaline, so that the edges of the prism are rendered indistinct. Other crystals are curved, and some perforated in the axis like the tourmaline, so as to contain other minerals. Sometimes they are articulated like the pillars of basalt, and separated at some distance by the intervening quartz. These modified forms give rise to curious speculations as to their formation and origin. If we admit the action of fire (which is improbable), then the separation may be easily explained; but if we insist that they were deposited in the wet way and by slow process, how can we account for the dislocation? “By electricity,” whispers a friend,--“by telluric magnetism, that wonderful unexplained and mysterious force which has caused the grand geological changes of the globe, and is still at work.”
Sometimes the crystals of beryl are of two distinct colors, but generally they are of one color, often shading into white at either extremity. They may exhibit the richest golden-yellow, or a light cerulean blue, or a clear sea-green like those described by Pliny, now called aqua-marines. “Qui viridatem puri maris imitantur.”
One distinction between beryl and quartz is afforded by the appearance of its fracture. A crystal of beryl breaks into smooth planes, the faces of which are at right angles to the axis of the prism; while the fracture of the surface of broken quartz is invariably conchoidal.
Blue beryls were highly prized by the ancients. Beautiful specimens are found in the glens of the Mourne Mountains in Ireland. But finer gems are brought from the granite district of Nertschinsk, in Siberia, and also from various localities in the Uralian and Altaian Mountains, where the Romans were supposed to have obtained them in early times.
Its name is derived from the Persian “belur,” which the Romans changed into “beryllus.” Sometimes it occurs of a rose color. A few have been found at Elba and one at Haddam by Colonel Gibbs. One of the most beautiful specimens of beryl known was discovered in Siberia. It consisted of a magnificent crystal of smoky quartz, in the base of which appeared several fine crystals of beryl, of an exquisite yellowish-green and greenish-blue.
In the princely collection of Mr. Vaux, of Philadelphia, may be seen a crystal of beryl from the Mourne Mountains of Ireland, two inches in length by five eighths of an inch in diameter. It is of a celestial blue color, much deeper in hue at one extremity than at the other. But the gem of this collection among the beryls is a specimen purchased in Russia, in 1875. It is a six-sided prism nine inches in length and six inches in circumference. The color is of a rich oily green, and several inches of its upper extremity is transparent, while the rest is translucent. It rests upon a mass of granite, and is a specimen of extraordinary size and beauty.
Mr. Clay of the same city has a remarkable prism of Siberian beryl two inches in diameter, which exhibits a tint of celestial blue externally but which appears of a decided green hue in its interior.
At the Centennial Exhibition Brazil exhibited a fine crystal of a warm celadine green color. Russia displayed some very beautiful specimens of the yellow, green, and blue beryls from Siberia. Some very beautiful crystals of emerald, both solitary and fixed in the matrix, were also exhibited from the same country.
Several of the mineralogical cabinets of Europe possess fine suites of the emerald and beryl in a great variety of forms and degrees of perfection. Those of the École des Mines at St. Petersburg, the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, and the British Museum, are of very great commercial value and mineralogical interest.
At the French Exposition in 1867, the celebrated jeweller, Froment Meurice, exhibited a beautiful specimen of modern glyptic art cut in beryl. It comprised the bust of the Emperor Napoleon III. carved in pure aqua-marine. The image was placed upon a miniature pedestal of blood-red jasper, before which the imperial eagle spread his wings and perched upon a base of red jasper, which was studded with stars of topazes, bosses of pearls, and bordered with roses formed of minute amethysts.
A beautiful blue stone adorns the summit of the crown of England, and has been described as a sapphire of unusual purity. But mineralogists affirm, that the gem is a blue beryl, and it is surmised by others that it is the identical and famous stone which Edward the Confessor wore in a ring. It is of a lovely color, oval in form, and measures 2¹⁄₁₀ inches in length by 1¹⁄₂ in width, and 1¹⁄₅ in depth.
A superb aqua-marine formerly adorned the tiara of Pope Julius II. and was considered as one of the most celebrated in the world, notwithstanding it exhibited a slight flaw. This gem, which was of an exquisite sea-green color, was 2¹⁄₁₀ inches in length and 2²⁄₅ in depth. After having been kept in the Museum of Natural History in Paris for more than three hundred years, Napoleon presented it to Pope Pius VII.
The Asiatics, and especially the Turkish officers, prize the prisms of beryl as handles to their scimetars and daggers. This fondness for decoration of sword-blades and arms is by no means confined to the soldiers of the East. The officers of Napoleon’s armies exhibited the same taste. Murat adorned the hilt of his sword with one of the finest beryls ever seen in Europe. Another famous aqua-marine formed the handle of the sword of the poet Moncrif, who, like another celebrated swordsman, the painter Caravaggio, compelled admiration of his works at the point of his sword. This blood-stained gem bore as inscription the epitomized history of the author, a quotation from the poet Theophile, “Tous mes jours sont des Mardis-gras.”
One of the most beautiful beryls known is that purchased by the English banker, Mr. Hope, and placed in his collection of gems. It weighs six and one half ounces, and cost its princely owner nearly twenty-five hundred dollars. It is reported to have come from the mine of Cangazum, in the district of Coimbatoor in India, a locality which has been long famous for its fine beryls.
The most magnificent aqua-marine described in history is that belonging to Dom Pedro. It was found in the diamond districts of Minas Geraes, in Brazil. In form and size it resembles the head of a calf. Only on one side does it preserve any trace of a crystalline form; the rest is water-worn. It is said to be of a fine color, without a flaw, and perfectly transparent.
For many ages the shrine of the Abbey of St. Denys, at Paris, received rare and valuable gems as offerings; and at the time of the French Revolution the collection had become very valuable. The iconoclasts ordered it to be separated and sold. It brought 80,000 francs, and was scattered along the commercial highways of the world, never again to be reunited. One of the finest aqua-marines, mounted in sapphires and pearls, and engraved with the portrait of Julia, the daughter of Titus, was fortunately rescued, and may now be seen in the collection of the National Library of France. This splendid gem is of the unusual magnitude of 2¹⁄₂ inches by 2¹⁄₈. For quite a thousand years it formed a part of a golden reliquary celebrated as “l’escrain de Charlemagne.” History relates that it was presented by the great Emperor before his death to the Abbey of St. Denys. This is one of the finest specimens of an ancient intaglio carved upon beryl that has survived the destructive pillage of armies and the wreck of time since the early days of the Roman Empire. It is said that specimens of antique engraving upon this gem are about as rare as those carved upon the emerald, and their rarity is believed to be due to their great value, as well as to their scarcity in the gem markets in ancient times.
Several royal relics of the lower Empire containing emeralds are still preserved, to attest the use of the gem in those days as well as the esteem in which it was held. The famous Iron Crown of Lombardy, made perhaps before the sixth century, contains several emeralds. This renowned relic is simply a circlet of gold, covering an iron nail of the cross, beaten out thin. The crown of the queen of one of the Gothic kings of Spain, of the seventh century, was recently exhumed at Toledo, and also exhibits emeralds among other gems. And there are other examples to prove the use of the emerald in mediæval times for ornamental purposes.
No other gem has been counterfeited with such perfection as the emerald; and in fact it is utterly impossible to distinguish the artificial from the real gems by the aid of the eye alone; even the little flaws, which lull the suspicions of the inexperienced, are easily produced by a dexterous blow from the mallet of the skilled artisan. Not only emeralds, but most of the gems and precious stones, are now imitated with such consummate skill as to deceive the eye; and none but experts are aware of the extent to which these fictitious gems are worn in fashionable society, for oftentimes the wearers themselves imagine that they possess the real stones. There is not one in a hundred jewellers who is acquainted with the physical properties of the gems; and very few can distinguish the diamond from the white zircon or the white topaz, the emerald from the tourmaline of similar hue, the sapphire from iolite, or the topaz from the Bohemian yellow quartz. Jewellers are governed generally by sight, which they believe to be infallible, whilst hardness and specific gravity are the only sure tests.
Artificial gems, rivalling in beauty of color the most brilliant and delicately tinted of the productions of Nature, are now made at Paris and in other European cities. The establishments at Septmoncel in the Jura alone employed a thousand persons, and fabulous quantities of the glittering pastes were made there and sent to all parts of the world.
A fine specimen of prase, when cut, affords a fair imitation of the emerald. The green fluor-spar which Haüy called “emeraude de Carthagène” may also be substituted, but the application of the file detects the trick with ease. Some of the green tourmalines approach the emeralds in hue very closely, and by artificial light it is impossible to distinguish them from each other. Fragments of quartz may be stained by being steeped in green-colored tinctures. The Greeks stained quartz so like the real gem, that Pliny exclaimed against the fraud, while declining to tell how it was done. The Ancona rubies at the present day are made by plunging quartz into a hot tincture of cochineal, which penetrates the minute fissures of the rock.
But notwithstanding the high art reached by modern glass-makers, they are yet far behind the ancients in imitating the emerald in point of hardness and lustre. Many emerald pastes of Roman times still extant are with difficulty distinguished from the real gem, so much harder and more lustrous are they than modern glass. The ancient Phœnician remains found in the island of Sardinia by Cavalier Cara, in 1856, show fine color in their enamels and glass-works. The green pigment brought home from the ruins of Thebes by Mr. Wilkinson, was shown by Dr. Ure to consist of blue glass in powder, with yellow ochre and colorless glass. From Greek inscriptions dating from the period of the Peloponnesian war, we learn that there were signets of colored glass among the gems in the treasury of the Parthenon.
Of all the emerald imitations that have descended to us from antiquity, none are more remarkable, none more interesting to the antiquary and historian, than the famous Sacro Catino of the cathedral of Genoa. This celebrated relic is a glass dish, or patera, fourteen inches in width, five inches in depth, and of the richest transparent green color, though disfigured by several flaws. It was bestowed upon the Republic of Genoa by the Crusaders, after the capture of Cæsarea in 1101, and was regarded as an equivalent for a large sum of money due from the Christian army. It was traditionally believed to have been presented to King Solomon by the Queen of Sheba, and afterward preserved in the Temple; and some accounts relate that it was used by Christ at the institution of the Lord’s supper. The Genoese received it with so much veneration and faith, that twelve nobles were appointed to guard it, and it was exhibited but once a year, when a priest held it up in his hand to the view of the passing throng. The State, in 1319, in a time of pressing need, pawned the holy relic for 1,200 marks of gold ($200,000), and redeemed it with a promptness which proved its belief in the reality of the material, as well as in its sanctity. And it is also related that the Jews, during a period of fifty years, lent the Republic 4,000,000 francs, holding the sacred relic as a pledge of security. Seven hundred years passed away, when Napoleon came; and as he swept down over Italy, gathering her art treasures, he ordered the “Holy Grail” to be conveyed to Paris. It was deposited in the Cabinet of Antiquities in the Imperial Library, and the mineralogists quickly discovered it to be glass. It is due to the memory of Condamine to state that he was the first to doubt the material of the Sacro Catino; for, when examining it by lamplight in 1757, in the presence of the Princes Corsini, he observed none of the cracks, clouds, and specks common to emeralds, but detected little bubbles of air. In 1815, the Allies ordered its return to the cathedral of Genoa. During this journey the beautiful relic was broken; but its fragments were restored by a skilful artisan, and it is now supported upon a tripod, the fragments being held together by a band of gold filigree. This remarkable object of antiquity, which is of extraordinary beauty of material and workmanship, furnishes a theme over which the antiquaries love to muse and wrangle.
Another of the antique monster emeralds, weighing twenty-nine pounds, was presented to the abbey of Reichenau, near Constance, by Charlemagne. Beckman has also detected this precious relic to be glass. And probably the great emerald of two pounds weight brought home from the Holy Land by one of the dukes of Austria, and now deposited in the collection at Vienna, is of the same material. Another, more than eight inches long, was preserved in the chapel of St. Wenceslaus at Prague. The hardness of our glass is yet far inferior to that of the ancients; and even the ruby lustre of the potters of Umbria, which was so precious to the _dilettanti_ of the Cinque Cento period, has not been recovered.
The enormous emerald dishes and statues and obelisks described by Herodotus, Theophrastus, Appian, and others were undoubtedly constructed of glass, and exhibited to the ignorant multitudes as formed of monster emeralds.
One of the most curious of these impositions was the sculptured lion on the tomb of Hermias on the island of Cyprus, which had emerald eyes which shone so brightly as to frighten away the fish in the sea near by.
The wonderful “Table of Solomon” which formed a part of Alaric’s Roman spoils, and was taken by his Goths to Spain, where it was captured by the Arab invaders and afterwards sent to Damascus, was probably another specimen of the ingenuity of the glass-workers of Alexandria or Tyre. It is described by one of the Arabian historians as of a marvellous beauty, being formed of a single slab of solid emerald, encircled with rows of pearls, and supported on many feet composed of gems and gold.
The famous Barberini vase, found in one of the tombs of the Roman emperors, and exhibiting white figures upon a dark-blue ground, was long thought to be carved from some variety of sardonyx, but proved in modern times to be of hard antique glass. Of similar material the unique ewer in the Brescian Museum and the vases in the Palace Borbonico are composed, and all of these are of great antiquity. The sapphire cup of Theolinda, the once celebrated Queen of Lombardy, now preserved in the Cathedral at Monza, is glass.
There are but very few stones whose colors resemble that of the emerald, and therefore frauds are easily detected. A well-selected specimen of prase may be passed as an inferior emerald, as well as the translucent stones cut from the Chinese jade; but their want of transparency offers a serious objection to them as a gem. The green tourmaline, when it approaches the emerald in hue, is of equal value. The green zircon and the green spinel would be far superior to the emerald in brilliancy, and therefore of greater value to the amateur. The chrome-green garnet of Hungary and the emerald-green garnet of Siberia would command a high price, if of pure color, as they surpass the glucina emerald in eclat and are moreover exceedingly rare. The peridot may assume the exact hue of the Granada emerald. The glass imitations are almost _fac-similes_ in hue, and are far superior in brilliancy to the mineral itself; but their softness, which readily yields to the file, betrays their nature without difficulty.
Since the time of the Spanish Conquest, New Granada has furnished the world with the most of its emeralds. The most famous mines are at Muzo, in the valley of Tunca, between the mountains of New Granada and Popayan, about seventy-five miles from Santa Fé de Bogota, where every rock, it is said, contains an emerald. At present the supply of emeralds is very limited, owing to restrictions on trade, and want of capital and energy in mining operations.
Blue as well as green emeralds are found in the Cordillera of the Cubillan. The Esmeraldas mines in Equador are said to have been worked successfully at one period by the Jesuits. The Peruvians obtained many emeralds from the barren district of Atacama, and in the times of the Conquest there were quarries on the River of Emeralds near Barbacoas. Emeralds of a poor quality are found at Limoges in France, and also in Norway. In some of the felspar quarries in Finland they occur in large thick crystals, several feet in thickness, of a fine color, but not transparent.
Emeralds are found in Siberia, and some of the localities may have furnished to the ancients the Scythian gems which Pliny and others mention. In the Wald district magnificent crystals have been found embedded in mica-slate. One of these--a twin-crystal, now in the imperial cabinet at St. Petersburg--is seven inches long, four inches broad, and weighs four and a half pounds. There is another mass in the same collection which measures fourteen inches long by twelve broad and five thick, weighing sixteen and three-quarter pounds troy. This group shows twenty crystals from a half inch to five inches long, and from one to two inches broad. They were discovered by a peasant cutting wood near the summit of the mountain. His eye was attracted by the lustrous sparkling amongst the decomposed mica where the ground had been exposed by the uprooting of a tree by the violence of the wind. He collected a number of the crystals, and brought them to Katharineburg and showed them to M. Kokawin, who recognized them and sent them to St. Petersburg, where they were critically examined by Van Worth and pronounced to be emeralds. One of these crystals was presented by the Emperor to Humboldt when he visited St. Petersburg, and it is now deposited in the Berlin collection. Quite a number of emeralds are now brought from the Siberian localities, and it is believed that enterprise and capital would produce a large supply of the gem.
Near Salsberg, in the Tyrol, the emerald occurs in a mica-slate which appears on the face of a very steep precipice difficult of access, and about 8,700 feet above the sea-level. They are of good color, but much impaired in their transparency by foreign matter and imperfect crystallization. Some of the finest stones yielded by this locality were exhibited as cabinet specimens by the Emperor of Russia at the Paris Exposition.
The supply of emeralds from South America is very limited, and may be ascribed to want of skilful mining, as well as to climate, the political condition of the country, and the indolence of its inhabitants. The localities cannot be exhausted, for they are too numerous and extensive. The elevated regions in Granada admit of scientific exploration by Europeans, and at the present day the only emerald-mining operations conducted in South America have been prosecuted near Santa Fé de Bogota by a French company, which has paid the Government $14,000 yearly for the right of mining, all the emeralds obtained being sent to Paris to be cut by the lapidaries of that city. In the Atacama districts, and along the banks of the River of Emeralds, the physical obstructions are difficult to overcome; and pestilential diseases of malignant character forbid the long sojourn of the European. Yet the introduction of Chinese labor may prove successful and highly remunerative, since the coolie reared among the jungles and rice-swamps of Southern China is quite as exempt from malarial fevers as the negro.
Hassaurek was surprised not to find emeralds for sale at Guayaquil, as they had been found in abundance in Equador at the time of the Conquest. The Alcalde of the region around the River Bechile gave Stephenson, the traveller, three emeralds which were found in the sands at the mouth of the river.
Concerning the emerald mines whence the ancients drew their supplies of gems, there remains but little positive information. They were undoubtedly established in Arabia, Africa, and Scythia, but all record of them is lost. As regards the Egyptian mines, modern travellers have proved their existence. At the ancient mines at Gebel Zabara, which were worked in the time of the Ptolemies, M. Callaud found the tools of the miners as they had left them, and also many inferior emeralds among the _débris_ of the pits. Mehemet Ali attempted to reopen them, but was unsuccessful, as the matrix of the gem proved to be exhausted. This discovery establishes the truth of Pliny’s remark concerning some of the localities of the emerald. They are the same gems whose beauty was praised by the Persian poets. We have no evidence of ancient mines of emeralds in Asia; and Tavernier, who sought in vain to discover them, ventured to state that he believed that some of the emeralds he saw in India must have come from Peru, by way of the Philippine Islands, long before the Conquest by the Spaniards.
Other mines undoubtedly were worked in Africa; and we know that in the time of Justinian, the Abyssinians searched the coast, even as far as the equator. The African emeralds were not of the first quality; and at a later period of Roman history the Scythian emeralds were reckoned as the first in value and beauty, the Bactrian second, while the African were classed as third. About the fourth century the throne of the White Huns was famous for the splendid Scythian emeralds which adorned it.
