Part 16
_Heavy Artillery_ Heavy Guns (6 in.) 19/20,000 19/20,000 Heavy Howitzers (8 in.) 12,300 " " (9.2 in) 13,000
_Super-Heavy Artillery_ Super-Heavy Guns (9.2 in.) 24,500 24,500 " " (12 in.) 28,200 26,100 " " (14 in.) 35,600 -- Super-Heavy Howitzers (12 in.) 14,300 " " (18 in) 23,000
The maximum range of _Medium Mortars_ is 1,500 yards; of _Light Mortars_ 700 yards.
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CAREY'S FORCE.--During the _Second Battle of the Somme_ "a mixed force, including details, stragglers, schools personnel, tunnelling companies, army troops companies, field survey companies, and Canadian and American Engineers, had been got together and organised by Major-Gen. P. G. Grant, the Chief Engineer to the V. Army. On March 26 these were posted by General Grant, in accordance with orders given by the V. Army commander, on the line of the old Amiens defences between Mezières, Marcelcave, and Hamel. Subsequently, as General Grant could ill be spared from his proper duties, he was directed to hand over command of his force to Major-Gen. G. G. S. Carey. Except for General Carey's force there were no reinforcements of any kind behind the divisions, which had been fighting for the most part since the opening of the battle. . . . On March 28 our line from Marcelcave to the Somme was manned by Carey's Force, with the 1st Cavalry Division in close support. . . . On March 29 the greater part of the British front south of the Somme was held by Carey's Force, assisted by the 1st Cavalry Division and such troops of the divisions originally engaged as it had not yet been found possible to withdraw. In rear of these troops, a few of the divisions of the V. Army were given a brief opportunity to reassemble" (Sir D. Haig's Dispatches).
TANKS
Tanks are moving fortresses containing light artillery, machine guns, and rifles, and while capable of inflicting heavy losses by fire they can also destroy obstacles, weapons, and personnel. Their garrisons are protected against the fire of small arms and from shrapnel bullets, but they are very vulnerable to other forms of artillery fire. Their mobility and radius of action are governed by the amount of petrol carried and by the physical endurance of the crew, but except over deep cuttings, {175} broad streams, swamps, very heavily shelled ground, rocky and mountainous country, or in thick woods they can move without difficulty. "The power of delivering successful surprise attacks against almost any type of defences is one of the most important advantages of the use of Tanks in large numbers" ("Field Service Regulations," vol. ii. (1921)).
During the _First Battle of the Somme_ (September 1-November 18, 1916) "Our new heavily armoured cars, known as 'Tanks,' now brought into action for the first time, successfully co-operated with the infantry, and coming as a surprise to the enemy rank and file, gave valuable help in breaking down their resistance. . . . These cars proved of great value on various occasions, and the personnel in charge of them performed many deeds of remarkable valour" (Sir D. Haig's Dispatches).
AIRCRAFT
Two classes of Aircraft are used in the field. Aeroplanes, which are self-propelled and have an almost unlimited radius of action; and Kite Balloons, which, in favourable weather, can be towed by a lorry and can be moved frequently without loss of efficiency.
AEROPLANES are of the greatest value for reconnaissance and inter-communication, and not only obtain, and return to their base with, information of the highest value, but facilitate personal reconnaissance of the battlefield by commanders and staff officers. Their offensive and defensive action is also very great and the moral effect of their offensive action is of the highest value. Although aeroplane squadrons are mobile units they lose efficiency if the units are moved too frequently. The action of aircraft in various phases of fighting is dealt with throughout the Lectures.
KITE BALLOONS carry two observers, who can remain in telephonic communication with the ground up to a {176} height of 5,000 feet. Inflated balloons can be moved in favourable weather at a maximum speed of 8 miles an hour while at a height of about 500 feet. Their extreme vulnerability to artillery fire prevents their use close to the battle front.
