Chapter 8

Chapter 836,316 wordsPublic domain

WORDS AND FORMS

LESSON I

FIRST PRINCIPLES

«19.» «Subject and Predicate.» 1. Latin, like English, expresses thoughts by means of sentences. A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought, and in its simplest form is the statement of a single fact. Thus,

_Galba is a farmer_ «Galba est agricola» _The sailor fights_ «Nauta pugnat»

In each of these sentences there are two parts:

SUBJECT PREDICATE _Galba_ _is a farmer_ «Galba» _The sailor_ _fights_ «Nauta» «pugnat»

2. The subject is that person, place, or thing about which something is said, and is therefore a _noun_ or some word which can serve the same purpose.

_a._ Pronouns, as their name implies (_pro_, “instead of,” and _noun_), often take the place of nouns, usually to save repeating the same noun, as, _Galba is a farmer; «he» is a sturdy fellow_.

3. The predicate is that which is said about the subject, and consists of a verb with or without modifiers.

_a._ A verb is a word which asserts something (usually an act) concerning a person, place, or thing.

«20.» «The Object.» In the two sentences, _The boy hit the ball_ and _The ball hit the boy_, the same words are used, but the meaning is different, and depends upon the order of the words. The «doer» of the act, that about which something is said, is, as we have seen above, the «subject». «That to which something is done» is the «direct object» of the verb. _The boy hit the ball_ is therefore analyzed as follows:

SUBJECT PREDICATE /-----------\ _The boy_ _hit the ball_ (verb) (direct object)

_a._ A verb whose action passes over to the object directly, as in the sentence above, is called a «transitive verb». A verb which does not admit of a direct object is called «intransitive», as, _I walk_, _he comes_.

«21.» «The Copula.» The verb _to be_ in its different forms--_are_, _is_, _was_, etc.--does not tell us anything about the subject; neither does it govern an object. It simply connects the subject with the word or words in the predicate that possess a distinct meaning. Hence it is called the «copula», that is, _the joiner_ or _link_.

«22.» In the following sentences pronounce the Latin and name the _nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, predicates, copulas_:

1. «America est patria mea» _America is fatherland my_

2. «Agricola fīliam amat» _(The) farmer (his) daughter loves_

3. «Fīlia est Iūlia» _(His) daughter is Julia_

4. «Iūlia et agricola sunt in īnsulā» _Julia and (the) farmer are on (the) island_

5. «Iūlia aquam portat» _Julia water carries_

6. «Rosam in comīs habet» _(A) rose in (her) hair (she) has_

7. «Iūlia est puella pulchra» _Julia is (a) girl pretty_

8. «Domina fīliam pulchram habet» _(The) lady (a) daughter beautiful has_

_a._ The sentences above show that Latin does not express some words which are necessary in English. First of all, _Latin has no article «the» or «a»_; thus _«agricola»_ may mean _the farmer, a farmer_, or simply _farmer_. Then, too, the personal pronouns, _I, you, he, she_, etc., and the possessive pronouns, _my, your, his, her_, etc., are not expressed if the meaning of the sentence is clear without them.

LESSON II

FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)

«23.» «Inflection.» Words may change their forms to indicate some change in sense or use, as, _is, are_; _was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer, farmer’s; woman, women_. This is called «inflection». The inflection of a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its «declension», that of a verb its «conjugation».

«24.» «Number.» Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and plural. In English we usually form the plural by adding _-s_ or _-es_ to the singular. So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing the ending of the word. Compare

«Naut-a pugnat» _The sailor fights_ «Naut-ae pugnant» _The sailors fight_

«25.» RULE. _Nouns that end in «-a» in the singular end in «-ae» in the plural_.

«26.» Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the Latin or the Latin for the English. Write the plural of each.