The price of the emerald has no fixed and extended scale, like that of the diamond, and the fluctuations of its value during the past three centuries form an interesting chapter in the history of gems. In the time of Dutens (1777) the price of small stones of the first quality was one louis the karat; one and a half karats, five louis; two karats, ten louis; and beyond this weight no rule of value could be established. In De Boot’s day (1600) emeralds were so plenty as to be worth only a quarter as much as the diamond. The markets were glutted with the frequent importations from Peru, and thirteen years before the above-mentioned period one vessel brought from South America two hundred and three pounds of fine emeralds, worth at the present valuation more than seven millions of dollars. At the beginning of this century, according to Caire, they were worth no more than twenty-four francs (or about five dollars) the karat, and for a long time antecedent to 1850, they were valued at only $15 the karat. Since this period they have become very rare, and their valuation has advanced enormously. In fact, the value of the emerald now exceeds that of the diamond, and is rapidly approaching the ratio fixed by Benvenuto Cellini in the middle of the sixteenth century, which rated the emerald at four times, and the ruby at eight times, the value of the diamond. Fine stones (the emerald is exceedingly liable to flaw, the beryl is more free, and the green sapphire is rarely impaired by fissures or cracks) of one karat in weight are worth at the present day $200 or more. Fine gems of two karats weight will command $500; while larger stones are sold at extravagant prices.
Most of our aqua-marines come from Brazil and Siberia, and small stones are sold at trifling prices. Some of them, however, when perfect and of fine color, command fabulous sums. The superb little beryl found at Mouzzinskaia is valued by the Russians at the enormous sum of $120,000, although the crystal weighs but little more than one ounce. Another rough prism preserved in the Museum at Paris, and weighing less than one hundred grains, has received the tempting offer of 15,000 francs.
THE OPAL.
“What radiant changes strike the astonished sight! What glowing hues of mingled shade and light!”
FALCONER.
THE OPAL.
What is the composition of this wonderful stone, which displays such wondrous hues? What is the nature of this remarkable mineral, which seems to concentrate within its substance all the glories of the rainbow, and which rivals in its hue the finest gem of the mineral world? The Turk believes that it falls from heaven in the lightning’s flash, and it is often regretted by the mineralogist that the theory cannot be sustained. Surely a gem so beautiful, so delicate and so pure ought to be of celestial origin, and free from the impurities and imperfections of the earth. Alas, we have but one precious stone that comes to us from the far-off region of celestial space,--olivine,--and that as yet has been found only in minute grains.
But if we cannot ascribe the origin of our beautiful gems directly to the stars and other bodies in space, we may affirm that their birth or development in the bosom of our earth may be due in a great measure to extra-terrestrial influences. And as regards the precious opal, if we cannot prove it of divine origin, we can with truth affirm that there is a deep mystery connected with the mineral both in its composition and its physical properties. The liberal-minded physicist to-day finds himself somewhat baffled when attempting to explain the phenomena of the gem in accordance with our imperfect knowledge of natural laws. Apparently it is nothing more than hydrated silica or quartz; but it is of a lower specific gravity, and some of its varieties are so tender and delicate in structure as to be at the caprice of the atmosphere.
It has been maintained that the peculiarities of the opal depend in a great measure upon the quantity of water it contained, and which, mixed mechanically with the silica, varies from three to twenty per cent. But some chemists who have interested themselves in the study of the composition of the mineral do not regard the presence of water as absolutely essential for the development of the varied flashes of color. We will only state in this brief sketch that there is certainly a mystery connected with the part water plays in producing and perfecting the beauty of the opal. This quantity or factor of water varies greatly in the different varieties of opal. Apparently when heat is applied to the mineral the brilliancy of its hues is increased, either from evaporation of its water or some structural change. But if the degree of heat is too great, or its application too prolonged, the hues of the opal vanish and cannot be recalled by human skill. The same results from the effects of heat may be noticed in other gems of greater density and hardness, as the emerald, the topaz, and the tourmaline. It has been maintained that a faded opal may be restored to beauty by immersion for a time in water, with the view of restoring the fancied loss by evaporation; but we fear that the experimentalist will be often disappointed with his results. However, there is one singular variety of the mineral known as the hydrophane, which does not exhibit colors until after it has been immersed for a time in water, and when removed from its bath and becomes dry again its hues vanish. Therefore, we may justly affirm that there is a mystery in connection with the influence of water in producing the color of the opal. The optical properties of this mineral do not afford decisive distinction, and it never crystallizes in regular and definite form like quartz, neither does it exhibit a trace of double refraction.
We will say no more at present concerning the composition of this interesting substance except to allude briefly to the experiment of Damour, who found the opal to turn black when sulphuric acid was applied to it; hence he inferred that the substance contained some organic matter, but precisely what he could not determine, although he suspected the presence of bituminous matter. Similar foreign bodies have been detected in many other precious stones. In fact, many of our gems are impaired by impurities; and so generally, that a stone of absolute purity is of rare occurrence. Even the diamond, which is regarded as the emblem of light and purity, is reckoned by microscopists as one of the foulest of gems.
Werner divided the opal into four sub-species, and Jameson has separated it into seven varieties. The principal divisions, however, may be classed as follows: precious or noble opal, presenting refulgent tints; fire opal, with fire-like reflections; girasole, with reddish reflections when exposed to the sunlight; common opal, translucent and without reflections; wood opal or petrified opal, possessing the characters of common opal; hyalite, clear and colorless as glass. There is another kind of opal which we have never seen, but which is described as the asteriated opal. We are not able to give a minute description of its appearance or draw a comparison between it and that of asteriated quartz, sapphire, or garnet. It is said to display great beams of light which undulate over its surface like the flashings of lightning piercing the storm cloud. The variety known as the moss opal sometimes displays in its interior dendritic crystallization of a dark substance resembling delicate mosses, ferns, or trees. And the gleam of the colored rays flashing amidst these miniature forests and groups of foliage often present charming effects.
The grand characteristic which gives to the gem its value and renown is the wonderful play of the colored reflections which it displays, and which embrace all of the prismatic tints of the solar spectrum. As we view its vivid rainbow flashes when the gem is held in the sunlight, we must admit it to be the most magnificent of gems, and join with the Latin philosopher, who remarked that it was made up of the glories of the most precious stones. For as the light falls upon it in varied directions, its reflections recall the lively green of the emerald, or the tender blue of the sapphire, the rich yellow of the topaz, or the gorgeous red of the ruby.
This mineral has not only been an object of delight to the fashionable world, but it has also been a wonder and a perplexity to the philosophers. In admiring its beauties and attempting to account for its phenomena, Newton was led to the series of experiments and to that train of sublime reasoning that gave to science the most brilliant and extraordinary of his discoveries. The colored refractions of the gem reminded the philosopher of the iridescence of the soap-bubble, and the soap-bubble suggested the undulatory theory of light. Newton, after long study of the opal, is said to have declared that its hues were produced by the refractions and reflections of light at the numerous minute fissures which traverse the stone in all directions. But this theory is denied by many at the present day, and especially by Mohrs, who maintains that the thin films of air filling the cavities of the stone would produce iridescence only. Other opticians believe the colored reflections to be due to laminæ formed by incipient crystallization, as seen in the equally remarkable mineral known as labradorite. Babinet believes the brilliant colors of the opal to be due to the narrow fissures in the stone, like those produced in the partial fracture of glass or quartz. He also refers for example to the colors of thin transparent plates, and believes that the colors of flowers are produced in like manner from the overlaying of the transparent tissues of which the petals are composed. This, then, according to the French philosopher, is the secret of the gorgeous hues of vegetation from their first development to the period of their final decay. The diamond, when cut in a regular form, displays the most magnificent flashes of the prismatic hues by artificial light; and although the mineral is composed of an infinite number of laminæ, no one maintains the theory that the color is produced by thin films of air like those in the soap-bubble. We also may observe the same hues sparkling among the dew-drops in the morning sunlight, and likewise in the artificial diamonds, which are composed of solid glass and apparently homogeneous.
In examining the interior of an opal, we often fail to perceive any cause for the reflections of color, especially in the limpid varieties. The flashes appear when the light enters the stone at a certain angle, but when viewed in any other direction the gem presents the usual appearance of common transparent quartz. In other varieties of the mineral, however, especially the milky or translucent, a cause for the colored reflections is easily observed. We have under observation the beautiful opal known as the “Oberon,” and beneath its translucent surface appear thin films of a faint reddish hue suspended at different depths within its interior. They are so well defined that their edges may be recognized, and they lie like thin clouds suspended in a hazy sky. But as the gem is turned so that the light strikes the film at a different angle, the scene is instantly changed, and a mass of flame replaces the sombre tint. It is a little curious that some of the films exhibit the different colors of the spectrum as the angle of light is changed, while others display only the green and blue color, no matter how the light strikes them. In fact, the films or patches, which are apparently alike, produce different results from the same rays of light; and some display the continuous spectrum, while others exhibit but one color. It is a little singular that all transparent minerals when fractured do not exhibit alike in their fractures the prismatic gleams displayed by quartz and glass. We have before us a beautiful transparent white crystal of adularia or moon-stone from St. Gothard, and although it is fissured and fractured in a thousand places, yet we observe little iridescence in it even when exposed to the sunlight.
The localities where the precious opal is now found are but few, and none of them were probably known to the ancients. All record of the old opal mines is now lost; but there were undoubtedly deposits of the mineral in Arabia, Syria, and in Asia, whence the ancients derived their gems. The famous Hungarian mines were not discovered until late in the fifteenth century, and the country was quite unknown to the Romans.
The principal mines explored at the present day, and whence most of our opals are now derived, are those of Hungary and Honduras. The Hungarian mines are of great extent and are now scientifically explored, but those of Central America are undetermined and but rudely mined. It is believed that there are other mines in Central America besides those of Honduras, for the natives at times bring fine specimens to the coast from localities widely separated. It is quite true that most of the opals of America are less hard than the Hungarian, but they are no less brilliant, and some of them withstand atmospheric effects and the wear of time quite as well. The Honduras opals are found near Gracias a Dios in porcelain earth, and are extracted in irregular masses, sometimes uniform or globular concretions, with rough and deeply indented surfaces. These masses do not exhibit the least tendency to crystallization like quartz, and they are generally quite small. Their natural colors are pale, and vary from brown to a pearly gray. They often exhibit a rich and varied play of the rainbow hues, even in their natural and rough condition. But sometimes, when this rough exterior is removed by the lapidary’s wheel, and the gem is highly polished, the colors vanish as if by magic. The polished stone no longer displays a single ray of the brilliant fires which illuminated every angle of the stone when in its rough state. This singular disappearance may be explained by the theory that the surface has been too highly polished, and the substance of the stone is rendered too transparent to permit the requisite degree of reflection, for when the surface is slightly roughened the play of colors again returns. The finest specimens are therefore those which are translucent, or those which, being transparent, are backed by an opaque ground which refracts the light.
The opal-bearing districts in Central America are far more extensive than is generally supposed. The Province of Honduras abounds in them, and we have evidence of others occurring in the State of Guatemala on the Pacific coast. The following descriptions of some of the opal mines of Honduras were published by Dr. J. Le Conte, in 1868, in his report of the Inter-oceanic Railroad survey:--
“Extensive beds of common opal and semi-opal are seen along a belt extending through the central part of the department of Gracias; but these varieties, though very beautiful and possessing high interest to the mineralogist, are without commercial value from the ease with which artificial products may be made which precisely resemble them. The localities worthy of exploration are those in which the opal forms veins (not beds) in compact but brittle trachyte of a dark color. The veins, as will be seen, are not confined to such rock, but seem to have their origin in it, and are probably not found except in connection with it. The best-known mines of precious opal are in the department of Gracias; several localities have yielded valuable gems, but they are all remote from the line of road. Some are in the vicinity of the town of Gracias, others near Intibucat; but the most important are at Erandique. The working is now carried on in a very small way; but the locality is extensive, and in my opinion mining on a large scale would be attended with profit. The country near by abounds with beds of common opal, as in many other places, but the gems occur in somewhat irregular veins running in a northeast and southwest direction, and with a nearly perpendicular dip. The veins are not continuous, but branch off and disappear at short intervals; neither are the contents of uniform quality, but the valuable parts are usually in belts in the vein, and limited on each side by portions of ordinary opal without play of colors. These lines of light are sometimes numerous and narrow, alternating with the common opal forming a very beautiful gem. Many again, even of large size, are uniform in structure, and exhibit a play of colors as brilliant as the finest opals from Hungary. The hill in which they are found is about two hundred and fifty feet high, and two or three miles in length, and for a width of half a mile for its whole length opals have been found wherever excavations have been made. The rock in which they occur is a hard, brittle trachyte of a vitreous lustre, and splintering into acute fragments when struck; a bed several feet in thickness overlying this rock is of a gray color and soft consistence, and also contains opal veins; it is probably a trachyte changed by atmospheric action.
“Other localities within two leagues of Erandique have furnished very fine opals, but as they are not now worked I did not visit them. Many places on the road between Intibucat and Las Piedras appear favorable to the existence of opal mines; but only careful scrutiny by a number of explorers can discover them. I would mention as most worthy of future attention the vicinity of Lepasale and of Yucusapa and the ascent of the great mountain of Santa Rosa. Greater expectations and indeed almost certain success will attend the search for opal mines in the valley leading from Tambla towards the pass of Guayoca, nearly on the line of the proposed road. Within half a mile of Tambla are immense beds of common opal of various shades of color. Near Guayoca are banded opals of alternate layers of opaque and semi-transparent white, having the appearance of onyx; these occur in a red vitreous trachyte and sometimes in contact with the masses of petrified wood which strew the ground for a considerable distance. Veins of a pearl-colored opal, with red reflections, are also found here; they have no commercial value, but serve as indications of better things in the neighborhood.
“Between the two localities mentioned (that near Tambla and that of Guayoca), Mr. W. W. Wright, chief assistant of the survey, has, by following some obscure indications, arrived at a vein of very pretty glassy opals and yellow fire opals, not of great value, but serving to strengthen the opinion expressed of the ultimate discovery of precious opals in the vicinity. Near Choluteca are found fire opals, some of which I was told possess merit. One (not of the best) given me is precisely similar to those obtained by Mr. Wright near Tambla. Within one league of Goascoran, as I am informed by Fernando Gaillardo, a resident of that town, is a mine producing opals with a good play of colors.”
Another remarkable deposit of opal was found by Mr. Wright about five miles east of Villa San Antonio in the plains of Camayagua. Though not of high value, it may be of use for ornamental purposes, being of a fine red color with transparent amethystine bands. It occurs in veins in gray porphyry, sometimes several inches thick, and may be procured in large quantities. Precious opal has been discovered in the iron mines at Barcoo in Queensland, and a number of specimens were exhibited at Philadelphia, at the Centennial. Some of these specimens were very fair, and gave promise of choice gems. The blue tints displayed by some of them were of great purity. They appeared to be of the hard variety, and therefore less liable to be affected by the ravages of time, or influence of exposure.
We will not fatigue our readers with a long dissertation on the formation of the opal. We will however, quote one theory which all may understand.
The boiling waters of the Iceland geyser are projected into the air at a considerable height, and are heavily charged with silica. As the waters fall upon the earth, large piles of earthy and stony material are formed in process of time. When these silicious masses are broken open, translucent and transparent portions of silica are found, exhibiting the colored reflections of the noble opal as long as they remain hydrated, or, in other words, as long as they retain a certain quantity of water in their composition. This observation has led M. Descloizeaux to the belief that opals found in volcanic rocks or igneous rocks have had their origin in phenomena analogous to those of the Iceland geysers. The matrix of the opal is a varied one. The gem is not only found in porcelain earth, but it occurs in fissures and seams, in what appear to be old igneous rocks. It has also been deposited in recent periods, as in the limestones of the argillaceous beds, and even in the formations of the silicious waters of the hot springs of the present time. The decomposed cement of the old Roman ruins around the hot springs of Polombieres, uniting with certain chemical properties of the waters, has changed into opal and hyalite. Trees within historic times have been transformed into opal or semi-opal; and on the island of Unja one may see blocks and trunks of trees (some even showing the marks of the hatchet) converted into opal. Silicified trees forty or fifty feet in length, may be seen stretched from Cairo to Suez. In many other parts of the world trees and plants have been transformed by the mysterious processes of nature into a silicious substance possessing the characters of opal; but none of these vegetable metamorphoses exhibit the rainbow hues to any marked degree. Quartz, when flawed in the interior, sometimes exhibits a remarkable iridescence, and may imitate the opal, especially if viewed at a distance. Such specimens of iridized quartz are called “iris,” and they may be artificially produced by a sudden blow upon the stone, or by heating it and suddenly dropping it into cold water. The superb iris ornaments worn by the Empress Josephine were of remarkable brilliancy and play of colors. In ancient and mediæval times, iridescent quartz was held in great esteem; and fine specimens mounted in antique jewelry are preserved at the present day. It is described in the “Lapidarium” of Marbodeus as follows:--
“By the Red Sea the swarthy Arabs glean The iris, splendent with the crystal’s sheen; Its form six-sided, full of heaven’s own light, Has justly gained the name of rainbow bright.”
The fire opal occurs in its greatest perfection in the porphyritic rocks at Zimapan in Mexico. It is generally of a translucent hyacinth-red color and flashes forth dazzling beams of fiery carmine-red with yellow and green reflections. This Mexican gem is the most beautiful and gorgeous of all the varieties of opal; but, alas! it is also the most sensitive, and is frequently irreparably injured by water or exposure, or even by sudden atmospheric changes. So easily affected are the opals by the vicissitudes of the weather that they are almost always brighter in summer than in winter. But there are some varieties that are not so easily influenced, and are not injured by contact with water. The fact that this variety of opal is injured in course of time by contact with moisture or careless exposure is not remarkable when some of the harder gems undergo a change from similar exposure. The hard amethystine quartz, when worn as a finger ornament, will completely bleach out and become colorless in a few years. The black opal is the product of art, and for this purpose harlequin opals are used. The harlequin opal is simply the matrix of other gems spotted here and there with flakes of color dispersed over an opaque ground, and its name was suggested by the resemblance to the motley tints of the harlequin’s dress. Masses of the matrix, with fragments or specks of opal interspersed in its substance, are soaked for a time in a saccharine solution, and afterwards in diluted sulphuric acid. The porous parts of the matrix absorb a minute quantity of the solution, which is afterwards charred by the sulphuric acid; while the solid and transparent parts remain unchanged and exhibit an increased play of colors upon the black ground.