GAS
"The advisability of employing gas as a military weapon is a matter for consideration by the authorities concerned before a campaign begins. Once authorised, however, and assuming that weather conditions are favourable, gas may be expected to play a part in every action. . . . The different methods in which gas can be employed make it a weapon which can be used by all arms, thus _Artillery_ deal with gas shells, _Infantry_ with light mortar gas bombs, _Aircraft_ with aërial gas bombs, and _Engineers_ with all methods of use that call for special manipulation" ("Field Service Regulations," vol. ii. (1921)).
Gas was introduced by the Germans during the _Second Battle of Ypres_ (April 22-May 18, 1915), and the numerous experiments and trials necessary before gas can be used, and the great preparations which have to be made for its manufacture, show that its employment was not the result of a desperate decision, but had been prepared for deliberately. During the _First Battle of the Somme_ (September 1-November 18, 1916) "the employment by the enemy of gas and liquid flame as weapons of offence compelled us not only to discover ways to protect our troops from their effects, but also to devise means to make use of the same instruments of destruction. . . . Since we have been compelled, in self-defence, to use similar methods, it is satisfactory to be able to record, on the evidence of prisoners, of documents captured, and of our own observation, that the enemy has suffered heavy casualties from our gas attacks, while the means of protection adopted by us {177} have proved thoroughly effective" (Sir D. Haig's Dispatches).
SMOKE
Smoke can be discharged from _Artillery_ shells, Artillery or _infantry_ mortar bombs, Infantry rifle grenades, smoke candles, _Aircraft_ bombs, _Engineers'_ stationary generators, or the exhaust pipe of _Tanks_. It is used to conceal movement for the purposes of surprise or for reducing casualties, and can be so employed as to impose night conditions on the enemy while one's own troops retain the natural visibility; but while the weight and direction of an intended blow may thus be hidden from the enemy a warning is given of the time of its delivery. It is possible, however, to mystify, as well as to surprise, the enemy by the use of smoke, and its strategical and tactical value will ensure its adoption in Modern Warfare. In the closing battles of the Great War "the use of smoke shells for covering the advance of our infantry and masking the enemy's positions was introduced and employed with increasing frequency and effect" (Sir D. Haig's Dispatches).
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OPERATION ORDERS
Combatant officers of every rank are required to issue orders of some kind or other, and orders for operations should always be committed to paper when circumstances permit. The object of an operation order is to bring about a course of action in accordance with the intentions of the commander, and with full co-operation between all units.
Operation orders of a complicated nature are unlikely to be required from the pen of infantry officers in the junior ranks, and the rules for drafting orders are stated in detail in the official text-books, for the use of officers of the ranks that will be required to issue them.
The general principles underlying orders of all kinds are that they should be "fool proof," and it has been remarked that the writer of orders should always remember that at least one silly ass will try to misunderstand them. They must, therefore, be void of all ambiguity, and while containing every essential piece of information, and omitting everything that is clearly known already to the recipients, they should be confined to facts, and conjecture should be avoided.
"An operation order must contain just what the recipient requires to know and nothing more. It should tell him nothing which he can and should arrange for himself, and, especially in the case of large forces, will only enter into details when details are absolutely necessary. Any attempt to prescribe to a subordinate at a distance anything which he, with a fuller knowledge of local conditions, should be better able to decide on the spot, is likely to cramp his initiative in dealing with unforeseen developments, and will be avoided. In {179} particular, such expressions as 'Will await further orders' should be avoided" ("Field Service Regulations," vol. ii. (1921)).
Apart from the standing rules as to the printing of names of places in block type, including a reference to the map used, dating and signing the orders, numbering the copies, and stating the time and method of issue, etc., the general tenour of all operation orders will always be: _The enemy are. . . . My intention is. . . . You will. . . ._ In other words, all that is known about the enemy, and of our own troops, that is essential for the purposes of the order, should be revealed; then the general intention of the commander who issues the orders; then the part in the operations that is to be played by the recipient. But the method of attaining the object will be left to the utmost extent possible to the recipient, with due regard to his personal characteristics. "It is essential that subordinates should not only be able to work intelligently and resolutely in accordance with brief orders or instructions, but should also be able to take upon themselves, whenever necessary, the responsibility of departing from, or of varying, the orders they may have received" ("Field Service Regulations," vol. ii. (1921)).