«agri´cola», _farmer_ (agriculture)[1] «aqua», _water_ (aquarium) «causa», _cause, reason_ «do´mina», _lady of the house, mistress_ (dominate) «filia», _daughter_ (filial) «fortū´na», _fortune_ «fuga», _flight_ (fugitive) «iniū´ria», _wrong, injury_ «lūna», _moon_ (lunar) «nauta», _sailor_ (nautical) «puel´la», _girl_ «silva», forest (silvan) «terra», _land_ (terrace)

[Footnote 1: The words in parentheses are English words related to the Latin. When the words are practically identical, as «causa», _cause_, no comparison is needed.]

«27.» Compare again the sentences

«Nauta pugna-t» _The sailor fights_ «Nautae pugna-nt» _The sailors fight_

In the first sentence the verb «pugna-t» is in the third person singular, in the second sentence «pugna-nt» is in the third person plural.

«28.» RULE. «Agreement of Verb.» _A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject._

«29.» RULE. _In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person singular active ends in «-t», the third person plural in «-nt». The endings which show the person and number of the verb are called «personal endings»._

«30.» Learn the following verbs and write the plural of each. The personal pronouns _he_, _she_, _it_, etc., which are necessary in the inflection of the English verb, are not needed in the Latin, because the personal endings take their place. Of course, if the verb’s subject is expressed we do not translate the personal ending by a pronoun; thus «nauta pugnat» is translated _the sailor fights_, not _the sailor he fights_.

«ama-t» _he (she, it) loves, is loving, does love_ (amity, amiable) «labō´ra-t» “ “ “ _labors, is laboring, does labor_ «nūntia-t»[2] “ “ “ _announces, is announcing, does announce_ «porta-t» “ “ “ _carries, is carrying, does carry_ (porter) «pugna-t» “ “ “ _fights, is fighting, does fight_ (pugnacious)

[Footnote 2: The _u_ in «nūntiō» is long by exception. (Cf. §12.2.)]

«31.» EXERCISES

I. 1. The daughter loves, the daughters love. 2. The sailor is carrying, the sailors carry. 3. The farmer does labor, the farmers labor. 4. The girl is announcing, the girls do announce. 5. The ladies are carrying, the lady carries.

II. 1. Nauta pugnat, nautae pugnant. 2. Puella amat, puellae amant. 3. Agricola portat, agricolae portant. 4. Fīlia labōrat, fīliae labōrant. 5. Nauta nūntiat, nautae nūntiant. 6. Dominae amant, domina amat.

LESSON III

FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)

«32.» «Declension of Nouns.» We learned above (§§19, 20) the difference between the subject and object, and that in English they may be distinguished by the order of the words. Sometimes, however, the order is such that we are left in doubt. For example, the sentence _The lady her daughter loves_ might mean either that the lady loves her daughter, or that the daughter loves the lady.

1. If the sentence were in Latin, no doubt could arise, because the subject and the object are distinguished, not by the order of the words, but by the endings of the words themselves. Compare the following sentences:

«Domina fīliam amat» «Fīliam domina amat» «Amat fīliam domina» «Domina amat fīliam» _The lady loves her daughter_

«Fīlia dominam amat» «Dominam fīlia amat» «Amat dominam fīlia» «Fīlia amat dominam» _The daughter loves the lady_

_a._ Observe that in each case the subject of the sentence ends in «-a» and the object in «-am». The _form_ of the noun shows how it is used in the sentence, and the order of the words has no effect on the essential meaning.

2. As stated above (§23), this change of ending is called «declension», and each different ending produces what is called a «case». When we decline a noun, we give all its different cases, or changes of endings. In English we have three cases,--nominative, possessive, and objective; but, in nouns, the nominative and objective have the same form, and only the possessive case shows a change of ending, by adding _’s_ or the apostrophe. The interrogative pronoun, however, has the fuller declension, _who?_ _whose?_ _whom?_

«33.» The following table shows a comparison between English and Latin declension forms, and should be thoroughly memorized:

When the nominative singular of a noun ends in «-a», observe that

_a._ The nominative plural ends in «-ae».