The ancients undoubtedly obtained their opals from Syria and Arabia or other Eastern countries, for the Hungarian mines which now supply the world with most of the finest gems were not discovered until the fifteenth century. The famous mines are situated on a mountain which is one of the spurs of the Carpathians. They belong to the Seignory Peklin, and are near the village of Czernizka. In the early days of their discovery, and for a long period afterwards, they were explored casually and from time to time. At the present day, however, the explorations are conducted with regularity and the appliances of skilled labor. The surface of the mountain has been removed to a great extent during this long-continued search of many centuries, but as yet no explorations have been attempted into the interior of the ledges. The true matrix appears not to be more than four to eight yards in depth below the alluvial soil. It is arranged in continuous beds of little hardness, but resembling porphyry in color. The opal formation appears to extend to a considerable distance beyond the flanks of the mountain; for, in the cultivated fields below, the laborers often find beautiful gems washed out by violent rain-storms from the exposed and superficial soils.
The opals from these mines are the hardest and most enduring of all the known localities of the earth, yet they have to be carefully tempered to heat and moisture before they can be utilized. M. Frangoll Delius, the Commissioner of the Austrian mines, states that these opals, when first extracted from their rocky beds, are soft, friable, and tender, and not in a condition to be worked. But after they have been exposed to the air and sunlight for some days or a definite time, they become harder, and the stones also become decidedly smaller from contraction. This exposure is required to be carefully regulated lest the stone become fissured by sudden contraction. When exposed to the effects of artificial heat, colors appear sooner than when it is submitted to the action of the sun’s rays. It is curious to watch the gradual unfolding and the display of these beautiful hues. At first the stone is limpid and rayless as pellucid quartz. But as the quarry water is evaporated by the effect of heat or time, and the stone contracts in volume, the iridized reflections then begin to appear, increasing in perfection and variety, until the requisite degree of moisture is expelled. If this evaporation is carried too far by heat the splendors of the gem vanish completely, never to be recalled. It is a singular fact that exposure to the sun’s rays gives the opal much finer hues than the action of artificial heat. And it is also a remarkable circumstance that of all the variety of prismatic hues displayed by this gem, the violet invariably appears the first, according to M. Delius.
The ancients rarely engraved upon the opal, influenced perhaps partly from its enormous value in those times, and partly from its soft and fragile nature. They imitated the gem, however, with such perfection that Pliny declared that it was almost impossible to distinguish the false from the real. Modern gem imitators have utterly failed in producing anything approaching the precious opal in beauty. The assertion of Pliny in regard to the imitation of the glories of this gem has always been received with incredulity by the moderns on account of the failures of our most skilled artisans; but the discoveries among the ancient Phœnician tombs in the island of Cyprus by Di Cesnola rather strengthen Pliny’s remark.
In this collection we may view a great and elegant variety of glass-ware exhumed from the tombs of the Phœnician nobility who lived three thousand years ago or more. Many of these vessels gleam with what appear to be iridescent tints of gold, blue, red, and other colors of the loveliest tints, recalling to mind the most beautiful and gorgeous reflections of the opal. Some of the articles are entirely of one color, while others are composed of patches of various hues resembling enormous opals with broad gleams of pure color. Peligot maintains that these superb colors are clue to the effect of great age; and the substance of the glass being separated into laminæ, the colors may be explained by the law of iridescence. But we are half inclined to believe that they may be due to the skill of the artisan in a great measure,--hence the variety of color in different vessels of the same age. In the famous collection of Signor Castellani there is a solid glass ring quite two inches in diameter taken from the ancient Etruscan tombs. This interesting relic exhibits patches of color as bright as the prismatic gleams, and they do not appear to arise from any disintegration of the material, but rather to be produced by the design of the workman. We surely will not ascribe to effect of age the decided iridescent glaze which we see in the Maiolica pottery of Hispano-Moresque objects of the thirteenth or fifteenth centuries, or in the Gubbio products of the sixteenth century.
The famous opal of history was that which was worn in a ring by the Roman Senator Nonius in the days of the Triumvirate. Its size scarcely exceeded that of a hazel-nut, yet its beauty and perfection were such that it was considered a marvel among the _dilettanti_ of Rome, and valued at the enormous sum of nearly a million dollars. Marc Antony, remembering the sacrifice of the matchless pearl by Cleopatra, and still enslaved by her irresistible charms, sought to obtain the opal, intending it as a present to the siren queen of Egypt. But Nonius refused to part with the treasure which was the idol of his heart, and sought safety in flight. The beauty and charm of the gem may be estimated by the fact that banishment then to a Roman was worse than death. History makes no further mention of this wonderful opal, and even if preserved among the spoils of ancient Byzantium its glories have probably vanished ere this, yielding to the destructive effects of time.
The finest opal of modern times was that which was worn by the Empress Josephine in the days of Imperial splendor. It was indeed a magnificent gem. Its flashing beams of light were so strong and vivid as to give the appearance of living flames of fire, and hence the name of _l’incendie de Troie_,--“the burning of Troy,”--was bestowed upon it. The base of this opal was completely opaque, but the superior portion was perfectly transparent, and through it were reflected a multitude of fiery gleams of red light. The fate of this beautiful gem is unknown. There are two splendid opals still to be seen among the Crown jewels of France, notwithstanding the frequent change of dynasties. One is placed in the centre of the Order of the Toison d’Or, and the other forms the clasp of the royal mantle.
In the imperial cabinet at Vienna is exhibited the grandest specimen of this gem yet discovered. It was found in the mines of Hungary in 1770, and purchased by the Austrian Government. It measures 3³⁄₄ inches in length, and is 2¹⁄₂ inches in thickness. Its weight is about seventeen ounces, and its value is estimated at about $300,000. Although it is injured by several cracks and fissures, it possesses a brilliant play of color, and is justly regarded as the finest specimen known, even surpassing the beautiful fire opal brought home from Mexico by Humboldt, and which is still preserved in the museum at Berlin.
At the close of the last century, but before the Revolution broke out in France, Mons. D’Auguy, a financier of Paris, came in possession of a most remarkable opal of the harlequin variety. It was of oval form, ⁷⁄₈ of an inch in length by ⁵⁄₈ in breadth. This gem was of wondrous beauty, and was pronounced perfect by the connoisseurs. It is now in the hands of the family of Count Waliski. At the same time the well-known amateur Fleury owned a rival to Auguy’s opal, which it exceeded slightly in size.
Another magnificent opal is described by Jackson as having been exhibited at Vienna. It was nearly an inch in length, and was of the harlequin order, having three longitudinal bands from which flashed resplendent flames of light and color. It was pronounced by the virtuosi of Dresden and Vienna to be the third in rank of all the fine opals then known.
In the Musée de Minéralogie of Paris may be seen a splendid opal which has been carved into a bust of Louis XIII. when a child. King very properly exclaims against the barbarism and extravagance where work and material mutually destroy each other’s beauty and value. The Spanish historians, in their marvellous stories of the wonders seen in Mexico at the time of the Conquest, describe the image of the mystic deity Quetzalcoatl (God of the air) on the great pyramid of Cholula, as wearing a mitre waving with plumes of fire, and which was supposed to have been produced by masses of the fire opal.
Dr. Le Conte brought home from his geological surveys in Honduras, a number of beautiful opals from the mines in that country. They have since been cut and mounted in gold with diamond settings, in the form of a necklace, which is regarded by connoisseurs as one of the most valuable jewels in the United States.
At the Centennial Exhibition of the United States, Austria exhibited some very beautiful opals of various kinds, both polished and in the natural state. One of the polished gems was two inches in diameter and valued at $25,000. It was of a faint milky white tint, like most of the Hungarian opals, and displayed a charming arrangement of colors.
The splendors of the opal are best seen when exposed to the direct rays of the sun, and viewed through a magnifying glass of low power. The dazzling scene has no equal in art or nature, for the vivid hues of the solar spectrum are here displayed with the most charming effect. The colors are in broad patches and not blended with their complementary hues as seen in the continuous spectrum, and the effects of the pure green, red, blue, and yellow, flashing forth in perfect purity and intensity, without definite arrangement, remind the observer of the brilliancy of the kaleidoscope. In this fascinating display of hues one might expect to see the colors pass into each other as in the solar spectrum, and as the field of view is changed; but such is not always the result. The red may exhibit a tinge of yellow, or the green a shade of blue before they disappear from view; but generally the patch of color ends abruptly, preserving its purity of tint to the last.
The alternate and irregular flashing of all these varied hues always presents a harmonious spectacle, such is the wondrous power of Nature in all her arrangements and groupings. The stone, when arranged by the art of the lapidary, is almost always cut with a convex surface. However, when the opal is attached to an opaque substance which serves as a reflector to the rays of light, the stone may then have its surface cut almost flat. The colors displayed by this gem embrace quite all of the tints seen in the solar spectrum, and they are as pure. The shades of green, blue, yellow, and red will bear comparison with the hues of the solar spectrum, and the gems of other minerals are rare that can bear this decisive test. Sometimes but one color is visible in the stone, and then it is called emerald or golden opal, according to the tint exhibited.
The purchase of opals in the rough natural state is attended with danger, for often the glittering mass, after being shaped and polished by the lapidary, is transformed into a transparent but hueless stone. The cutting of the opal is always a hazardous operation, from the fragility of the material and the special tact required in determining the shape to be given the gem. We will relate an instance to illustrate the history of the whole.
A traveller from Central America brought home a splendid rough fire opal which dazzled the eye with its fiery reflections. We took it to an honest lapidary, who received it with a doubtful look. The next day the opal was returned, having been shaped into the usual oval form, but only a faint gleam of any of the colored rays flashed from its surface, or the interior. “Is this the gem we gave you yesterday?” we demanded of the artisan. With a smile the lapidary took the transparent stone and roughened its finely polished surface upon the wooden wheel. In an instant the lost fire returned as if directed by magic’s wand. The perfect transparency of the gem, with its high polish, had allowed the rays of light to pass directly through it, and there was but little refraction, but on roughening the surface the light was interrupted and the peculiar property of the mineral displayed. Unfortunately the lesson was not concluded here. At the last touch of the wheel the beautiful gem flew into two parts, and its glories departed in an instant. Saddened with the day’s experience, we took the two fragments, cemented them together, and tossed the stone into a drawer which contained other mineral specimens of no great value. Some months after, while searching for a misplaced mineral, a gleam of light suddenly flashed out as we opened the drawer. It was the neglected and abused opal, which now gleamed with the energy of a living coal of fire. It had recovered its beautiful reflections, and still adorns, notwithstanding its fracture, a most cherished jewel.
Whence this mysterious change? the reader may ask. We can only say that the complete transparency of the stone had been lessened, and perhaps the change was due to the action of some of the ingredients of the cement with which we united the fragments of the broken gem.
Some of the Central American opals have the reputation of fading and becoming translucent and opaque in course of time, or according to the circumstances of exposure. We will relate an instance which forms a part of our experience and education in the study of gems.
A few years ago, two Spaniards arrived in New York with a bag of rough opals brought from Central America, but from what particular locality we never learned. The specimens varied in size from that of a bean to that of an English walnut, and were extremely beautiful. They had a fresh appearance, as though they had been recently extracted from the mines, and many of them had portions of the soft sandy matrix still attached to them. They excited suspicions of not having been properly tempered and hardened by exposure; but their beauty, which reminded one of the perfect glow-worm, or lumps of phosphorus moistened with oil, did not allow the spectator to hesitate about the purchase of them, especially as they were offered at a moderate price. We invested in the purchase of several charming specimens, and never wearied in examining their exquisite effects. Still, we felt a vague suspicion of the enduring qualities of our newly acquired treasures. The most beautiful stone, the size of a small almond, we carried in our pocket for a long time, not only for our gratification but for the purpose of studying the effect of the atmosphere upon its reflections. Soon after our acquisition, we fancied a slight shadow or nebulosity appearing in one end of the stone. We carefully watched it, and before long an indistinct cloudiness began to appear, like the dim and distant haze of a summer sky on the commencement of a storm. Even then we thought it might be mere fancy on our part. But when the shadow changed to opacity, and the transparency of the gem, with its beautiful reflections, vanished, never to return, we were compelled to admit that even substances of the mineral kingdom had their diseases as well as forms of the organic world.
This is indeed but one example to illustrate a theory; but most of those we purchased at that time of the Spaniards have altered in appearance, and some of them quite as seriously. Therefore we have arrived at the conclusion that recently mined opals should be bought with caution; and that the perfection of a rough opal as a gem cannot be safely estimated until after it has been cut by the lapidary.
No definite idea can be given in relation to the price of the opal, so much depends upon the degree of its brilliancy and play of colors. The gem is not sold by weight, but its value is estimated by its size and the perfection of its charms. An opal half an inch in diameter exhibiting fair colors may be worth $5, and another of the same size, of greater perfection, may bring $5,000, or more. The palmy days of the opal were during the period of Roman luxury, as the beauties of the diamond were not then fully revealed, and the opal flashed forth its marvellous beams of color both by daylight and artificial light. The gem then commanded enormous prices. According to the tables of Dureau de la Malle, the opal of Nonius was valued at twenty million sesterces, or about eight hundred thousand dollars. Enormous as this sum of money appears, Catherine of Russia would have given as much for the gem, if its beauty had been in keeping with its reputation.
The commerce of the opal affords a curious example of credulity and superstition, which is in singular contrast with the progressive ideas of our advanced civilization. In times past the changes that sometimes occur in the opal from physical causes have impressed the minds of some excessively superstitious people as due to supernatural causes. And from these trivial fancies the most beautiful and _recherché_ of all that Nature has offered to us in the mineral kingdom has been placed under ban. This superstitious dread may be of ancient origin, and whence its source we know not. But it is a matter of history that the opal was the favorite gem among the Romans in their best periods of intelligence and refinement. So far from being feared at that time, it was eagerly sought for, as it was supposed to possess the power of warning against disaster, and exhibiting the rosy herald of joy. Hence it has been thought that a feeling of superstition as well as of avarice influenced Nonius when his paragon was demanded of him.
It is possible that the dread of the opal may be derived from the superstitious fancies that have descended to us from neolithic times, like the superstitions connected with the ancient stone implements which are now called in Western Europe elf-stones. In Scotland at the present day the ancient arrow-heads of stone are known as elf-bolts or fairy shots, and believed to protect the wearer from disease or misfortune. Thus it appears that stone weapons of an extinct race are used as ridiculous charms by later nations far advanced in civilization. History shows us how elves and fairies were created in the popular imagination from neolithic sources, and how weapons and ornaments of stone, amber, and metal became invested with mystic powers as objects of handicraft of the elves themselves. These objects are not only regarded as fairy charms among the races of the East, but the belief in their powers and use is quite as strong and tenacious among the Celtic portions of Europe. In other countries these primitive ideas of fairies and charms have become modified, and blossomed into poetic fancies to please chiefly the innocence of childhood. Some of these the genius of Shakspeare and other poets have made beautiful, and to these we offer no objection. Poetic license may sometimes invest an object with a positive effect which eventually may assume the appearance of fact. Thus the allusion to changes in the beauty of the opal in connection with misfortune, which was made by Sir Walter Scott, in his novel “Anne of Geierstein,” was taken to heart seriously by many of his readers, and the gem was placed under ban. The popular imagination became so strongly affected that the commerce of the opal in England became very seriously injured; and even at the present day many a timid maiden hesitates over the selection of the opal for ornamentation. Every mineralogist and man of science will rejoice to learn that Queen Victoria exhibits sterling good sense in selecting the opal among her choicest family gifts, thereby presenting a pleasing contrast to the superstitious and foolish fancies of the Empress Eugénie.
To the amateur who loves the rare and beautiful, with a feeling untrammelled by any of the misty traditions of the past or the caprices of fashion of the present, the opal is the dearest of all the gems. For it is not only rare, but it displays the glories of all the other gems; and it is the only one that defies the skill of the modern artisan to imitate. Its flash instantly betrays its character, and places it above suspicion, while quite all of the precious stones regarded as gems are now imitated so perfectly as to require close and careful inspection, and sometimes the application of scientific tests.
When we recall the phenomena of the opal, and the wonders of its reflections, with their strange and sudden disappearance, we may pardon the credulity of the Arabian romance writers in ascribing to the gem supernatural powers. It was a beautiful theory with them that it falls from heaven in the lightning’s flash, and is the veritable Ceraunia. Its charming and mysterious play of colors suggested to their ardent imaginations the glories of Paradise, and hence they invested it with wonderful talismanic properties, and believed it to be the abode of afreets and genii. Alas for romance! Science clearly demonstrates that many of the phenomena which puzzle the superstitious are simply due to atmospheric influences and to the natural laws which regulate the decay of organic and inorganic forms.
THE SAPPHIRE.
“The azure light of sapphire stone Resembles that celestial throne, A symbol of each simple heart That grasps in hope the better part, Whose life each holy deed combines, And in the light of virtue shines.”
MARBODEUS.
THE SAPPHIRE.
The colored varieties of sapphire were probably known to primitive man, and were gathered in their rough state to serve as rude ornaments long before the diamond, with its less attractive natural appearance, was recognized as a treasure or a gem. The mountain torrents, laying bare the superficial strata of the gem beds, early exposed to view the sapphires of bright and attractive colors, which readily caught the close, observing eye of the savage; while the diamond, lustreless within its apparent crust, was unnoticed and unknown until civilization became far advanced and revealed the hidden splendors of the gem by the application of art.
We may therefore infer with a reasonable degree of probability that the colored sapphires, though perhaps not the most ancient in mineralogy, were in reality among the earliest gems known to man. The researches of the antiquary and the archæologist rather strengthen this view, for specimens of these stones are found among the ruins of the ancient and long-forgotten cities of Arabia and Persia, while the diamond is not.
This beautiful mineral has been known in the land of its birth from time immemorial as “korund;” and under this harsh name were included all those beautiful gems known to commerce as the Oriental ruby, topaz, emerald, and sapphire. The ancients in the days of Pliny bestowed upon the blue variety the more euphonious name of “hyacinthus.” Modern nomenclature, however, has adopted the term “sapphire” for all the transparent forms of the mineral, reserving the name “corundum” for the opaque and translucent or non-crystallized varieties.
In making use of this word, we have another illustration of the strange adoption of a term which is destitute of any relationship to the characters of the object it is intended to describe. The “sapphirus” of the ancients referred to lapis-lazuli, a blue opaque mineral spotted with minute metallic flakes; and the only significance it bears in connection with any of the forms of corundum is the simple fact that it means azure. If we follow the antiquaries still farther into the mists of early language, in seeking the etymology of the name, we shall probably find even less satisfaction. The nature of this gem, as well as most of the other precious stones, was mere conjecture to the ancients, and they formed their estimate of them chiefly from their hardness and color.