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INDEX
Active defence, the, 86-91 Adowa, battle of, (_note_) 22 Advanced guard, the, 102-113 distance, 103 information, 107-108 in advances, 103 in retreats, 104-105, 124 main guard, 105-106 Nachod, 77 night, 145 problems, 110-113 strategical, 103 strength of, 102-103 tactical, 103 tactics of, 103-104, 105-113 training, 105 vanguard, 105-106 Advances, night, 147-148 Advancing under fire, 39-44 Aërial observation, (_note_) 22, 98-99 photographs, 99 Aircraft, characteristics of, 169, 171, 175-176 advanced guard, 107 communication by, 37, 107, 115 flank guard, 115 gas, 176 outposts, 129-130, 137 position warfare, 81-82 protection by, 81, 98-99 protection from, 100 pursuit by, 67, 69 rear guard, 20, 120 reconnaissance by, 8, 26, 30, 36, 98-99, 100, 141 smoke, 177 Alexander the Great, 32 Allenby, General Viscount, G.C.B., 87, 96 America and the Great War, 17 American attack at Fossoy, 49 American Civil War, 3, 82 (_See also_ Battles by name.) Amiens, battle of, 21, 52, 66 Antietam, battle of, 14, 15, 48 Appomattox, battle of, 15, 64 "Appreciation of the Situation," 72 Arabi Pasha, 151 Arbela, battle of, 32 Archangel Province, 66-67 Archduke Charles, 128 Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, 42-43 Armandvillers-Folie, 63 Armies, the new, 19-22 Arminius, victory of, 156-157 Armistice Day, 1918, 65 Army, Contemptible Little, 18-19 of North Virginia, 25, 65-66 of the Cumberland, 15 of the Potomac, 3, 14-15, 25 Arras, battle of, 170 Art of warfare, 1-5 Artillery, characteristics of, 168-173 barrage, 71 development of, 21-22 effective range, 132 escorts, 63-64 gas shells, 176 growth of, 169-170 heavy, 172, 173 in attack, 62-64, in defence, 83, 89 in retreat, 120, 123 light, 170-171 medium, 171 mobility of, 63-64 outpost, 131, 134 pack, 170 positions, 94 ranges, 173 smoke shells, 177 super-heavy, 172, 173 Ashby, Gen. Turner, C.S.A., 117 Assaults by night, 148-154 Assembly, position of, 58-59, 147 Attack, the, 51-75 aircraft in, 67 artillery in, 62-64 battalion in, 73-75 cavalry, 64-67 close country, 155-156 company in, 72-73 co-operation, 25-26, 35-37, 39 decisive, 56-57, 60-62 disposition of troops, 55 engineers, 67 fire, 62 flank, 61 formation for, 70-75 forward body, 55-56 frontal, 60-61 general reserve, 56-57 holding, 12, 30, 48, 59, 62, 76, 95, 117 local reserve, 55-56 medical arrangements, 67 methods of, 53 opening fire, 37-38 platoon in, 70-72 reconnaissance for, 141-142 smoke, 177 strength of, 54-55 supply, 67-68 supports, 55-56 two plans of, 54 villages, 162 woods, 159-161 Attacking force, the, 59-60 Austerlitz, battle of, 9-10, 47, 76 Australians at Morlancourt, 149 Avenues, communicating, 143