_b._ The genitive singular ends in «-ae» and the genitive plural in «-ārum».

_c._ The accusative singular ends in «-am» and the accusative plural in «-ās».

_d._ The genitive singular and the nominative plural have the same ending.

«34.» EXERCISE

Pronounce the following words and give their general meaning. Then give the number and case, and the use of each form. Where the same form stands for more than one case, give all the possible cases and uses.

1. Silva, silvās, silvam. 2. Fugam, fugae, fuga. 3. Terrārum, terrae, terrās. 4. Aquās, causam, lūnās. 5. Fīliae, fortūnae, lūnae. 6. Iniūriās, agricolārum, aquārum. 7. Iniūriārum, agricolae, puellās. 8. Nautam, agricolās, nautās. 9. Agricolam, puellam, silvārum.

LESSON IV

FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)

[Special Vocabulary]

[See Transcriber’s Note at beginning of text.]

NOUNS «dea», _goddess_ (deity) Diā´na, _Diana_ «fera», _a wild beast_ (fierce) Lātō´na, _Latona_ «sagit´ta», _arrow_

VERBS «est», _he (she, it) is_; «sunt», _they are_ «necat», _he (she, it) kills, is killing, does kill_

CONJUNCTION[A] «et», _and_

PRONOUNS «quis», interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., _who?_ «cuius» (pronounced _co͝oi´yo͝os_, two syllables), interrog. pronoun, gen. sing., _whose?_

[Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.]

«35.» We learned from the table (§33) that the Latin nominative, genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative, possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same way. This will be made even clearer by the following sentence:

«Fīlia agricolae nautam amat», _the farmer’s daughter_ (or _the daughter of the farmer_) _loves the sailor_

What is the subject? the direct object? What case is used for the subject? for the direct object? What word denotes the possessor? In what case is it?

«36.» RULE. «Nominative Subject.» _The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?_

«37.» RULE. «Accusative Object.» _The direct object of a transitive verb is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?_

«38.» RULE. «Genitive of the Possessor.» _The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question Whose?_

«39.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

I. 1. Diāna est dea. 2. Lātōna est dea. 3. Diāna et Lātōna sunt deae. 4. Diāna est dea lūnae. 5. Diāna est fīlia Lātōnae. 6. Lātōna Diānam amat. 7. Diāna est dea silvārum. 8. Diāna silvam amat. 9. Diāna sagittās portat. 10. Diāna ferās silvae necat. 11. Ferae terrārum pugnant.

For the order of words imitate the Latin above.

II. 1. The daughter of Latona does love the forests. 2. Latona’s daughter carries arrows. 3. The farmers’ daughters do labor. 4. The farmer’s daughter loves the waters of the forest. 5. The sailor is announcing the girls’ flight. 6. The girls announce the sailors’ wrongs. 7. The farmer’s daughter labors. 8. Diana’s arrows are killing the wild beasts of the land.

«40.» CONVERSATION

Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. The answers may be found in the exercises preceding.

1. Quis est Diāna? 2. Cuius fīlia est Diāna? 3. Quis Diānam amat? 4. Quis silvam amat? 5. Quis sagittās portat? 6. Cuius fīliae labōrant?

LESSON V

FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS «corō´na», _wreath, garland, crown_ fā´bula, _story_ (fable) «pecū´nia», _money_ (pecuniary) «pugna», _battle_ (pugnacious) «victō´ria», _victory_

VERBS «dat», _he (she, it) gives_ nārrat, _he (she, it) tells_ (narrate)

CONJUNCTION[A] «quia» or «quod», _because_

«cui» (pronounced _co͝oi_, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat. sing., _to whom?_ _for whom?_

[Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.]

«41.» «The Dative Case.» In addition to the relationships between words expressed by the nominative, genitive (possessive), and accusative (objective) cases, there are other relationships, to express which in English we use such words as _from_, _with_, _by_, _to_, _for_, _in_, _at_.[1]

[Footnote 1: Words like _to_, _for_, _by_, _from_, _in_, etc., which define the relationship between words, are called «prepositions».]