Among the early Greeks, Theophrastus strove in vain to discover some satisfactory basis of arrangement for these minerals, and to explain their forms, their constituents, and the manner of their creation. But his efforts and those of his contemporaries were of little avail; and so Ictinus, when he constructed the marvellous façade of the Parthenon, and Phidias, while he adorned it with immortal statues of marble and other stones, were alike ignorant of the nature of the materials they employed in their work. Several centuries later the treatises of the Latin philosopher Pliny show that science had made but little progress in this respect. The people of India and of the valley of the Euphrates, however, undoubtedly studied at a very early period the internal structure of the precious stones, and the revelations thus obtained had some effect in shaping their religion and their views of civilization.
In searching for the mysterious in the gems, the Assyrians discovered the cuneiform crystals in the interior of transparent sapphires, and adopted the forms for their own use, believing them to be the language of the genii. We have little doubt but that the cuneiform character which now reveals the history of the extinct Oriental empires had its origin from the wonderful crystallizations sometimes seen in the internal structure of the sapphire. These crystals are sometimes visible to the naked eye; but when the polished surface of the mineral is exposed to a magnifying lens of even low power, they appear with startling distinctness, and exhibit forms of perfect arrow-head shape of all colors. The field of vision may at first include but a single arrow-head crystal of perfect symmetrical outline floating in the azure of the stone; but as the field is shifted myriads of crystals may suddenly come into view, presenting a scene of such remarkable beauty and fascination that the observer ceases to wonder at the credulity of Arabian superstition. These crystallizations may occur in sapphires of any hue, and then again we may search in vain for them in many other specimens of the same mineral. Some specimens may contain a very few of these arrow-head forms, while others seem to be composed of multitudes and masses of them. One large red sapphire of four karats weight submitted to our inspection appears to be composed of clouds of these cuneiform crystals; and under the magnifying power of about twenty diameters it presents fields of arrow-heads flashing forth the most brilliant hues, and changing into new scenes of startling and transcendent beauty as the focus is varied. Whatever startled the imagination of the ancients with a new and mysterious beauty was at once invested with supernatural power.
In connection with this theme it is interesting and instructive to trace back the history of the gems and precious stones even within the period of the past two hundred years, and read the descriptions and definitions bestowed upon them by mineralogists. Some of the most gifted of men, like Linnæus and Wallerius, labored diligently to place them correctly in science; but their efforts to define and arrange them properly seem at the present day like schoolboy fancies. Daubenton conceived the brilliant but erroneous idea of arranging them according to their color, taking the solar spectrum for a standard. His idea was to place them in seven genera, according to the seven principal prismatic colors, and constitute species according to the different shades. This able man was not then aware that the sapphire and the tourmaline exhibit quite all of the colors of his seven genera.
Romè de L’Isle was the first mineralogical writer who classed the gems systematically; but it has since appeared that the amateur, Chevalier Baillou, preceded him in his crystallogical ideas; for in 1747 this observer described, in the catalogue of his collection, his views in relation to the properties of gems, and how their characters might be readily ascertained by the tests of hardness and specific gravity, and also by the form of their crystallizations. The distinguished and learned Abbé Haüy became interested and even fascinated with the study of the history and physical properties of the gems and the precious stones; and to his genius we are indebted for much of the information we have at the present day on this subject. He was deeply interested in the nature and characteristics of the Oriental precious stones; and being dissatisfied with the harsh term and the vague synonomy of “korund,” as applied to some of them, he proposed the more elegant name, “telesie.” But science, often disdainful of new terms, finally adopted the name proposed by Wallerius; and at the present time all of the fine and transparent varieties of corundum are called sapphire.
This remarkable mineral is found in mineralogical specimens in China, Siberia, America, and other parts of the world; but all of the fine gems, with perhaps few exceptions, come from Burmah, Pegu, Siam, lower Bengal, and Ceylon.
The island of Ceylon is the most famous of all the localities thus far known, and it is in reality the most wonderful gem deposit in the world. It was known in the period of the Roman Empire, as the land of the luminous carbuncle. This island, which is situated at the southeast extremity of the peninsula of Bengal, and separated from it by a broad but shallow strait, is about as large as England in its area. In the southern centre of the island a group of lofty mountains appears, rising to the height of about 8,000 feet above the level of the sea. On one side this great upheaval descends in successive ranges of hills until the flanks of the mountains subside into the alluvial plains; whilst on the other side the mountain range is characterized by abrupt precipices sometimes of several thousand feet in height. The great gem-producing districts of the island extend along the base of this mountain range for about fifty miles; and the central and richest part is considered to be located around Ratnapoora, which is scarcely two hundred feet above the level of the sea. This want of elevation in the Ceylon gem strata or placers becomes a marked feature when considering the high plateaux in which the diamond occurs in other parts of the world, also coupled with the fact that the two gems are not found together in the same placers. Here are situated the celebrated mines which have yielded vast quantities of the sapphire, especially the blue variety, for an indefinite period of time. They are not small and trivial deposits, but extend over large areas. Some of the plains which cover the deposits are more than thirty miles in extent, and form a large tract of country. Among them are the Kondapalle, Elk, Tolapella, Horton, Bopatalava, Moonstone, Newera Ellia, and many others.
The amount of labor expended in excavations on these plains is stupendous, and evidences still remain which indicate vast operations and remunerative labor in far distant times. The eastern portion of the plain at Newera Ellia furnishes a good example of the extent of the explorations. This region is still called the vale of rubies, and was mined on a grand scale by the ancient kings of Kandy. Many acres of this plain have been completely upturned, and the surface is still indented with numberless pits of large size, varying from three to seventeen feet in depth. The period of these extensive operations is unknown, and is so far distant as to be beyond the mention of history or tradition.
Most of the gem-bearing districts are classed as wild lands, and belong to the English Crown. As yet the authorities have never bestowed a thought upon their value as a source of revenue, and the search for gems is free to the world. Although much territory has been mined in a rude manner in past times, the fields are by no means exhausted, and offer excellent inducements to skilled labor. If some of the energy and determination now exhibited in the South Africa diamond mines could be transported to Ceylon, the gem marts would soon display the splendors of ancient times.
Ratnapoora, which is the gem mart of Ceylon, and situated in the midst of the mines, means literally the city of rubies. The mines adjacent to it and in the district of Saffragan are the principal ones now worked in the island, but the gems are found under the western plains that extend from Adams Peak to the sea. The plains and valleys southeast of Ratnapoora are all gem fields; and the beds of the torrents sometimes contain so great a quantity of broken fragments of sapphire, garnet, zircon, etc., that the sifted sands are used by the lapidaries in polishing gems.
The mining operations are generally carried on by the native Cingalese, who labor in the light of a pastime and only during intervals of their agricultural employments. Some few, however, undertake the labor as a regular business, but they belong to a low and dissipated class, and do not work systematically or with regularity. Therefore, the gem-mining of Ceylon cannot be regarded as a fixed and permanent business.
When an exploration has been determined upon, a small party of villagers set out for the promising region provided with the implements of mining and the means of camping out. The times selected for the operations are after the heavy rains which prevail in June and October, and the floods have subsided. The beds of rivers or smaller streams are often chosen as easier of access than the plains. If the river-bed is selected, the first act of the explorers is to seek for the proper locality where the gem-bearing strata may be found. To ascertain this, the Cingalese thrust a long iron rod of ten or twelve feet in length into the earth, and test the nature of the sub-soil. By means of long practice, the natives can adroitly penetrate the earth to a considerable depth, and, by the resistance to the movement of the rod, can detect the gem deposit of which they are in search.
If the indications are good, the natives proceed to build a hut if they are at a distance from their village, and prepare for the operations, which often extend over many weeks. After diverting a part of the force of the stream so as to form a quiet pool, they proceed to excavate the sand and gravel within a certain area. In order to accomplish this they use hoes with handles fifteen or more feet in length. The top strata are hurriedly raked up and thrown away; but as the pit deepens and the gem stratum is approached, the work is performed with greater care. As soon as the hoes bring up fragments and bowlders of white quartz, or strike a thin ferruginous crust, every particle of the gravel drawn up is carefully preserved. The gravel and sand thus obtained are then placed in large baskets woven of split bamboo and shaped to a conical point at the bottom. The basket thus filled is placed in the current of water, and its contents washed by imparting to it a circular motion. This washing process is kept up until the stones, gravel, and lesser particles are cleansed. During this operation the gems, which are much heavier than common stones, settle at the bottom of the basket, and are there collected together, so that when the superincumbent gravel is removed, the sapphires, garnets, zircons, etc., are easily discovered at the bottom and removed. This is the manner in which the wet diggings are carried on, and is the easiest mode of exploration; but it is by no means as sure or often as profitable as the operations in dry ground on the river banks or in the plains. The dry diggings are much more laborious, as the soil is firmer and the gem strata must be transported to water to be washed and sifted. These dry deposits are found the richest beneath the alluvial plains, which seem to have been in distant times shallow lakes and lagoons.
The gem stratum called mellan is always well defined, and occurs at a certain depth, which seems to correspond to the bottom of the lake at a definite period. This depth varies from two to twenty feet, and is perhaps even greater; but the natives rarely excavate below the depth of twenty feet. This peculiar formation, which is generally horizontal, is composed of a conglomerate of quartz gravel resting upon or mixed with a stiff clay, often indurated by a ferruginous oxide. In among this cascalho, or just below it and adhering to it, are found the fine pebbles and crystals of sapphire, tourmaline, garnet, zircon, spinel, and chrysoberyl. Under these rocks and in peculiar hollows in the plastic clay, which the natives call elephants’ footsteps, the gems are found clustered together heterogeneously, and often so perfect in form as to appear as though created there. At other places they are collected together in these pockets in such a manner as to suggest the idea that they had been washed in by a current of water.
All these varieties of gems, some of them widely differing from each other in composition and form of crystallization, are here embedded together, and seem to have one common origin. This is the true matrix, and the gems are not found in other portions of the soil unless some disturbing force has removed them, like a strong current of water breaking up the cascalho and transporting the gems to alluvions of its own deposit.
It is maintained and generally believed by mineralogists that the sapphire is formed in crystalline rocks; that in process of time the matrix is disintegrated, the gems set free, and washed down to the alluvial soils where they are now found. It is also thought that the gem-seekers might with patient care trace the precious stones to their source in the primitive ledges or the mountains, as the gold miner often follows for long distances the particles of gold in the soil until he discovers the parent vein in the solid ledge. But in Ceylon this view is not entertained by the natives; and all scientific efforts to find the sapphires in the mountain ledges have utterly failed. All trace of the sapphire and its attendant gems ceases as soon as we reach the limit of the gem stratum, and what seems to have once formed the shore of the lagoon. Beyond this plainly marked outline we may search in vain for the least sign of a connection with the older rocks either adjoining or at a distance. The result is the same if we examine the ledges on the same level or those of a higher elevation.
In some countries, in the granular limestone of New Jersey for instance, or the ripidolite of North Carolina, the granite of Siberia, or the dolomites of Switzerland, we find sapphire, or more properly corundum, of undecided colors, of inferior transparency or even of opacity; but it is very rare that a specimen is found of sufficient purity for ornamentation. The most transparent and perfect of these sapphires are generally impaired by cleavage planes which traverse the stone in several directions, preventing refraction of light, and often so marked as to appear like flaws. This circumstance indicates that the forces that deposited corundum and the fine sapphires were certainly different in character, or that the conditions in which they were exerted were not the same. For in Burmah, Pegu, India, or Ceylon, and wherever the perfect sapphires are found, they have one common matrix, and that is the peculiar ferruginous conglomerate.
This conglomerate is recognized as a recent formation; and how came these gems, which are believed to be as old as creation itself, to be found among it? This formation is not only recent, but it is actually taking place all over the world at the present day, and examples may be found in almost every country. We find in many places the peculiar strata of sand, gravel, and masses of stone in proper position to change into conglomerate, which requires the action of water highly charged with iron and lime or silica. Darwin found these stony layers in process of forming on the beaches of the Cape de Verde Islands, and in vain attempted to knock out a bolt of iron which had been cast ashore from some wreck not long before, and had in a short space of time become firmly fixed in the conglomerate. We may observe the same process taking place to-day on the coast of Cornwall, and among the _débris_ of the ledges of the Abrolhos Islands. In dredging rivers large masses of solid conglomerate are often brought to light. The Thames has furnished many examples; and not many years ago a cannon-ball embedded in a crystalline calcareous rock was taken from the bed of the Mediterranean not far from the mouth of the Rhone. Fresh water laden with _débris_ of vegetable matter also possesses the same cementing action as sea water, and an excellent example is seen in the allios now forming in the Landes of southern France. This allios is also a conglomerate, which has formed and is now forming at the depth of about three feet below the surface. Here the conglomerate of sand, pebbles, and angular fragments of rock is firmly cemented together by the rain-water, which filters down from the surface of the earth laden with vegetable matter. The cascalho in which the diamond is found is of similar character, and has a similar origin, for we likewise find there traces of vegetable _débris_, and the diamond itself contains germs of fungi and vegetable fibres of higher organizations.
But whence come the elements which form the gems? the inquirer will say. Can we gather figs from thistles? Marco Polo in the thirteenth century visited these gem beds, and has left his views in the following lines: “In ista insula nascuntur boni et nobiles rubini et non nascuntur in aliquo loco plus. Et hic nascuntur safri et topazii, amethisti et aliquæ aliæ petræ pretiosæ et rex istius insulæ habet pulchriorem rubinum de mundo.” Buffon, four centuries later, in seeking for the causes of the formation of this mineral, observed the peculiarities of the matrix on this island, and boldly stated that the origin of the precious stones like the rubies, the sapphires, and topazes of the East is the same as that of the diamond. He also stoutly maintained that these stones form and are found in the conglomerate in which is collected the _débris_ of other matters. The researches of Sir Samuel Baker and others on these deposits seem to indicate, if they do not prove, that the sapphire in particular was formed in the sands, clay, or conglomerate where it is now found, and was not set free by the disintegration of the old crystalline rocks. Nordenskiold recognized these gem beds as true placers, but was inclined to think the gem strata had decayed and left the gems free. An article published some years ago in “Once a Week,” and supposed to have been from the pen of Sir Samuel Baker, who had lived many years at Ratnapoora, and had attentively examined the gem-bearing formations, gave the following account:--
“A common but erroneous belief is that the gems are formed in the mountains and washed down by the abrasion of the rocks and deposited in the alluvial bottoms. If it were so, they would have been traced to their source and sought for in the mountains, where they would naturally be found in greater quantities; but the natives never think of searching for precious stones in such places, and in the localities where they are found there does not appear to have been any local alteration in the veins of gravel since they were first thrown there; and my own conviction formed from observation on the spot, and for this and other reasons following, is that the sapphire and other gems have been formed and are still forming in the places where they are now found. In the first place, rounded sapphires and sapphire crystals with facets of brilliant lustre are found lying side by side. Secondly, both the rounded stones and the numerous perfect crystals, with their pyramids unbroken, show that they were never broken from other rocks, but were formed unattached to any matrix, in a soft medium such as fine sand or clay. I have seen hundreds of these taken loose from the same spot. Thirdly, crystals of sapphire are found with their edges reduced, yet with brilliant facets, which is inconsistent with their reduction by rolling. Fourthly, sapphire being much harder than any other stone with which it could come in contact, it is not easy to understand how any attrition could be brought to bear upon it to bring it to the beautifully translucent polish which the rounded stones usually bear more especially considering the short distance from the mountains to the alluvial bottoms between which the water-wearing process is supposed to be effected.
“It is remarkable that the rounded sapphires and rubies are always the densest and of the finest water and color; showing that they were formed by different chemical forces from the others. In short, there is no more reason for supposing rounded sapphires to be water-worn than for supposing that the bowlders of jasper, for instance, on the Egyptian desert were so formed, when a fracture shows them to have been formed in concentric layers and to be in their original state. The same remarks apply to the crystals of some other minerals, as zircon, tourmaline, and spinel.”
The mineralogist, in contesting this opinion, will point to the round pebbles of sapphire as evidence of disintegration and subsequent aqueous action. But upon careful inquiry we shall find that these nodular masses are regular concretions and natural formations, which do not owe their form to the abrasion of exterior force, but are the results of crystalline action. We shall also find that these peculiar stones always form the finest specimens of the class of gems to which they belong, whether sapphire, diamond, tourmaline, topaz, or chrysoberyl.
In regard to beauty of color, density, hardness of texture, and brilliancy, these apparently water-worn masses are decidedly superior to the perfectly shaped crystals, and among all the true gem mines of the world this rule is observed. In the conglomerate of Ceylon we often find gems whose appearance indicates the shock and abrasion of waves or currents of water, while we find in adjoining places perfectly formed crystals whose facets display a lustre as brilliant as on the day of their creation. Some, then, have perhaps been moved about by aqueous action, while others have never stirred from their first position.
Among all the multitudes of sapphires taken from the mines of Ceylon, we have never seen or heard of a specimen fairly attached to any rock as a matrix. Sometimes the ferruginous cement which is one of the necessary components of the matrix unites accidentally the rough gem to a mass of quartz, but all the sapphires we have seen exhibit no sign of having been attached permanently to any mineral substance. In fact, all the rounded stones and the more perfect crystallized specimens have the appearance of having been formed in a soft medium like sand or clay.
Whence come the masses of quartz that are always found in the conglomerate, and which sometimes occur of a large size? may be asked by the inquirer. This is a question which cannot be answered satisfactorily, especially when the adjoining ledges do not contain the material. We can, however, solve the problem by supposing that beds of quartz have been formed on the beds of the lagoons, and were afterwards broken up by the action of the waves, frost, or other agencies. The clay, which is often a component of this matrix, is sometimes argillaceous and at other times kaolin. We are generally inclined to believe that these substances are always the results of decomposition; yet there are abundant evidences to show that they may be original deposits. The distinguished geologist Jameson was forced to admit this from his extended observations. We find blue, reddish, and yellowish mud in cavities of the hard crystalline rocks enveloping crystals of quartz and topaz, as at Greenwood, in Maine, or Schneckenstein, in Germany. The phenomena are well marked in the felspar quarries at Bowdoinham, in Maine, and also at Schemnitz, in Hungary, in a vein four or five inches wide traversing porphyry. Whence comes this substance, when there is no opportunity for infiltration, if it is not an original deposition? Perhaps by pseudomorphism.