Baccarat, battle of, 28 Bagdadieh, battle of, 64-65 Balaclava Charge, 96 Balloons, observation by, 22, 175-176 Banks, Gen., U.S.A., 59 Bapaume, battle of, 21 Barrage, the, 71 Base, the, 90, 118 Battalion in attack, 73-75 Battle, the, 24-50 characteristics of, 24-26 decisive blow, 31-32 development of the, 29-31 influences on the, 33-44 information, 26-28 initiative, 26-28 outposts, 138-140 phases of the, 26-29 position, the, 84-85 reports, 68 the defensive, 45-46 the defensive-offensive, 47-49 the encounter, 58 the offensive, 46-47 types of, 45-50 Bavaria, Elector of, 46 Bayonet, the, 164-165 in night operations, 154 Bazaine, Maréchal, 158 Bazeilles, defence of, 159 Benedek, Marshal, 96 Bernadotte, Marshal, 10 Blenheim, battle of, 46-47 Blücher, Marshal, 8, 41, 48, 78 Bluff, the (Ypres), 39 Boer War, (_note_) 21 Bois de Vaux, 158 Bombs, light mortar, 166-167 (_See also_ Grenades.) Border Regiment, 75 Bourlon Village, 42 Bristow Station, 128 British efforts, 1914-1918, 16-17 moral, 16-22 Broenbeek, 139 Bromhead, Lieut., 77 Bülow, General von, 78 Bunker Hill, battle of, 38 Burnside, Gen., U.S.A., 14, 46, 108, 139-140 Byng of Vimy, Gen. Lord, G.C.B., 7, 52
Cambrai, first battle of, 7, 30-31, 52, 66, 75, 160 second battle of, 21, 170 Camouflage, 100 Canadian cavalry, 66 engineers, 174 infantry at Vimy, 149 Canadians at Ypres, 42 Cannae, battle of, 14 Carey, Maj.-Gen. G. G. S., C.B., 174 Carey's force, 174 Cattigny Wood, 66 Cavalry, characteristics of, 167-168 cossack posts, 137 in attack, 64-67 in defence, 95-96 in pursuit, 64-65, 69 in retreat, 95-96, 120, 123-124 Mesopotamian campaign, 64-65 outposts, 137 protection by, 98-99, 110 raids by, 117-118 reconnaissance by, 8, 26, 32, 65-66, 106, 112-113 vedettes, 137 Cetewayo, 77-78 Chambord, Chateau de, 138 Chancellorsville, battle of, 12, 30, 48, 76, 95, 117 Changes in warfare, 21-23 Characteristics of the various arms, 164-177 Chard, Lieut., 77 Charleroi, battle of, 88 Chattanooga, battle of, 61-62 Chemin des Dames, 16 Civilised warfare, 157-158 Clery, Lieut.-Gen. Sir C. F. (_quoted_): advanced guard tactics, 109-110 Close country, fighting in, 155-163 Coldstream Guards, 75 Colenso, battle of, 63 Colombey, battle of, 109 Combe, Capt. E. P., M.C., 78 Commander, battalion, 74-75 company, 72-73 outpost company, 134-137 piquet, 135-136 platoon, 71-72, 135-136 Commander's influence, 33-35 orders, 178-179 plans, 57-58 position, 68 "Common Sense" fallacy, 1, 3 Communication, 31, 35, 107-108 Communications, lateral, 89 lines of, 116-118 Company in attack, 72-73 outpost, 134-137 Condé-Mons-Binche line, 87 Connection by night, 146 "Contemptible Little Army," the, 18-19, 165 Convoys, 116-118 Co-operation, 35-37, 164 Coruña, 127-128 Cossack posts, 137 Counter attack, 123 decisive, 79, 84, 92-94 local, 56, 75, 79, 161, 163 Cover, 88-89, 155 Covering fire, 43-44 Cronje, Gen. (Paardeberg), 16 Cross Keys, battle of, 117 Crown Prince of Prussia (1870), 109 (1914), 28 Crozat Canal, 77 Cugny, 96 Cumberland, army of the, 15 Cyclists, characteristics of, 168