Latin, too, makes frequent use of such prepositions; but often it expresses these relations without them by means of case forms which English does not possess. One of the cases found in the Latin declension and lacking in English is called the _dative_.

«42.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the dative singular ends in «-ae» and the dative plural in «-īs».

NOTE. Observe that the _genitive singular_, the _dative singular_, and the _nominative plural_ all have the same ending, «-ae»; but the uses of the three cases are entirely different. The general meaning of the sentence usually makes clear which case is intended.

_a._ Form the dative singular and plural of the following nouns: «fuga», «causa», «fortūna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola», «nauta», «domina».

«43.» «The Dative Relation.» The dative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _to_, _towards_, _for_.

These prepositions are often used in English in expressions of motion, such as _She went to town_, _He ran towards the horse_, _Columbus sailed for America_. In such cases the dative is not used in Latin, as _motion through space_ is foreign to the dative relation. But the dative is used to denote that _to_ or _towards which_ a benefit, injury, purpose, feeling, or quality is directed, or that _for which_ something serves or exists.

_a._ What dative relations do you discover in the following?

The teacher gave a prize to John because he replied so promptly to all her questions--a good example for the rest of us. It is a pleasure to us to hear him recite. Latin is easy for him, but it is very hard for me. Some are fitted for one thing and others for another.

«44.» «The Indirect Object.» Examine the sentence

«Nauta fugam nūntiat», _the sailor announces the flight_

Here the verb, «nūntiat», governs the direct object, «fugam», in the accusative case. If, however, we wish to mention the persons «to whom» the sailor announces the flight, as, _The sailor announces the flight «to the farmers»_, the verb will have two objects:

1. Its direct object, _flight_ («fugam») 2. Its indirect object, _farmers_

According to the preceding section, _to the farmers_ is a relation covered by the dative case, and we are prepared for the following rule:

«45.» RULE. «Dative Indirect Object.» _The indirect object of a verb is in the Dative._

_a._ The indirect object usually stands before the direct object.

«46.» We may now complete the translation of the sentence _The sailor announces the flight to the farmers_, and we have

«Nauta agricolīs fugam nūntiat»

«47.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

_Point out the direct and indirect objects and the genitive of the possessor._

I. 1. Quis nautīs pecūniam dat? 2. Fīliae agricolae nautīs pecūniam dant. 3. Quis fortūnam pugnae nūntiat? 4. Galba agricolīs fortunam pugnae nūntiat. 5. Cui domina fābulam nārrat? 6. Fīliae agricolae domina fābulam nārrat. 7. Quis Diānae corōnam dat? 8. Puella Diānae corōnam dat quia Diānam amat. 9. Dea lūnae sagittās portat et ferās silvārum necat. 10. Cuius victōriam Galba nūntiat? 11. Nautae victōriam Galba nūntiat.

Imitate the word order of the preceding exercise.

II. 1. To whom do the girls give a wreath? 2. The girls give a wreath to Julia, because Julia loves wreaths. 3. The sailors tell the ladies[2] a story, because the ladies love stories. 4. The farmer gives his (§22.a) daughter water. 5. Galba announces the cause of the battle to the sailor. 6. The goddess of the moon loves the waters of the forest. 7. Whose wreath is Latona carrying? Diana’s.

[Footnote 2: Observe that in English the indirect object often stands without a preposition _to_ to mark it, especially when it precedes the direct object.]

LESSON VI

FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)

[Special Vocabulary]

ADJECTIVES «bona», _good_ «grāta», _pleasing_ «magna», _large, great_ «mala», _bad, wicked_ «parva», _small, little_ «pulchra», _beautiful, pretty_ «sōla», _alone_

NOUNS ancil´la, _maidservant_ Iūlia, _Julia_

ADVERBS[A] «cūr», _why_ «nōn», _not_

PRONOUNS «mea», _my_; «tua», _thy, your_ (possesives) «quid», interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., _what?_

«-ne», the question sign, an enclitic (§16) added to the first word, which, in a question, is usually the verb, as «amat», _he loves_, but «amat´ne»? _does he love?_ «est», _he is_; «estne»? _is he?_ Of course «-ne» is not used when the sentence contains «quis», «cūr», or some other interrogative word.