How and why were these sapphires deposited in globular forms when the law of crystallization is so rigid and inflexible? This is a question which requires considerable assurance to answer, in the view that they are original depositions; but Nature offers many examples to sustain the theory if we search her domain; for instance, how were the rounded nodules of flint formed in the chalk-beds? Their shape is not due to attrition, and their peculiar arrangement forbids the belief that they have been rolled or abraded by the agency of water. In the interior of solid ledges we find nodules of quartz with rounded edges, as though they had been exposed to some dissolving agency or abrading force; yet they have been beyond the reach of external violence. Hence we must conclude that their globular form is perhaps due to some deviation in the usual process of deposition or crystallization. Huronite occurs in spherical masses in hornblendic bowlders; and we may find nodules of tourmaline in the interior of the most perfect crystals of the mineral. There are other examples.
The Cingalese do the mining and sell the gems to Moors, who resort to Ratnapoora to attend the jewel fair, which is held at the annual Buddhist festival of the Pera. Purchasers not only from all parts of Ceylon, but India, come to buy gems at this time. It has therefore become the great jewel mart of the world; and one can find there many of the rare and beautiful gems found in other parts of the world: the emeralds of Peru, the topazes of Brazil, the opals of Honduras, the turquoises of Persia, the jade of China; in fact, most of the gems that have a commercial value, or any tradition attached thereto, are to be found at these fairs. They are of greater importance than the famous fairs at Novgorod in Russia, to which the gems and precious stones of Northern and Central Asia are annually sent.
The Hindoos are the best buyers of gems of all the nations of the world. Their rajahs and princes pay the highest prices for the paragons; and the poor native had rather invest in a gem, which to his simple belief adds to his security and happiness, than hoard gold coins, which are no better for concealment. The Moors are also generally the lapidaries. The tools which they use in cutting the gems are rude and primitive, and often the stones are much impaired under their hands; but some of the workmen are skilful and are able to copy with exactness the most perfectly cut gems of the European lapidaries. Workmen of the inferior class may be found in the little towns all over the island; but the artists of the first rank are located at Callatura and Colombo. Immense numbers of garnets, zircons, and inferior sapphires, with other gems, are cut by these rude artisans, who place but little value on their time, and therefore work for a trifle. These precious stones are then sold on the island or exported to foreign lands, but are generally taken to India by travelling merchants, who exchange them for produce or money. The demand is so great from the populous Mohammedan nations, that many of these gems are really higher in price in India than in the gem marts in Europe, as in the time of Tavernier, three hundred years ago. Another potent reason prevents the market from being glutted: the Hindoo parts with his gem reluctantly, and only in case of necessity or in hope of greater gain; and the wealthy Parsee prides himself upon his display of gems, as well as upon his degree of caste. The quantity of gems treasured up by the inhabitants of India must be immense.
The composition of the sapphire, when found in the clear, transparent form, is pure alumina. Its degree of hardness is 9, being inferior only to the diamond; and its range of colors is very extensive, embracing most of those seen in the solar spectrum. Its specific gravity varies from 3.9 to 4.3; and, with the exception of the zircon, it is the heaviest of all the gems. It is also compact and exceedingly tough in its texture, and resists the shocks and wear of time better than any other gem, not excepting even the diamond, which is harder, but far more fragile. In point of brilliancy, it is below the zircon, garnet, and the spinel, its refractive index being 1.77 to 1.79. This mineral possesses remarkable electrical properties, but not so marked in degree as in the tourmaline or topaz; when this property is excited in the polished specimen, the attraction continues for a considerable length of time. The property of double refraction is not often very distinct, and by means of this peculiarity it is sometimes detected from the spinel.
The term corundum is now applied to the coarser and less transparent kinds of the stone, which have been used as a polishing material from time immemorial. The granular variety known as emery is largely mixed with iron ores, and is far inferior to the transparent and purer varieties as an abrading agent. It is always of a blackish or dark-gray hue, and is often mistaken for iron ore. Asia Minor furnishes nearly all of the emery used in the arts. It is found there in masses or bowlders, either free or in granular limestone. In the United States it is found along the gold belt in the Southern States; and in Chester, a town of Massachusetts, it occurs in a large and valuable vein associated with diaspore, ripidolite, etc., which generally accompany it. At this mine at Chester, translucent sapphires of bi-pyramidal form are sometimes found. Dr. C. J. Jackson found one small blue crystal quite transparent and doubly terminated.
The corundum belt of the United States has been traced, with wide intervals, however, from Philadelphia to Northern Georgia. All along this distance of several hundred miles, masses of corundum, more or less transparent, have been found during the past forty years, but active search failed to reveal the mineral in its matrix. A few years ago exploration in the extreme southwestern part of North Carolina discovered the long-looked-for corundum _in situ_. It was found on the side of a mountain, in a mica-like substance called ripidolite. The corundum from this locality appears in geodes and also in well-marked crystals, ranging from small size to even the weight of three hundred pounds. It is often of perfect transparency, but may be translucent or opaque. The transparent crystals and masses, although possessing limpidity, are traversed in all directions with cleavage planes, which prevent their use in ornamentation. The colors are also irregularly distributed in patches, clouds, or in thin veneers; many specimens have been seen of variegated hues,--red, white, yellow, and blue,--and even the whole of these colors have been seen in a single specimen.
From the great number of specimens submitted to our examination we have no hesitation in saying that gems cannot be quarried at will from these mines. The inequality of color and the frequency of cleavage planes will forbid. Small gems of few grains weight may be cut from some of the transparent masses if the clear portions are selected with care, and cut with that skill which is required in the shaping of gems whose color is unequally distributed. But it is doubtful if fine gems are found in this formation, for the conditions which deposited the corundum here, and the more perfect specimens in the true gem strata elsewhere, are quite different.
The colors of the North Carolina corundum are often very fine, and we have seen specimens of a superb blue that retain their hues by candlelight. None of the reds we have ever seen have the true pigeons’-blood tint, but are tinged with blue, and are therefore of a finer shade when seen by artificial light than by daylight. The yellows are also of a decided shade, and generally form a portion only of the crystal or mass of sapphire.
Some fine crystals have been found here, but we have seen none so perfectly crystallized as the pyramidal specimens from the Asiatic mines. Several large crystals have been exhumed, one of which weighs three hundred pounds, and is well defined in its form of crystallization. It is now preserved in the valuable cabinet of Professor Shepherd, of Amherst College.
A few years ago the gold-miners, while seeking for gold in the river-beds and alluvial deposits among the mountains of Montana, observed little transparent crystals of stone among the nuggets and flakes of gold, as they cleared out their rude apparatus used in washing the auriferous soils. But little notice was taken of these limpid stones, as their colors were generally faint; but the observing gold-seekers remarked their great weight and the remarkable coldness to the touch, as they passed them around to each other in wonderment. For a long time the miners flung these minerals away with other refuse, unconscious of their character or their value; but one day there appeared in the dark sands of the gold-pans a stone which flashed forth such brilliant red gleams as to excite anew the curiosity and cupidity of the miners. This discovery led to inquiry, and the gold-seekers learned too late concerning the value of the treasures they had carelessly thrown away. Afterwards the gems were preserved and sent with the gold-dust to the States. They proved to be sapphires. Some of them were finely crystallized in long, regular prisms, but the most of them were without definite form. None of the several hundred specimens that have been submitted to us exhibited smooth faces, like the brilliant facets of crystals found in cavities of the crystalline rocks or in the gem mines of Ceylon; but all exhibited a roughness of the exterior, as though they had been abraded by aqueous action.
The colors of these sapphires are generally faded or faint; some are snow-white, but the most of them are of a faint bluish or greenish cast. We have, however, seen small gems of fine red, yellow, hyacinth, light-blue, and celadine green. We have also information of a beautiful red sapphire of six karats, but failed to trace it after it was sent from Montana.
This discovery establishes the fact beyond a doubt that the gem occurs in quite perfect form in the territories of the United States. Most of the specimens we have seen were collected at El Dorado Bar, which has since been abandoned by the gold-seekers. From this superficial search and incomplete information concerning the locality of the gem, we are unable to determine whether regular gem mines are to be found in this country, or along the slope of the mountains, which extend either north or south to a great distance. We have been assured, however, by officers of the army, that fine sapphires have been brought to them by the Indians in Colorado living on the same range and formation that stretches into Montana. Therefore we shall not be surprised if well-directed search along this formation should reveal gem beds of value; and the mere circumstance that the gold-washers do not discover them is of but little weight; for gem-seeking and gold-mining are two different explorations.
It is a little singular that none of the beautiful gems occur in huge specimens, like some of the products of the vegetable kingdom. Nature, however, in the mineral line, or certainly with the gems, creates her perfections in small bodies. We sometimes find a clear crystal of topaz, tourmaline, or emerald of a few ounces or even pounds in weight, but they are very rare; while the generality of all the choice specimens are comparatively of a diminutive size. When occurring above a certain weight they become defective either in color, limpidity, or form. They are precious stones, it is true, so far as composition is concerned, but they are not gems according to the acceptance of the word. By the word gem we not only mean a precious stone, but its transformation into a form possessing limpidity, brilliancy, attractive color, or some other charm.
As regards the sapphire, its perfect forms occur in diminutive size. This mineral is also found in Bohemia, near Merowitz, in an argillaceous or marly cement, with garnets, zircons, and even fossil shells. Tavernier relates that he saw in possession of General Wallenstein, when at Prague, some beautiful rubies, which were obtained in Bohemia. Fine stones of even five karats weight have been discovered at these mines. Concerning the mines of Lower Bengal we have but little information, and will not venture to give a description. We think they have the same characteristics as those of the gem beds of Ceylon. The Ilmenes Mountains, in Siberia, furnish sapphires of a strong blue. In Greece and Saxony they are also found in small quantities of undecided colors, and generally opaque. Impure specimens of well-defined colors are found in the volcanic _débris_ of Expailly, in France, or among the snow-white dolomites of St. Gothard; in the granite ledges close to the base of the glacier of Bois, in the Alps of Savoy, we may observe regular prisms of sapphire, quite transparent and sometimes of a decided blue or a tender green.
The massive and opaque varieties known as adamantine spar are said to be found in granitic rocks in China, and on the coast of Malabar; but very little is known concerning the exact condition of these localities. Fibrolite and magnetic iron are said to accompany the corundum in several of its localities. Brard believes that the blue diamond of Pliny of the Island of Cyprus is no other than the blue sapphire. And this belief is not without foundation, as some of the varieties of corundum are found on the islands and coasts not far distant. Occasionally stones of fine blue tints and of considerable size are found. In 1853, a large and beautiful piece was found in the gem strata near Ratnapoora, and sold to a Moor at Colombo for $20,000. Fragments as large as goose eggs are also sometimes found in the Saffragan district, but are of an inferior character, according to Dr. Davy. Mawe describes one of three hundred and ten karats. We have in our collection a transparent, light-blue, and finely shaped crystal of three hundred and eight karats, but we fear that it will not match the distinct crystal of three inches in length which belonged to Sir Abram Hume.
The suite of blues exhibited by this gem is very extensive, and embraces all known shades and even the purest prismatic hue. The deep regal blue is too intense a color for a night gem, as by artificial light it becomes black. But there are sapphires of a celestial blue possessing perfect limpidity and rich velvety reflections that retain their splendid colors by night as well as by day, and they merit the distinction bestowed upon them by the ancients when they consecrated them to Jupiter. These superb gems are, however, exceedingly rare, and are eagerly sought for by amateurs at prices far above that of the colorless diamond. The general color of the blue sapphire is a light shade, from which it passes through various gradations to a blue black. Perfect stones of fine colors are quite rare, for they are apt to be clouded, and the color distributed unevenly in the mass. Frequently the color is in one extremity of the crystal, or appears as a spot on the surface of a nodule. In other specimens it is arranged in bands or thin clouds. Hence much skill is often required to cut them so that the gem may display a proper distribution. Frequently the color is left in the bottom of the gem, and when the stone is set the color is diffused by refraction through the upper portions, so as to give the gem the appearance of being colored throughout.
One of the most perfect and beautiful specimens of sapphire is the magnificent blue gem now in the Natural History Museum of Paris. It was given by M. Weiss in exchange for a collection of choice minerals. It is of the form of an oblique angular parallelopipedon of 132¹⁄₁₆ karats. Haüy thought it had been cut and polished; but Satrin believed that only its natural faces were polished, and that the form of the primitive crystal was not altered. This is the most probable view, for no lapidary of even ordinary skill would select the rhomboidal form for so beautiful and valuable a gem. This remarkable gem, without defects, notwithstanding its great size, was found in Bengal by a poor wooden-spoon maker. It finally was acquired by Rospoli, of Rome, but was purchased for the French Crown after several vicissitudes. It was obtained at the price of 170,000 francs, which price is certainly below its true value. France also possesses several other superb sapphires of large size. There is also in Dresden a fine sapphire, a gift from Peter the Great.
There was in the ancient Hungarian crown a fine large sapphire, surrounded with four oblong green gems, the nature of which has not yet been made known. These mysterious green stones, rendered still more interesting by the disappearance of the crown, are perhaps of modern introduction, as they are not mentioned in the inventory of the jewel when Queen Elizabeth pledged it to the Emperor Frederick IV. Hence the inquiry arises, are they green sapphires, emeralds, tourmalines, or antique glass?
In the Universal Exhibition at London, in 1855, two immense and beautiful sapphires were displayed among the collection of gems and jewels which had been gathered from all parts of the world; they belonged to Miss Burdett Coutts, and were valued at nearly $200,000. At the same exhibition might have been seen a beautiful oval sapphire, and another in the form of a drop, and of very unusual size and beauty, belonging to a rich Russian countess.
The Imperial Crown of the First Order of the Czar of Russia contains an enormous blue sapphire of great beauty and value. The Russian treasury also possesses some others of great size and rare beauty. Among them is the famous light-blue stone which formerly belonged to the cabinet of the English banker, the late Mr. Hope. There is also a very large and celebrated sapphire, said to be of marvellous beauty in the Vienna Kronenschatze. Most of the treasuries and regalias of Europe contain fine sapphires of value and beauty. Among the Crown jewels of France, there are two superb gems of twenty-seven karats each, one of nineteen karats, and about a dozen ranging in weight from nine to thirteen karats each.
The Hindoos took great pleasure in carving images of their idols, and in making grotesque forms as well as talismans, from the precious stones found in their country; and very many examples are shown to the traveller. The sapphire was often chosen for this purpose; and neither its excessive hardness nor its high price offered any serious obstacles to the determined votary or the superstitious grandee. There is a statuette of Buddha, one inch in height, carved by the Hindoos out of a perfect sapphire, in the British Museum, which came from the sack of India. One of the richest reliquaries of any age or any country is the golden case at Kandy in Ceylon, which contains a tooth of Buddha, but which the naturalists declare to be the tooth of a monkey. Never was fancied sanctity so dearly enshrined. The dental specimen is enclosed in five golden cases fitting each other _en suite_ and incrusted with the finest rubies, sapphires, and other gems Ceylon and India has afforded.
Philostratus describes a chamber in the ancient Royal Palace of the Parthians at Babylon as follows: “It has a roof fashioned into a vault like the heaven, composed entirely of sapphires, which are the bluest of stones, and resemble the sky in color. This is the chamber in which the King delivers his judgment.” The Asiatics, in all periods of their semi-civilized history, made a lavish use of this gem in the decorations of their dwellings and their temples. Even the partial ruins of some of these edifices still to be seen in various parts of India, exhibit great beauty in their impaired mosaics of precious stones.
The red sapphire is known in commerce as the Oriental ruby, and when in perfection is the most magnificent of gems, and is rarely approached in the beauty of its gorgeous hue by any other gem. The term ruby is an indefinite one, and refers to any stone of a rich red color. All these gems were classed together in the time of Pliny, under the generic name of “carbunculus,” but the red sapphire was reckoned a variety, and especially referred to under the name of “lychnis.” It is seldom found exceeding three karats in weight, and the distinguished mineralogist, Beudant, declares that a perfect red sapphire of thirty troy grains is unknown, and would be of inestimable value. It is a singular fact that while the blue variety should occur in masses and crystals of even several ounces in weight, the red is rare even at four karats. Modern mineralogists now maintain that all of the large historic rubies are spinels, but it is within the bounds of possibility that large red sapphires do occur sometimes as exceptions to an apparently rigid rule; for we have lately received from the Ceylon mines a transparent crystal of pink color which weighs two hundred and forty-one karats. It is also stated that the King of Arrakan possesses two magnificent prisms of one and a half inches in length and an inch in diameter.
But of all the fine red sapphires which are known and proved, there are but few above five karats. The largest one of which we have any definite knowledge is the beautiful gem set in the Toison d’Or of the French Regalia, and which weighs 8³⁄₁₆ karats (= 26 grains troy). The inventory of the French gems in 1791 justly illustrates the comparative rarity and diminutive size of the stone; for in this splendid collection, which had accumulated during a long period of time, and was then the richest in Europe, there were but four red sapphires above five karats, and only five above four karats. This variety is singularly liable to imperfections, and far more so than either the blue or the yellow. It is rare to find a ruby of the pure and characteristic pigeons’-blood tint that does not in some degree exhibit silky and opalescent fibres. This defect, which generally appears as a milkiness in the interior of the gem, is due to minute crystals dispersed throughout the stone, and which become apparent when the mineral is viewed parallel to the primitive axis of the crystal. Hence, in cutting the rough stone, considerable care must be exercised by the lapidary, so as to shape the gem and render its opalescence invisible. Rubies of exquisite color are often rendered comparatively valueless on account of fibres, clouds, and chalcedony-like bands. All the red sapphires, however, are not affected in this way. The blood-red are much more liable than those which have a tinge of blue. We have examined a number of red sapphires perceptibly tinted with violet, which were completely free from internal defects. This opalescence is never possessed by the spinel, and is therefore one of the distinguishing marks in testing the nature of the red gems. The red tourmaline is also strangely liable to internal fibres, hollow threads, clouds, and longitudinal streaks, and sometimes presents an appearance similar to that of the ruby. The red sapphire is also distinguished from the other varieties by being decidedly heavier, and also by being softer than the deep-blue.
Ceylon is famous for the abundance of blue sapphires, while the red variety is comparatively rare. In Burmah, however, the red variety is the most abundant and of the finest hue. The Ceylon rubies are regarded as inferior in tint to those found in Ava and Pegu of the Burmese Empire; but they are less inclined to be opalescent, and are therefore more brilliant. The violet tinge of the Ceylon rubies lessens their beauty when viewed by daylight; but it disappears in a great measure by artificial light, and the hue then becomes of a fine prismatic red, accompanied by the most vivid lustre; therefore we may say in general terms that the Burmese rubies are the most beautiful by daylight, and that the Ceylonese are superior by night.