Davis, Jefferson, 3 Day outposts, 137-138 Daylight and night attacks, 148 Decisive attack, the, 31-32, 60-62 counter attack, 79, 84, 92-94 Defence in close country, 155-156 of villages, 163 of woods, 161 Defensive action, 76-97, 163 battle, 45-46 flank, 86 system, 83 Defensive-offensive battle, 47-49 Defiles, 124 Definitions, 6-8 Delaborde, Général, 95, 127 Delaying action, 118, 121-128, 158-159 Deployment, position of, 147-148 Depth of a position, 89 Detached posts, 134, 135 De Wet, 118, 138 Diamond formation, 70 Direction by night, 145 Discipline, value of, 11-12 Dresden, battle of, 47, 89
Early, General., C.S. Army, 7 East Surrey Regiment, 42 Embussing point, 69 Encounter battle, 58, 64 Engineers, Royal, characteristics, 172 gas, 176 smoke, 177 Entrenching tool, 165 Entrenchments, 82-83, 100, 135 Epehy, battle of, 21 Ettlingen, battle of, 128 Eugène of Savoy, 46 Evelington Heights, 112-113
Fabius Maximus, 14, 102 Fallacies exposed, 1-5 Fanny's Farm, 160 Field artillery, characteristics of, 170-171 of battle, 6-7 of fire, 88 Fighting in close country, 155-163 Fire attack, 59-60 and movement, 44 covering, 43-44 opening, 31, 37-38, 146, 154 overhead, 44 tactics, 37-39 Flame projectors, 176 Flanders, battle of, 21 Flank attacks, 61, 114-118 guard tactics, 115 guards, 114-118, 145 scouts, 71 Flanks in defence, 86 security of, 88 Fletcher, Col. Sir R., Bart., 82 Foch, Maréchal, 47, 48-50, 53 (_quoted_):-- advanced guard tactics, 106, 113 art of war, 1 British victories in 1918, 20-21 defence in modern warfare, 80 definitions, 6 fully equipped mind, 2-3 human factor in war, 10-11 moral, 9 Nachod, 18 outflanking a rear guard, 121 principles of war, 1-2 protection by attack, 98 soul of the defence, 76 subordinate commanders, 34 surprise, 30-31, 98 well conducted battle, 24 Fog of battle, 34 Fontenoy-Belleau attack, 49 Formations for the attack, 70-75 Forrest, General, C. S. Army, 18, 59 Fort Garry Horse, 66 Forward body, the, 55-56 Fossoy, American attack at, 49 France, spirit of, 16 Franco-Prussian War, 84, 158-159 (_See also_ Battles by name.) Frederick the Great, 11, 46, 144 Fredericksburg, battle of, 14, 22, 38, 46, 92, 108, 139 French of Ypres, Field-Marshal Earl, K.P., 15-16, 87-88, 90, 126, 165 (_quoted_):-- "Contemptible Little Army," 19 defence in modern warfare, 80 necessity for study, 2 Frontage of outpost company, 135 Frontal attack, 60-61
Gaines's Mill, battle of, 14, 65 Gallieni, Général, 28, 37 Gas, 42, 81, 100, 176-177 Gatacre, Maj.-Gen. Sir W. F., K.C.B., 152 Gaugamela, (note) 32 General reserve, in attack, 33-34 in defence, 91-92, 94-95 George, Rt. Hon. D. Lloyd-, O.M. (_quoted_): British efforts, 1914-1918, 16-17 Gette River, 91 Gettysburg, battle of, 15, 45, 61, 65-66, 95-96, 117, 128 Gheluvelt, 42, 88 Gifert Wood, 158 Givenchy, 43 Grant, Maj.-Gen. P. G., C.B., 174 Grant, General U. S., U.S.A., 3, 7, 15, 46, 60-62, 90, 117, 149-150 Gravelotte, battle of, 158 "Green Curve," the, 9, 34 Grenades, hand and rifle, 166 Grenfell, Gen. Sir F. W., K.C.B., 156 Grouchy, Maréchal, 7-8, 90-91 Ground, eye for, 125-126 scouts, 71 Guards' division, 43, 75, 160 Gueudecourt, 37