The finest mines of rubies in the world are near the Capelan Mountains in Ava. But concerning their extent, history, and exploration, very little is known. Colonel Symes, who visited the country in 1795, with the British Embassy, stated that the richest and most valuable of the mines were then situated in the vicinity of the capital; but that there were many other mines in various parts of the kingdom. The information concerning these remarkable deposits is vague and uncertain even at the present day; but sufficient is known to establish the fact that the geological formation is very similar to the gem beds of Ceylon and Lower Bengal. According to the publications of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, the principal mines of Burmah are situated about seventy miles east of the capital; and the deposits are discovered by sinking pits at various depths in the earth until the gem stratum is reached. It appears to be precisely like the conglomerate of Ceylon, and occurs at a depth varying from two to forty feet below the surface.
It is stated that all of the fine gems above a certain weight are monopolized by the king, who styles himself “Lord of the rubies,” and consequently but very few find their way to the marts of other nations. It is also stated that the gems are polished at Amarapoora, where there are about twenty lapidary establishments; and that pulverized blue sapphire, or the massive corundum spar, which is a trifle harder than the red variety, is used as the abrading material. All of the mines are jealously guarded from the visits of Europeans; and when Professor Oldham was allowed to examine some of them in 1855, he could learn of but one European who had previously seen them. This favored person was a deserter from the British army, and was employed by the king as superintendent of the mines.
This gem is so highly prized in Burmah that when a fine gem is discovered a procession is formed of grandees, elephants, and soldiers, and sent out to meet it and escort it to the royal treasury. The long and exclusive possession of these mines has enriched the Crown immensely; but nothing is known with certainty. Colonel Symes, however, saw some of the state carriages of the King of Ava, which were splendidly decorated with jewels. One of these carriages was a magnificent and singular production of art. Its decorations were so profuse and contained so many precious stones set in silver and gold, that it presented one entire blaze of the most brilliant colors. A vast variety of gems were used in the construction of this truly Oriental vehicle; and among them were to be seen diamonds, rubies, white and blue sapphires, emeralds, amethysts, garnets, topazes, and crystals of all kinds. Another of these queer barbaric monuments of art was lately exhibited at Rangoon. It is known as the Royal Hitee. This grotesque piece of architecture, with fantastic name, is a light edifice thirty-five feet high, formed of seven terraces, surmounted by an umbrella, which is the emblem of royalty. The terraces were richly inlaid with gold and precious stones; and the sacred umbrella was profusely decorated with valuable rubies, pearls, diamonds, and emeralds.
Rambusson has recently stated that none of the mines yielding rubies have been worked for one hundred and fifty years; and that all of the gems now offered in commerce have been collected previously. We think this author is somewhat mistaken in this statement; for we know that the Ceylon gem-deposit yields more of these gems at the present time than for a long time past; and we do not quite believe that search for them has been entirely suspended in Siam or in Burmah. During the last years of the occupation of Ceylon by the Dutch, they exacted from the tribes of the interior of the island an annual tribute in the form of a certain quantity of precious stones. Hence the King of Kandy forbade further exploration for gems by the natives; and so the gem-fields lay neglected for a long time. Lately, however, under the English rule, the ancient fondness for gem-mining has revived among the Cingalese, and some fine gems have been discovered. In 1875 a native hunter found in a remote district of Siam some remarkable mines of red and blue sapphires; and explorations brought to light many valuable stones, which found their way to the gem marts of Rangoon and Calcutta. Splendid specimens were shown to Admiral Coote; and the consul at Bangkok saw a magnificent stone of three hundred and seventy karats, which yielded a blue gem of one hundred and eleven karats weight, and of the finest water.
Rubies are even now scarce in India, and probably always will be, since the demand for them is very great among the wealthy of the populous nations of that country. Even three centuries ago Tavernier found it profitable to buy them in Europe and sell them again in the country whence they had been taken perhaps many centuries before. Red sapphires not only exhibit singular internal structures, but they may be colored strangely, thus puzzling the experimentalist to account for the distribution of coloring matter. Davila possessed a fine and rare ruby which exhibited a clear white band between two parts of red. Another gem showing a strange arrangement of color was to be seen in the cabinet of Chantilly. It was half red and half yellow. Stones of such distribution of color are marvels of rarity; but it is quite common to meet with them partly red and blue or white, or blue and yellow. They sometimes display a vague dichroism which is not so well defined as in the iolite or tourmaline. The naturalist Fanjas found at Expailly, in France, a transparent sapphire which, viewed in one direction, exhibited a green hue approaching the emerald in its beauty of tint, but when seen in another light it appeared of a very beautiful blue. In the Orleans collection there was a curious sapphire which had been engraved with the figure of a woman, the head being formed of white, and the dress of intense blue. It is related that M. Bossi, of Milan, who was an excellent connoisseur in gems, saw in possession of Prince Metsch a superb sapphire which appeared to be dotted with flakes of gold. We sometimes notice this singular appearance in the interior of other gems, and find by the use of the microscope that it is due to internal flaws or reflections from plate-like crystals within the stone. We are inclined to believe that this gem of Prince Metsch is to be classed with the sapphire owned by Abbé Pullini, which had been engraved upon by the ancients. This stone, when viewed in a certain direction, exhibited flakes of gold in the interior, which disappeared when the view was changed, which would hardly have been the case if the reflections had been produced by opaque bodies. We have before us a polished Siberian beryl which shows flakes of silver-white in certain lights, but which appear of dark-brown when the axis of vision is changed.
The Crown of England possesses some large and beautiful colored rubies, but they are probably spinels. The large one standing in the centre of the Maltese cross on top of the British crown is probably a spinel, but nevertheless of great beauty. It is also a gem of considerable historic interest, if we can believe the traditions that cluster around it, and it is believed to be the identical stone given to the famous Black Prince of England, by King Pedro of Castile, after the battle of Najara. Tradition also asserts that King Henry V. of England wore it in the front of his helmet, in the bloody battle of Agincourt, about a hundred years later. Its earlier history seems to be lost. Perhaps this is the identical ruby given in 1360 to Rudolph II. of Austria by the Queen Dowager of France. When Peter the Great visited England he gave one of the members of the royal family a very beautiful ruby which he carelessly took from his vest pocket. The last message sent by Mary, Queen of Scots, before execution to the Duke of Guise was accompanied with a beautiful ruby ring, as proof of the credibility of the messenger.
The King of Burmah is said to possess an immense ruby of wonderful beauty, of the size of a pigeon’s egg, but there is no authentic record of it. Tavernier mentions a ruby of 50 karats and another of 17¹⁄₂ karats, which he saw in possession of the King of Visapour; but as all gems of fine red color were then classed as rubies, we are ignorant of their nature. Among the numerous articles of loot obtained by the French in the sack of the Summer Palace at Pekin, was the necklace of the Emperor of China. This celestial jewel was formed of green jade stones of delicate color, perforated and strung upon a cord, to the centre of which was attached a monster red stone, of the nature of which we are not informed. It has been stated that the East India Company has the largest specimen of red sapphire known, but we are unable to vouch for the statement. The largest ruby seen in India by Garcia was of twenty-four karats weight. Chardin, however, describes a magnificent one among the crown jewels of Persia, in the year 1666. This matchless gem was as large as a hen’s egg cut in half, and was of superb color. On its superior face the name of “Chaic Sophy” had been engraved by one of its former possessors.
The Crown of Russia possesses the finest and most valuable collection of rubies in the civilized world. Some of them are of enormous size and are probably spinels, but they are nevertheless of great beauty and value. The degree of color gives the true value to the gem, no matter what its composition may be, if its hardness is equal to quartz. Among the red gems of lesser size there are undoubtedly red sapphires of value, but we have no positive details concerning them. In fact, all of the red stones of fine hues are classed as rubies without regard to their nature. The famous ruby placed under the cross in the Russian crown of Anna Ivanovna is said to have been bought at Pekin by the Russian ambassador for 120,000 roubles. It is indeed a wonderful gem, and is one of the marvels of the mineral world, whether its material be corundum, tourmaline, or spinel. It is now known that the Chinese have mines of rubies in the mountains of the Province of Yu-Nan, and it is possible that this gem may have come from that locality. The tourmaline deposits of Nertschinsk, which yield gems of splendid red hues, are not far distant from Pekin, and those mines may claim the honor of producing this rare stone.
The throne of gold, called by the Persians Takdis, was supported on feet formed of rubies. One of the seal rings of Chosroes II. was a pink ruby, with the legend engraved upon it, “Riches are the source of prosperity.” The fifth seal ring was a red ruby, bearing the legend, “Splendor and prosperity.”
The flowers, composed of the finest gems afforded by the mines of India, and placed by Shah Jehan on the tomb of his beautiful wife, in that wonderful mausoleum, the Taj Mahal, were the most precious ever made. The roses of these garlands were made of the finest rubies; and the leaves were composed of emeralds, which were made to glisten with diamond spray. The screen which was built around the tomb was carved from marble, and as delicately wrought as a veil of lace; and along its borders, lilies, tulips, roses, and other beautiful flowers, composed of precious stones, were inlaid in the marble.
The tomb of Mahomet, at Medina, must contain some superb gems and works of the goldsmith’s art. Here is to be seen that masterpiece of embroidery, the veil of Kunderas, which is composed of inwrought pearls and various precious stones of the value of ten millions of rupees. The faithful relate, that when the rays of the morning sun glance over it, its wonderful beauty seems enhanced by invisible influences. The famous sympathetic ruby of the sacred Kaaba, now preserved in the temple at Mecca, and believed to have fallen from the heavens at the beginning of the world, is undoubtedly an aerolite. The fiery red hue which it exhibited when traversing the sky, coming from unknown space, gave rise to the tradition of its being a latent ruby whose gleams of beauty had been temporarily suspended.
The yellow variety of sapphire is quite common, and exhibits many of the finest shades of yellow; but they are generally very faint in tint and often like the lemon in hue. They are exceedingly liable to imperfections, and especially to that opalescence which so often disfigures the red sapphire. Fine specimens, therefore, possessing transparency and beauty of color, are rare gems. But when it does occur in perfection, it forms a magnificent gem, which is only surpassed by the yellow diamond and zircon. Its rich golden hues, with soft and satin-like flashes, are far superior to the Brazilian topaz.
The Museum of Natural History in Paris possesses one of the finest yellow sapphires known. It is a wonderfully lustrous gem of fine color, and measures nearly an inch in length by half an inch in breadth. There is also in the same cabinet a strange gem which was once placed among the crown jewels of France. It was mentioned in the famous inventory of 1791, as a singular corundum of 19²⁄₁₆ karats weight, and of 6,000 francs value. It had been polished in the form of an elongated oval, and exhibited the remarkable appearance of being deep-blue at the extremities and yellow in the centre. This singular distribution of color is not often seen in fine specimens, although it is frequently met with among the inferior. We have also had the pleasure of examining another large gem, cut into the form of a brilliant, whose diagonal corners were blue and yellow, and yet, such was its play of dichroism, that light reflected through these two colors produced but a faint tinge of green.
This double arrangement of coloring is sometimes seen with blue and red sapphires, or yellow, blue, and white; but we have learned of but one fine gem displaying the red and yellow. Several of the transparent crystals from North Carolina exhibit the two hues in the same crystal; and we have seen one that was actually red, yellow, white, and blue. But the specimen was not sufficiently perfect to form a gem. Sometimes the yellow hues are of a greenish cast, and then they resemble the finest of the golden chrysoberyls, or they may approach the more verdant shade of the peridot. It is said by the antiquaries that none of the collections of ancient Greek and Roman engraved gems possess a single specimen in yellow sapphire. This singular absence may be partly accounted for by its rarity in perfection, and also from its liability to appear pale when set in gold.
In the French casket of gems, in the year 1791, mention was made of a superb yellow sapphire of 27¹⁴⁄₁₆ karats, two of 13 karats each, and one of 11 karats, all of which were valued at 8,900 francs. The beautiful specimen now exhibited in the Cabinet of Minerals, in the Garden of Plants at Paris, which is of the purest and richest color, joined with wonderful lustre, is supposed to be the gem mentioned above among the crown jewels. The French amateur and writer on gems, Caire, once possessed a remarkable and charming yellow sapphire of the great weight of twenty-nine karats. Its former Hindoo owner had seriously impaired its beauty by drilling a hole in one extremity for the purpose of suspension; and had also engraved on its sides inscriptions in Arabic, which were probably condensed quotations from the Koran to preserve the possessor from harm.
The green variety is probably the rarest of all the forms of sapphire, and finely tinted stones are very seldom seen. They are generally of a faint sea-green tinge, and resemble beryls in their hues. But when they do occur of grass-green color, they form magnificent gems and far exceed the true emerald in lustre and brilliancy. We very much doubt, however, if they ever approach the emerald in its exquisite shade of green. We have examined many green stones from the Ceylon gem mines, and with one exception have found them to be green spinels, zircons, and tourmalines of various intensities of shade. The one undoubted specimen referred to was of an impure hue. The celebrated Romè de L’Isle possessed two beautiful crystals of green sapphire. When they display the sea-green hue or the mountain-blue of the beryl, they are then called Oriental aqua-marines, but fine stones of this description are not common. We have seen some small but very beautifully tinted gems of this class from the gold fields of Montana. Barbot speaks with ecstasy of two green sapphires from Matura in Ceylon, and which far exceeded any other gem in their velvety color, limpidity, and brilliancy. It is possible that these two gems may have been zircons, as these stones abound in Matura, and are of the most vivid lustre when perfect. But stones of fine green hues of this mineral are exceedingly rare. We have also seen a specimen of transparent corundum from Siam which was dichroite, blue and green one way, and entirely green the other. It called to mind that found at Expailly in France, by the naturalist Fanjas, and which appeared of an almost emerald green when viewed in one direction, or of a most beautiful blue when the axis of vision was changed.
The name girasole is applied to those gems that exhibit a peculiar radiance when exposed to the sunbeams. This curious play of light is seen in the transparent and translucent stones, but especially in the translucent. When the gem which possesses this quality is cut in the boss form it shows a glimmering light brighter at one part than at another, owing to a peculiar internal refraction. The effect is very beautiful when the gem is of fine color, and the bright spot moves mysteriously over a more sombre ground as the stone is turned in various directions. The sapphire rarely shows this property to the same perfection exhibited by one of the varieties of opal. We have seen two specimens from the North Carolina corundum mines, which would have been very superior gems if they had not been traversed in all directions by numerous cleavage planes. They were quite an inch in diameter, of a nodular form, and had been deposited in a ledge of ripidolite.
One of the most remarkable varieties of the sapphire is known as the asteria, which was so named by Pliny from the fact of its displaying diverging rays of light. This phenomenon is only seen in stones of semi-opacity or inferior clearness, and the star-like rays are so arranged as to be inclined to each other at an angle of 60 degrees. These stones may be of various colors,--blue, red, or gray,--yet the rays of the star are always white or faintly tinged, and stream forth in beautiful contrast to a ground of delicate blue or decided red. The stars appear the most distinctly to view when the polished gem is exposed to direct sunlight or a small bright flame. This mysterious play is seen in but few of the gems, and the sapphire exhibits it in its greatest perfection. It is indeed a curious thing to see a six-rayed star with long silken beams of light suddenly appear to view as the gem is turned to the light, and as quickly disappear as the focus is changed. No wonder the ancients believed the appearance due to supernatural powers. The microscope, however, has disclosed to the moderns the cause of the asterism. This instrument reveals multitudes of minute crystals within the stone, arranged in three different but equal angles. To obtain the stellate appearance in perfection, then, the stone must be cut and polished in cabochon or dome-like form. The apex of the gem is then in a direct plane to these angles, being perpendicular to the axis of the primitive form of the crystal, and therefore the rays of light are reflected from the sides of these multitudinous crystals producing the asterism.
As we have said before, some other minerals exhibit this phenomenon at times. We find it in rare specimens of quartz and in some of the mica group. In some rare fragments of quartz from Siberia the stellate appearance is seen in extraordinary perfection. The six-rayed star is not only seen by refracted light, but is even visible by transmitted light. Sometimes these stones also exhibit reflections of red and blue as the direction of the stone is changed, thus combining the girasole and asteria in the same gem. Lancon relates that M. Desmaret possessed a little plate of this variety of quartz, of so great beauty and perfection as to refuse 25,000 francs for it. There is in the Museum of the Jardin des Plantes a remarkable diamond asteria; and there are also in this collection and in the cabinet of the École des Mines some superb blue and red sapphire asterias.
The pure white sapphires are not often found. When well cut they exhibit a vivid eclat, and are sometimes mistaken for diamonds; but they are easily detected by the expert, since they do not possess even three fourths of the degree of brilliancy of the diamond, nor the prismatic play of color. Some of the faint-colored stones lose their tints when subjected to a high degree of heat, and improve in brilliancy and lustre. It is said that the Orientals practise this trick extensively, and sell the altered gems for diamonds. We are not aware of the refractive index of these fire-tested stones having been measured with the view of ascertaining the degree of change; but it is certain that their lustre is increased in a marked degree. Heat, however, does not affect all colored sapphires. Some of the red are often changed to deeper hues, and others are not affected. Brogniart found that the French sapphires from Expailly were actually rendered more intense in color by the action of fire. After numerous experiments with the faint-colored sapphires from Montana, we also have come to the conclusion that the stones from this locality are not perceptibly affected by long-continued heat.
Sir David Brewster, in conducting his famous experiments in optics, was of the opinion that the white sapphire, on account of its structure and its refractive power, was superior to all other transparent minerals for lenses for the microscope. The diamond, which one would naturally suppose to be the most perfect material for the purpose, on account of its high refractive power and apparent clearness, is really faulty, and comparatively worthless on account of its internal structure. If the white sapphire is of such excellence in this respect, on account of its compactness and refractive power, why will not the white zircon prove far superior as a lens, as it is the most compact, transparent, hard mineral known, and its refractive power is much greater than that of the sapphire? Black sapphires are now and then mentioned by authors, but we are inclined to believe that they are very rare; for Davy declares that he met with but two or three specimens in his travels in India or Ceylon. Blue stones of very deep hue appear sometimes quite black; but when they are placed in a strong light, and viewed in another direction, the blue tinge clearly appears. The violet sapphire of perfect hue is a very rare gem, and may be regarded as an accidental stone, being formed of an admixture of the blue and the red. Davy, in all his extended researches in Ceylon, found but two specimens of violet sapphire; and in our examinations of the rough gems from the mines, we are inclined to think the purple spinel is often supposed to be a purple sapphire. Romè de L’Isle found that this variety of sapphire is oftener ruby-violet than sapphire-violet, or that the red tinge prevailed more distinctly than the blue. The lilac-blue are exceedingly rare, and are eagerly sought for by amateurs.
There are some sapphires which exhibit a double play of colors when viewed by natural and then by artificial light. For instance, they may display a decided blue color by day and an amethystine tint by night. D’Auguy possessed a stone that showed in the daylight a beautiful, clear, and sparkling blue, but by candlelight it changed to a royal purple. The cause of this phenomenon is perhaps due to an excess of latent red in the stone, which, however, is not visible in the daytime; but which is called forth by the difference in the illuminating lights, as is shown in their spectra. The hyacinth sapphire is seldom seen, and when perfect is regarded as among the marvels of the species. Dutens possessed a fine one which had been engraved upon by the Greeks.
The subject of the glyptic art, or engraving upon stones, is very interesting to the student who seeks for evidences and traces of the social life of man in early ages. The engraved cylinders of Babylon and Nineveh, with their cuneiform legends, carry us back to traditions two thousand years before the Christian era; and from the engraved scarabei of Egypt and Etruria we form some ideas of the people whose history has otherwise been lost. We may, perhaps, consider the true era of the glyptic art as dating from the time of the Macedonian princes and the Persian conquests, although it had been practised in a rude way from far earlier times. This art of cutting figures upon bright and richly colored, though minute stones, was quite as much admired among the ancients as the laborious skill, with its powerful blows, which produced the heroic statues out of bronze or marble. And perhaps we may say that these gems, in their estimation, were of greater value, not only on account of their beauty and rarity and their minuteness, but also on account of their hardness, which defied the steel instruments of the ordinary sculptor, and yielded only to the dust and splinters of the hardest minerals, like the sapphire and the diamond. We may also safely affirm that the gem-engravers of the Alexandrian and Augustan ages were, in all that concerns excellence of design and composition, rivals of the most famous workers in marble and bronze. These admirable and wonderful artists contrived to enclose within the narrow limit of a little stone all the complicated details of an event in history, or of a fable in mythology; and to make them stand forth in beautiful relief as a cameo, or to sink them down as an intaglio, with all that truth of design and power of expression which characterize the excellence of the largest works of the most consummate masters.
By means of these engraved gems, miniature but accurate copies of some of the celebrated masterpieces and noblest works of ancient sculptors have been preserved to us, while the originals have been destroyed, and even the record of them lost. An instance may be observed in the engraved gem in the Orleans cabinet, which is the only representation we now have of the famous statue of the Repose of Hercules, by Lysippus. As a learned critic has said, in these gems we have the emanations, ever fresh and unfaded, of the feelings and the taste of those ages when the love of the beautiful was the all-prevailing and almost sole religion, and flourished unfettered by tradition, prejudice, and conventional rules; whilst from the universal demand during those same ages for engraved gems, whether for signets or for personal ornaments, artists of the highest ability did not disdain the narrow field of the precious stone as the arena for the exercise of their power. The unparalleled vigor and perfection of many of these performances are a sufficient proof that they proceeded directly from the master’s hand, and were not mere slavish copies, by a mechanic, after designs created by the genius of another. The lovers of the fine arts may derive much benefit from the study of the antique in this particular branch of workmanship. What is there more pleasant than the contemplation of the work of the artists of antiquity; and to behold, shut up, as it were, within the narrow compass of a small gem, all the majesty of a vast design and a most elaborate performance? During the flourishing periods of the Greeks countless statues were carved by numerous artists; and it has been stated that Lysippus alone executed fifteen hundred, all perfect, and some of them colossal. Throughout Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy every town had its temple, gymnasium, or forum peopled with statues of those among her sons who had in any way distinguished themselves in arms, letters, or public games. These became the spoil of the later Romans, and an incredible number were transported to Rome from time to time. Nero is said to have selected from Delphos alone five hundred bronze statues for transportation to Rome. The Etruscan bronzes were quite as plentiful; and Flaccus is said to have carried away in triumph two thousand statues from the sack of Volsinii.
From these statements in ancient history concerning the number of large works in statuary, we can form some idea of the inexhaustible treasury of portraiture in another and oftentimes less costly material. It is estimated that for a period of three hundred years, the engraved gems were manufactured in countless numbers all over the Roman world. It is a little curious that licentious scenes and figures are never or rarely found on antique gems.
Among the gems preserved in the museum of the Vatican may be seen two engraved intaglios of early date, upon sapphires of an amethystine hue. Among the most beautiful of the engraved sapphires that have been preserved to us from ancient times is that of Cneus, now placed in the cabinet of the Strozzi, in Italy, which represents the figure of young Hercules. In the collection of gems at Turin there is a white sapphire, on which a fine head of Tiberius has been engraved. There may be seen among the crown jewels of Russia a beautiful sapphire of two shades, engraved with a representation of a female figure enveloped in drapery. The figure is engraved in the darker shade of the stone, while the drapery is carved from the lighter part. The French cabinet boasts of a very fine blue sapphire with an engraving representing the Emperor Pertinax.
King, the excellent and tireless antiquary, mentions, in his chapter on the hyacinthus, several beautiful and unique engraved sapphires. He states that engraved gems of this class, dating to times previous to the Imperial epoch, are extremely rare; still, there are extant some undoubted specimens, among which are a small Etruscan scarabeus and a magnificent head of Jupiter, executed in the purest Greek style. The accidental discovery of the last indicates how many more of the fine gems of antiquity may yet appear in course of time to gladden the lovers of the glyptic art. This gem was an inch in diameter, and of fine color; but to utilize it to the wants of the Turkish possessor, who wished to set it in the handle of his dagger, the engraved side was set downward and thus preserved from injury, while the back of the stone was rudely faceted by some Eastern lapidary. A Medusa’s head of the same style of execution, upon a stone of remarkable beauty, is one of the chief glories of the celebrated Marlborough collection. In the same museum there is another larger and deeper-hued sapphire bearing the head of Caracalla, the short, curly hair of the irascible tyrant being represented by a series of minute holes closely drilled together. One of the most famous of all engraved gems of this material is the signet ring of Constantius. The stone is one of great beauty and perfection, and weighs fifty-three karats. Its engraving represents the Emperor as spearing a monstrous wild boar before a reclining female figure, personifying Cæsarea of Cappadocia, the scene of exploit. It bears an inscription in proof of its royal use,--the letters “Constantivs Avg.” King mentions another fine specimen of the time of Hadrian, representing “Hebe feeding the eagle.” It was heart-shaped in form, of fine color, and quite an inch and a half in diameter.
The museums of Europe contain many examples of mediæval and modern engraved sapphires, one of the finest of which is the famous portrait of Pope Paul III. among the Pulsky gems, and attributed to Il Greco. It is a very beautiful stone, and three quarters of an inch square. In the Marlborough cabinet there is an extraordinary specimen of a thumb ring of high antiquity, cut from a single stone, but of rather a pale tint. Rings containing both plain and engraved sapphires have been the appointed symbol of church authority from a very early day. They have often been bestowed as the badge of pontifical rank, and the custom has descended to the present day. King devotes an interesting chapter to the history and description of this class of ornaments and symbols; and to his pages we must refer the interested reader.
Engraved red sapphires of ancient date are extremely rare, so rare that the experienced antiquaries, Lessing and Clarac, deny the existence of any antique intaglios of this variety. Investigation has proved that many of the supposed engraved rubies are really red spinel, garnet, or zircon. Nevertheless, there are a few examples to prove that the ancients did make use of the gem in the glyptic art, although the act was regarded as one of extreme extravagance, from the rarity, costliness, and beauty of the material. The Devonshire parure exhibits a convex red sapphire of about three karats weight, of pure pigeons’-blood tint, and engraved with a Venus Victrix in the latest Roman manner. Another shows a full-length figure of Osiris, in half-relief, of the time of Hadrian. In the museum of the Jardin des Plantes there are said to be two engraved red sapphires.
There are but few gems with which the blue sapphire can be confounded. The blue diamond can be easily detected by its superior brilliancy and hardness. It is very rare that the tourmaline appears of a deep blue, and still more rare for the topaz to assume the appearance except of the very light varieties, and the same may be said of the beryl. The iolite, which, however, is a very rare mineral, may resemble the blue sapphire, but its inevitable dichroism betrays its character. Turn the gem before the eye, and the deception vanishes; the blue disappears as if by magic, and the stone is gray. Kyanite sometimes appears of the most beautiful blue tints, but its softness indicates its nature, and prevents its use as a gem. The glass-workers, however, produce the most beautiful and attractive imitations of sapphire, and of all colors, lacking but one desideratum, and that is the thus far unattainable degree of hardness. The red, green, yellow, and white varieties may all of them be closely approached in color by other gems, and the best methods of detection are the tests of specific gravity, degree of hardness, and the optical phenomena.
The blue variety of sapphire being less sought after in ornamentation than the diamond, has not had a fixed scale in valuation. Still, prior, or for a few years prior, to 1850, the ordinary sapphire was placed by jewellers upon the same valuation as the emerald, or at about $15 the karat. Since this period its value has quadrupled, but has not kept pace with that of the emerald. The pale-blue stones have only a nominal value, and the same may be said of the very dark blue. But those sapphires which exhibit the perfect tint of the prismatic blue can command very high prices.
The ancient Romans excelled in their imitations of the ruby, both in hardness, color, and lustre; and a number of examples are yet preserved in some of the European cabinets. The bold robber, Charles, the Duke of Burgundy, was the possessor of several famous gems which he carried with him on his campaigns, and used as personal decorations on particular occasions. One of the choicest of them was a monster ruby more than an inch in diameter, which the famous Margaret of Anjou had given him. On that fatal day at Grandson it was placed with the historic diamond in a golden box, and left in the tent of the Duke, where it was captured by the mountaineers. The gems were carried to Berne by the victorious Swiss, and afterwards offered for sale to the rich Nuremberger, Jacob Fugger. Then it was discovered by the expert that the ruby was indeed a lump of red glass of ancient make, and probably of the date of the Roman Empire.
As the red sapphire is one of the rarest as well as the most beautiful of all gems, its value is in keeping with its attributes. As it overpowers all other gems with its gorgeous red, which is a pure prismatic hue, so it transcends all others in price. There are but very few gems with which it can be confounded in color. But no matter what the material may be, provided it displays the royal tint. It is extremely rare that the red tourmaline or spinel exhibit the perfect tint which is the characteristic of the red sapphire. The zircon sometimes displays a fine red color, and may imitate the sapphire. It is also within the range of possibilities that the diamond and garnet may closely resemble the true ruby. We have seen small garnets that exhibited the pigeons’-blood tint. The scarcity of the ruby is so great that fine gems are only to be acquired by the very wealthy. In the times of Cellini, three centuries ago, the price of the red sapphire was eight times that of the diamond. And to-day we may safely adopt Cellini’s estimate, for the gem is so rare that we cannot readily compute its value in comparison with the diamond, which is so abundant.
King, in commenting upon the valuation of precious stones during the past three hundred years, mentions two fine rubies which were sold in London recently for enormous sums of money. One of three karats brought $1,500; while another of finer tint, of less than four karats (11 grains), was sold for $5,500, or for $500 a grain, which price is quite equal to Cellini’s estimate made in the year 1560.
INDEX.
A.
Abbas Murza, 214.
Abbé Haüy, views of, 75, 91, 253, 371.
Abbey of St. Dennis, gems of, 236, 320.
Acber, banquet of, 209.
Achille de Sancy, 172.
Adamas, 15, 89.
Adamantine flash, 91. spar, 393.
Adolphus, marriage of, 123.
Advice of Rabelais, title page.
Agrah diamond, 213.
Ahmed’s ring, 116.
Alaric and his Goths, 121, 122.
Alexander, Emperor, 177. fêtes of, 115, helmet, 229. marriage of, 287, ring, 289. Palace, collections of, 146.
Alfred de Vigny, poem on the diamond, 12.
Alla-ud-deen, 209.
Amsterdam diamond cutters, 242.
Ancient gem localities, 48. gems and regalia, 106. glass, 323, 325, 351, 352. monster emeralds, 325.
Anna Ivanovna, Empress, 136.
Anne Boleyn, jewel of, 192.
Antitheses of carbon, 16.
Aqua marines, 318-320.
Arabian romance writers’ fancies on gems, 363.
Asiatic gems, 201.
Assyrians and gems, 369.
Asteria sapphires, 414, 415. quartz, 416.
Augustus the Strong, gems of, 225.
Aurelian, triumph of, 119.
Austrian gems, etc., 226, 227.
B.
Baba, trial of, 161.
Babinet, views of, 99, 185, 223, 263.
Bahia, mines of, 39, 44, 45.
Baillou’s views on gems, 371.
Baker, Sir Samuel, views, 381, 382.
Barbarossa, Emperor, 226.
Barberini vase, 326.
Barbot, views of, 108, 181, 256, 257, 269, 306.
Bariatinsky, jewels of, 155.
Baron d’ Eschwège, 39.
Batavian display of diamonds, 281.
Begagem mines, 223.
Beke, Dr., account of large diamonds, 214.
Belisarius, triumph of, 125.
Bernier’s estimate of Persian gems, 213.
Berquen, lapidary, 167, 238, 241, 272.
Beryl, 145, 311, 320, 332. name derived from, 317. of English Crown, 318.
Beudant, Prof., views of, 99, 398.
Bheen, temple of, 209.
Biot, views of, 72.
Blue beryls of Ireland, 316. diamond of France, 163. of Mr. Hope, 189. of Munich, 226.
Boetius de Boot, views of, 105.
Bohmer, French jeweller, 179.
Bordeaux, architect of Peacock Throne, etc., 219.
Borghis, Hortensio, lapidary, 202, 203.
Brewster, Sir David, views of, 65, 184, 259, 263.
Bronze horses of Venice, 127.
Brunswick, Duke, gems of, 232.
Buchanan, views of, 32, 34, 74.
Buffon’s views, 59, 380.
Burial of Cardinal Borromeo, 290. Lord Palmerston, 290.
Burning-of-Troy opal, 353.
Byzantium, 129, 130, 139.
C.
Cæsar, ring of, 289.
Cagliostro, 175.
Canopies of the Persians, 26.
Cape de Verde, conglomerate, 61.
Capture of Ctesiphon, 24.
Caravans of the ancients, 26.
Carbon, combinations of, 18.
Carbonado, 45, 89, 104.
Cardinal Borromeo, 233.
Cardinal Mazarin, 242.
Carpet taken at Ctesiphon, 24.
Cascalho, 60.
Cassia oil, refractive power of, 257.
Castellani, collection of, 288, 289, 352.
Catherine, Empress, 153, 155.
Cedrenus, the historian, 128.
Cellini’s value of emerald, 331. ruby, 427.
Ceraunia, 363.
Cerulean throne of the Nizam, 211.
Ceylon mines, 26, 56, 64, 372.
Chalice of Abbé Suger, 161.
Charlemagne, jewels of, 226, 239.
Charles I., gems of, 194.
Charles VIII. of France, 177.
Charles the Bold, 167, 242. bogus ruby, 426.
Chladni, 71.
Chosroes, palace of, 126.
Chrysoberyl, 95.
Chrysostom, the historian, 129, 241.
Church regalia, 232-234.
Churches of England, ornaments of, 208.
Cingalese gem miners, 374-378.
Clay as an original deposit, 384.
Claudian’s description of treasures of Theodosius, 114.
Claussen’s views on the diamond, 42, 43.
Cleaveland’s views, 315.
Colesberg Kopje mines, 52.
Coliseum decorated with gems, 119.
Collection of armor, 142.
Collections of the Arabs, 116. Mamelukes, 117.
Color of fossils, etc., 82. gems, 82, 99-104.
Comnenus, Emperor, 137.
Conglomerate strata, 60.
Connecticut beryls, 314.
Constantine, 128.
Constantinople, conquest of, 113, 126, 127, 130.
Constituents of perfumes, 19, 205.
Coocha diamond, 205.
Cortez, emeralds of, 294.
Cortez’s presents to Charles V., 296.
Corundum, 368, 378, 388.
Cossacks, 132.
Coster, the lapidary, 184, 223.
Count de Douhet, 45.
Crawford’s estimate of Borneo diamond, 218.
Crown of Anna Ivanovna, frontispiece. Austria, 227. Chosroes, 22. Goths of Spain, 321. Kazan, 139. Khan of Tartary, 22. Lombardy, 321. Muscovites, 136. Portugal, 222. Russia, 143. Saxony, 226. St. Stephen, 232, 300. Victoria, 179. Vladimir, 137.
Cumberland diamond, 232.
Cuneiform crystals, 369, 370, 378.
Cup of Chosroes, 23. Theolinda, 326.
Cutting of the diamond, 238. Kohinoor, 247. Mogul, 247. Regent, 247. Star of the South, 247.
Cystine calculi, change in color, 308, 309.
D.
Daubenton’s ideas of the gems, 371.
Davy, Dr., 394.
De Drèe’s Cabinet, 101.
De Laet, 240.
Delattre, report on the French gems, 158.
Delisle, 172.
Demidoff, Prince, 173.
Despret’s experiments, 265.
Development of insect life, 84. vegetation, 84.
Devonshire gems, 288.
Diamond, antiquity of, as a gem, 21, 114. appearance of, in nature, 86. asteriated, 103. black, 45, 87, 89, 104. blue, 103, 163, 164, 222. bort, 87. Cascalho, or conglomerate, 60. celebrated Agrah, 213. blue, of France, 163. Daria-i-noor, 205, 213. De Drèe, 102. Holland, 232. Hope, 103, 164. Kohinoor, 151, 180, 206-208, 214, 263. Mogul, 181, 202, 205. Mountain of Splendor, 214. Munich, 103. Napoleon, 163. Nassac, 187. Orloff, 149, 187, 206. Paul Pindar, 195. Pigott, 187. Polar Star, 154. Prince Riccia, 102. red, of Russia, 107. Regent, 161, 164, 165, 187, 206, 223, 263. Sancy, 166. Sea of Glory, 214. Shah, 150, 205. Stewart, 55. Sultan of Mattan, 36. Sultan’s, 112. Taj-Mah, 213. yellow, of Austria, 227. Chancourtois, views, 69. cleavage of, 91, 245. color of, 97, 99, 100-104, 228. rough diamonds, 257, 258. comparative brilliancy of, 93, 95. density of, 94. Cumberland, Duke of, 191. cut diamond, 241. deposition of, 20, 65. diminutive size of, 26, 27. dispersive power of, 96. Du Toits Pan placer, 53. electric properties of, 88; hardness, 88, 90, 25. formation of, 59. forms of brilliant style, 244, 251. brilliolette style, 252. rose style, 244, 251. table style, 250. globular forms, 87, 95, 245. green, 102, 135. imitations of, 265, 267. worn by Duchesse de Berri, 268. influence of, 83. injured by fire, 256. in time of Emperor Severus, 22. Pliny, 15, 22, 26. localities of Africa, 53. Algiers, 52. America, 49, 50. Arabia, 51. Australia, 56. Borneo, 35. Brazil, 37. Golconda, 31. India, 30. Ireland, 47. Java, 56. Russia, 47, 48. necklace of Rohan, 174. old English style, 243. origin of, Arago’s views, 69. Buffon’s views, 59. Davy’s views, 69. Goppert’s views, 65. Hartt’s views, 44. Humboldt’s views, 43. Lavoisier’s views, 68. Newton’s views, 67. pans, 62. phosphorescence of, 88. physical properties, 85. pink, 159, 228. placers, 58. prismatic display, 91, 96, 244. purity of, 262. quantity of, in use, 279, 280. red, 107, 222. refraction of, 92, 97. rough, value of, 274. specific gravity of, 87. spiritual properties, 104. swindle of Arizona, 51. testing of, 253, 258-264. value of, 269-282. yellow, 159, 227.