Haerincourt and Epehy, battle of, 21 Haig of Bemersyde, Field-Marshal Earl, K.T., 53 (_quoted_):-- artillery, 169-170 canal bridges, 77 Carey's force, 174 cavalry in defence, 96 cavalry in the war, 66-67 fuse No. 106, 170 gas, 176-177 hang on! 43 health and moral, 13 infantry the backbone, 22 New Armies, 19-22 "Other Man's Job," 164 principles of war, 2 rearward services, 13 reserves in 1918, 95 rifle and bayonet, 70 smoke, 177 surprise, 7 tanks, 175 Haking, Lieut.-Gen. Sir R. C. B., G.B.E. (_quoted_):-- advanced guards, 104 rear guards, 123 Hal and Tubize, 78 Hamley, Gen. Sir E. B., K.C.B. (_quoted_):-- communications, 31 co-operation, 35-36 courage, 14 definitions, 6 "Higher Ranks" fallacy, 4 mobility, 11 study required, 2 Hancock, Gen., U.S.A., 93 Hand grenades, 166 Hannibal, 47 Harold II., king, 11-12 Harrison's Landing, 65 Hastings, battle of, 11-12 Health and moral, 13 Heavy artillery, 172, 173 Heights of Abraham, 38 Henderson, Col. G. F. R., C.B. (_quoted_):-- Abraham Lincoln, 14 atmosphere of battle, 29-30 British and American troops, 17-18 cavalry, 64 "Common Sense" fallacy, 3 co-operation, 35-37 discipline, 11 eye for ground, 125-126 flank attacks, 114 Grant's bases, 90 soldiers' battles, 9 sound system of command, 33 Spottsylvania, 93-94 study necessary, 4-5 value of text-books, 23 Hennechy, 66 "Higher Ranks" fallacy, 4 Hill, Gen. D. H., C.S. Army, 25-26 Hindenburg, Marshal von, 52 Hindenburg Line, battle of the, 21, 30 Hohenlinden, battle of, 128 Hood, Gen. J. B., C.S. Army, 45 Hooker, Gen., U.S.A., 3, 48, 76, 117 Horatius Cocles, 77 Horse artillery, characteristics of, 168, 170 Hotchkiss rifles, 168 Howitzers, 170, 171, 172, 173 Human nature in war, 13-16 Hunter, Gen., U.S.A., 7
Infantry, characteristics of, 164-167 Information in battle, 26-28, 35, 107-108 Initiative, the, 26-28, 178-179 Intelligence officers, 141-142 Isandhlwana, 77-78, 156 Italo-Turkish campaign, (_note_) 22
Jackson, Gen. T. J., C.S. Army, ("Stonewall" Jackson), 4, 10, 12, 69, 76, 117 Joffre, Maréchal, 28, 108 Jourdan, Maréchal, 128
Kimberley, relief of, 6 Kite balloons, 175-176 Königgratz, battle of, 96 Koorn Spruit, 118, 124
Ladysmith, relief of, 6 La Fère, 52 Lancashire territorials, 43 Le Cateau, first battle of, 96, 126 second battle of, 21, 66 Lee, General R. E., C.S. Army, 10, 45, 46, 48, 61, 65, 76, 93-94, 97, 108, 113, 117, 125-126, 128, 139-140, 149-150 Leonidas, 77 Le Quesnoy, 78 Les Boeufs, 126-127 Leuthen, battle of, 46 Lewis guns, characteristics of, 166 Liberty of manoeuvre, 26-28, 39, 43-44, 71, 126-127, 132, 139 Light Mortars, 166-167, 173 Ligny, battle of, 8, 47, 90-91 Lincoln, Abraham, 3, 10, 14 Lines of communications, 116-118 of observation, 130, 133 of resistance, 84, 134 Local reserves, attack, 55-56 defence, 92, 95 outposts, 130, 134 rear guards, 125 Logan, Gen. J. A., U.S.A., 15 London Regiment, 75 Longstreet, Gen. J., C.S. Army, 45 Losses reduced by movement, 39-40 Ludendorff, 52 Lys, attack on the, 43, 56