Diminutive size of precious stones, 392.
Dogni collection, 104.
Dolomieu, views, 70.
Don Antonio, 171.
Duke of Anjou, diamonds of, 240. Brunswick, diamonds of, 232. Buckingham, jewels of, 194, 198. Burgundy, fête of, 241.
Duten’s views of the emerald, 151, 285.
E.
Earl of Effingham, 151.
Eastwick’s account of Persian Treasury, 214.
Eleanor of Provence, jewels of, 191.
Electric properties of diamond, 88.
Elf-bolts, 362.
Elphinstone, British Envoy, 212.
Emerald Isle, 301.
Emeralds, 145-283. abundance of, in Peru, 291. ancient, 285-291. at Dresden, 301. at Florence, 300. Kandy, 302. Leiden, 301. Madrid, 302. Munich, 301. Rome, 301. Vienna, 301. carved by the Mexicans, 294. color and composition of, 304, 305, 307, 308, 315. derivation of name, 290. engraved by Carlo Costanzi, 302. found by Maj. Pearse, 304. given to Hortense, 299. Napoleon, 299. imitations of, 321-327. in times of Queen Elizabeth, 297. localities of Africa, 331. Finland, 327. France, 327. in ancient times, 330, 331. Norway, 327. United States, 309. Siberia, 328. South America, 306, 327. Tyrol, 329. mentioned by Heliodorus, 285. Pliny, 285, 287. of Dhuleep Singh, 301. Duke of Devonshire, 301. Charlemagne, 299. Cortez, 294. Emperor Jehangir, 302. French crown, 300. Mustapha of Tunis, 297. Pedro II., 11, 145. Prince of Virianagram, 302. Princess of Bariatinsky, 304. Queen of Navarre, 297. Rudolph II. at Dresden, 298. Runjeet Singh, 304. Russia, 298. Shrine of Loretto, 301. Sultan of Turkey, 300. pillage in Mexico and Peru, 296. of Marshal Junot in Spain, 303. of Marshal Lannes in Spain, 303. price of, at various times, 331, 332. rarity of, 291. sent by Elizabeth to Henri IV., 299. supply of, 329. the Great Mother, 297.
Empress of Austria, gift to the Archduke, 229.
Enamels of the ancients, 215.
Englehardt, 47.
English clergy, magnificence of, 200.
Engraved gems, 14, 288, 289, 320, 351, 418, 424. abundance of, 421.
Esterhazy, jewels of, 229-232.
F.
Fairs of Armenia, 26. gems, etc., in Ceylon, 385. Russia, 386.
Ferishta, historian, 202, 211.
Fêtes of Alexander, 25.
Fitchburg beryls, 313.
Florentine diamond, 227.
Francis I., emerald of, 296.
Franka, Dr. Nello, 65.
Freaks of nature, 79.
French Regalia, 158. display of, in 1855, 166. inventory of, in 1791, 159. in 1810, 162. in 1849, 162. stolen, 160.
G.
Garcias, 33.
Gem engraving, 239, 240. Fair’s of Ceylon, 385. Fairs of Russia, 386. mining in Ceylon, 374-378.
Gems as abodes of spirits, 364. meaning of, 392, of Palace of Tezcuco, 293.
Genseric, pillage by, 124.
Gifts to Charles V., 295.
Girasole sapphires, 414.
Glass gems, 267. ancient, 267.
Globular forms of minerals, 385. petrifactions, 73.
Glorious Masque, pageant of, 193.
Glyptic art, 417.
Godoy, 173.
Gold nuggets, deposition of, 75. placers, 76. of Danube, 78. of Tesino, 78.
Gomara, chronicles of, 295, 296.
Goppert’s views of gems, 65.
Gothic and Grecian forms, 81. treasury at Toledo, 123.
Gouttes d’eau, topaz, 95.
Grandson, battle of, 169.
Graphite, production of, 266.
Great Harry, jewel, 193.
Great Mogul diamond, 181, 186, 202-206.
Green diamond of Dresden, 225. garnets, 327. prase, 326. sapphires, 413. stones sought for by primitive man, 286.
Greenockite, 93.
H.
Halpen gems, 100, 223.
Hamlin, Dr. Cyrus, 106.
Hardening of rocks on exposure, 307.
Harlai de Sancy, 170.
Hartt, Prof., 44.
Haüy, Abbé, 75, 91, 253, 371.
Helmreicher collection of diamonds, 104, 228.
Henrietta Maria, 172.
Henry VIII., 170, 192.
Heraclius, capture of Persian treasures, 126.
Hermitage, gems of, 144.
Hervey, Lord, 196.
Herz collection of gems, 190, 191.
Hidden, Win. E., naturalist, 309.
Hiddenite, 309-311.
High refractive power of fluids, 257.
Hindoo’s love of gems, 201, 386.
Hitee, the royal, of Ava, 403.
Holy synod of Moscow, ornaments, 147.
Honorius, rings of, 288.
Hope beryl, 319. blue diamond, 103, 190. collection, 101, 102, 190.
Horse gear of the Turks, 146.
Hughen’s views, 99.
Humboldt’s emerald, 328. views, 43.
Hungarian opal mines, 349, 350, 354.
Hyacinthus, 368.
I.
Ictinus, constructor of the Parthenon, 369.
Imitation gems, 265, 267, 321, 326, 351.
Indian arms, decoration of, 215.
Iolite, 425.
Iridescence of minerals, 341. quartz, 347.
Iris, Marbodeus’s description of, 348. ornaments of Empress Josephine, 348.
Itacolumite, 61.
J.
James II., 172. jewels of, 196.
Jansetsee Jejeebhoy, 173.
Jarlet, lapidary, 154.
Jewish Temple, spoils of, 125.
John VI., golden cane, 223.
Joseph I., diamonds of, 222.
Justinian, 125, 129.
K.
Kaaba, sacred stone, 410.
Kaianian Belt, 215. Crown, 214.
Karat, weight of, 264.
Kazan, Cathedral of, 147. Crown of, 139.
King, views of, 167.
King of Ava, gems of, 217. Kabul, 212.
Kohinoor diamond, 181, 206-208, 212, 214.
Korund, 368, 371.
Kremlin, 132, 135, 141.
Kyanite, 423.
L.
Lahore, Treasury of, 208.
Lamartine, historian, 113.
Lapis lazuli, 368.
Lavoisier, views of, 67.
Le Conte’s description of Honduras Opal mines, 343, 346. opals, 355.
Lecourbe, General, 157.
Lewy’s views on the emerald, 304-306.
L’Isle, Romè de, his views, 371.
Linnæus’s views, 370.
Lithoscope, 259.
Lollia Paulina, 22.
Louis VII., 199.
Low’s work on Borneo, 217.
Lucretius, poet, 73, 90.
M.
Maine beryls, 313.
Maiolica pottery, colors of, 352.
Mandanga diamond mines, 38.
Mansur Ben, views of, 90.
Marbodeus’s poem on emeralds, 284. sapphire, 366.
Marc Antony’s opal, 353.
Marco Polo, celebrated traveller, 380.
Maria Theresa, cross of, 228.
Mariana, account of emeralds, 295.
Martyr, account of emeralds, 295, 296.
Mary Queen of Scots, jewels of, 193.
Matura diamonds, 225.
Mawe’s visit to Lisbon, 221.
Mellan, or gem conglomerate, 374, 379.
Minas Geraes diamond mines, 41.
Mirror of Naples, diamond, 193.
Missorium, or emerald table, 123.
Mithridates, 130.
Montezuma’s mantle, 294.
Morse, H. D., diamond establishment, 247, 272.
Mosaics of precious stones, 398.
Murat, General, uniform of, 229.
Murchison’s views, 43.
Muzo, emerald mines of, 327.
N.
Nadir Shah, 151, 152, 186, 187, 204, 206, 211.
Narbonne, pillage of, 123.
Nassac diamond, 187.
Navajos, turquoises of, 293.
Nero’s Lens, 288.
New Hampshire beryls, 314.
Newera Ellia sapphire mines, 373.
Newton’s views, 67, 81, 92, 99.
Nizam diamond, 217.
North Carolina sapphire mines, 388-390.
O.
Oldham, visit to the Burmah ruby mines, 402.
Oliva, actress, 175.
Opal, 335. ancient mines of, 341, 349. Babinet’s views of, 339. beauty of, 338. black variety of, 349. cause of its colored reflections, 339, 340. commerce of, 367. Count Waliski, 354. Damour’s experiments with, 337. dandritic, 338. Delius’ account of Hungarian opals, 350. Descloizeaux, views of, 347. described by Jackson, 355. division of, by Jameson, 338. Werner, 338. Dr. Le Conte’s, 355. engraved, 351. formation of, 346, 347. Harlequin variety, 349. Hydrophane variety, 337. imitations of, 351. mines of, 341. Central America, 343. Gracias a Dios, 343. Honduras, 342. Hungary, 341-349. Queensland, 346. Zimapan, 348. Mohr’s views of, 339. Newton’s views of, 339. of Austria, 354.
Opal of D’Auguy, 354. Empress Josephine, 353. Fleury, 354. France, 354. Humboldt, 354. Nonius, 352, 353. U. S. Centennial Exhibition, 355. on image of Mexican deity, 355. physical properties of, 336, 337. purchase of, 357, 360. splendors of, 356. superstitious fancies regarding, 361-364. treatment of, when mined, 350. value of, in rough state, 360. Nonius’s gem, 361. varieties of, 338.
Orb of Russia, 140.
Order of the Golden Fleece, 225, 226.
Origin of diamonds, 57. gems, 335.
Orloff diamond, 149-152.
Ottoman display of gems, 117.
P.
Passion for gems, etc., 280, 281.
Paulina, gems of, 288.
Peacock Throne, 210.
Peligot’s views on ancient glass, 352.
Persian emblems of authority, 287. treasures, 214-216.
Peruzzi, inventor of the brilliant, 251.
Peysonnel, 72.
Phidias, 369.
Philip of Spain, 170, 196. wedding of, 197.
Pictet, 71.
Piggot diamond, 187.
Pitt, Wm., and Regent diamond, 164, 165.
Placidia, marriage of, 123.
Plato’s views on gems, 73.
Pliny’s views on gems, 15, 285, 287, 288, 328, 330, 331, 368, 369, 414.
Plumbago, or graphite, 16, 18.
Plunder of Delhi, 204.
Polariscope, 261.
Poles, customs of, 134.
Polycrates, ring of, 116, 288.
Pompadour’s jewels, 174.
Pompey, 130. ring of, 290.
Pope Julius II., beryl of, 319.
Potemkin, gems of, 154.
Potemkin’s plume, 145.
Priest’s treasury in the Kremlin, 141.
Prince Esterhazy jewels, 212, 229.
Prismatic display of the diamond, 92, 93, 96-98.
Q.
Queen Caroline, jewels of, 196. Elizabeth, jewels of, 197. Mary, jewels of, 196.
R.
Raleigh, Walter, dress of, 198.
Ralph Potter, lapidary, 243.
Rambusson’s remarks on ruby mines, 403.
Ramusso, Venetian historian, 130.
Ranee Ruthen’s diamond, 218.
Ratnapoora, sapphire mines of, 372, 374.
Ravenna, capture of, 125.
Refractive power of gems, 259-262.
Regale of France, gem, 199.
Regalia of Charlemagne, 226. England, 179. France, 158. Russia, 132.
Regent diamond, 161, 165.
Richelieu’s wreath, 160.
Ring of Ahmed, 116. Polycrates, 116.
Rohan, Cardinal de, 174.
Rome, triumphs of, 119.
Romè de L’Isle, description of diamond, 222.
Rose-colored diamonds, 228.
Rose diamonds, Antwerp form, 244, 251. Holland form, 244, 251.
Round brilliant, 222.
Royalston, locality of beryls, 311-313, 315.
Ruby, lustre of the potters of Umbria, 325. of Crown of Persia, 407. Crown of Russia, 407. East India Company, 407. King of Burmah, 406. Prince of Wales, 180, 406. price of, 427. seen by Garcia, 407.
Runjeet Singh gems, 206-208.
S.
Sacred standard of Persia, 23. vestments, 127.
Sacro catino--emerald dish, 323.
Saffragan sapphire mines, 374.
Sancy diamonds, 166-171.
Sapphire, 365. black variety, 417. carved by the Hindoos, 397. colors of, 394, 398, 411-420. composition and characters of, 387, 400. deposition of, 377-384, 389. engraved, 405, 412, 417-424. formation of, in Ceylon, 384, 385. imitations of, natural and artificial, 424, 425.
Sapphire, mines of, 372, 378, 379, 388-390. Ava, 401. Bengal, 393. Bohemia, 393. Burmah, 400-403. Ceylon, 400-403. China, 408. Colorado, 392. Montana, 390, 391. North Carolina, 388, 411. Siam, 403. red, known as Oriental ruby, 398-400, 403-408, 424, 426. refraction of, 98. roof of the Parthian Palace, 397. varieties, early known, 367.
Sapphires of the French Crown, 395, 397, 399, 411, 412. Hungarian Crown, 396. King of Ava, 402. Miss Coutts, 396, 398. the Russian casket, 397. price of, 425-427.
Sapphirus, 368.
Sarmatia, ancient, 133.
Sassanian kings, 23, 25.
Saxon white brilliant, 223.
Saxony, Elector of, gems, 224.
Sceptre of Vladimir, 138.
School of Mines, St. Petersburg, 145.
Scythian incursions, 133.
Selwyn’s views of gold deposits, 77.
Serena, 121.
Shah Jehan, 202, 209, 210, 218. Nasiru’d-din of Persia, 216. Soujah, 207.
Shrine of Thomas à Becket, 199.
Siberian beryls, 313-315.
Silicified trees, 347.
Sinan Pasha, jewels of, 117.
Sir Stamford Raffles, 36, 218.
Smith, J. Laurence, discovers Hiddenite, 310.
Sokolli, gems of, 117.
Sorel, Agnes, necklace of, 177.
Soujah and the Kohinoor, 207.
Spanish Conquest of Mexico and Peru, 292.
Specific gravity of diamonds, 87. emerald, 308. opal, 336. sapphire, 387.
Spiritual properties of gems, 104.
St. Chapelle of Paris, 127, 128.
St. Laurent, views of, 239.
St. Mark’s Palace, 127, 130.
St. Melania, 121.
St. Sophia, mosque of, 129.
Stamboul, 130.
Star of the South, 41, 223.
Stewart diamond, 55.
Sultan of Mattan diamond, 36.
Sumnat, idol and temple of, 209, 220.
Superstitious fancies about gems, 362.
Suvaroff gems, 98, 144, 156.
Sword of Solyman, 107.
Symes’s visit to Ava, 217.
Symes’s, Col., visit to Burmah, 401.
T.
Table of Solomon, 326.
Taj Mahal, palace tomb, 218, 219, 408.
Talasca, standard of, 293.
Tavernier, the traveller, 27, 30, 34, 66, 67, 150, 154, 163, 182, 202, 203, 205, 213, 227, 238, 246, 251, 272, 387, 404, 406.
Telesie, a name proposed by Abbé Haüy, 371.
Tennant, Prof., 40, 179.
Theophrastus, 25, 368.
Thiers, Madame, necklace of, 178.
Throne of Nadir Shah, 107. Russia, 140.
Throne of Takdis, 23. Turkey, 107.
Timour, Fêtes of, 114. spoils of, 114, 186.
Tiridates and the Parthian nobles, 120. march to Rome, 121.
Titus and the spoils of Jerusalem, 124.
Tomb of Mahomet, 409.
Topaz, 95, 98, 145, 425.
Tourmaline, 97, 99, 145, 310, 326, 408, 425, 427. tongs, 260.
Tournament of the cloth of gold, 192.
Townley collection of gems, 288.
Treasury of the Seraglio, 107, 118.
Troitza, treasury of, 147.
Tschudi, Prof., 86.
Turkish casket of jewels, 106.
Turquoise of Mexico, 292. Persia, 216.
U.
Ural Mountains, 47.
V.
Vaal region diamond fields, 62.
Value of gems in 15th century, 270.
Vaux, mineral collection of, 317.
Veil of Kunderas, 409.
Venice, a gem mart, 270.
Verneuil’s views of diamond, 43.
Volo, plain of, in Poland, 134.
Voysey’s views of diamond, 37, 74.
W.
Wallerius, views of, 290, 370, 371.
Walpole, Horace, 195.
Weight of large diamonds, 247.
Werner collection of gems, 102.
Wilson, Dr., descriptions of the Kohinoor, 207.
Winter Palace, collection in, 142.
Wollaston, Prof., 245.
Wooden-spoon seller’s sapphire, 395.
Wright’s discovery of opal mines, 345, 346.
Y.
Yellow diamond of Austria, 227. sapphires, 410, 411.
Yriarte, history of Venice, etc., 128.
Z.
Zenobia, captivity of, 120.
Zircon, 91, 93, 96, 255, 427.
Transcriber’s Notes
Errors in punctuation and accentuation have been fixed.
Page 140: “Boras Godunoff” changed to “Boris Godunoff”
Page 255: “gobular forms of crystallization” changed to “globular forms of crystallization”
Page 281: “as it their price” changed to “as if their price”
Page 298: “Kasan was subjugated” changed to “Kazan was subjugated”
Page 343: “State of Gautemala” changed to “State of Guatemala”
Page 410: “a single speciimen” changed to “a single specimen”
In the Index, “Runjeet Sing” changed to “Runjeet Singh” and the page numbers for the turquoise references have been corrected.