[Footnote A: An _adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, She sings _sweetly_; she is _very_ talented; she began to sing _very early_.]

«48.» «The Ablative Case.» Another case, lacking in English but found in the fuller Latin declension, is the _ab´la-tive._

«49.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the ablative singular ends in «-ā» and the ablative plural in «-īs».

_a._ Observe that the final -ă of the nominative is short, while the final -ā of the ablative is long, as,

_Nom._ fīliă _Abl._ fīliā

_b._ Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural.

_c._ Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns: «fuga», «causa», «fortūna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola», «nauta», «domina».

«50.» «The Ablative Relation.» The ablative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _from_, _with_, _by_, _at_, _in_. It denotes

1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of which it is deprived--generally translated by _from_.

2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is done--translated by _with_ or _by_.

3. The place where or the time when something happens--translated by _in_ or _at_.

_a._ What ablative relations do you discover in the following?

In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight o’clock they come from home with their books, and while they are at school they read with ease the books written by the Romans. By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be overcome.

«51.» «Prepositions.» While, as stated above (§41), many relations expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the accusative or ablative.

«52.» RULE. «Object of a Preposition.» _A noun governed by a preposition must be in the Accusative or Ablative case._

«53.» Prepositions denoting the ablative relations _from, with, in, on_, are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are

«ā»[1] or «ab», _from, away from_ «dē», _from, down from_ «ē»[1] or «ex», _from, out from, out of_ «cum», _with_ «in», _in, on_

[Footnote 1: «ā» and «ē» are used only before words beginning with a consonant; «ab» and «ex» are used before either vowels or consonants.]

1. _Translate into Latin, using prepositions._ In the water, on the land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon.

«54.» «Adjectives.» Examine the sentence

«Puella parva bonam deam amat», _the little girl loves the good goddess_

In this sentence «parva» (_little_) and «bonam» (_good_) are not nouns, but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called _adjectives_,[2] and they are said to belong to the noun which they describe.

[Footnote 2: _Pick out the adjectives in the following:_ “When I was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter’s morning I was accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. ‘My pretty boy,’ said he, ‘has your father a grindstone?’ ‘Yes, sir,’ said I. ‘You are a fine little fellow,’ said he. ‘Will you let me grind my ax on it?’”]

You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The ending of «parva» shows that it belongs to «puella», and the ending of «bonam» that it belongs to «deam». Words that belong together are said to agree, and the belonging-together is called _agreement_. Observe that _the adjective and its noun agree in number and case_.

«55.» Examine the sentences

«Puella est parva», _the girl is little_ «Puella parva bonam deam amat», _the little girl loves the good goddess_

In the first sentence the adjective «parva» is separated from its noun by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a _predicate adjective_. In the second sentence the adjectives «parva» and «bonam» are closely attached to the nouns «puella» and «deam» respectively, and are called _attributive adjectives._

_a._ Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the following:

Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy.

«56.» DIALOGUE

JULIA AND GALBA

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

I. Quis, Galba, est Diāna? G. Diāna, Iūlia, est pulchra dea lūnae et silvārum. I. Cuius fīlia, Galba, est Diāna? G. Lātōnae fīlia, Iūlia, est Diāna. I. Quid Diāna portat? G. Sagittās Diāna portat. I. Cūr Diāna sagittās portat? G. Diāna sagittās portat, Iūlia, quod malās ferās silvae magnae necat. I. Amatne Lātōna fīliam? G. Amat, et fīlia Lātōnam amat. I. Quid fīlia tua parva portat? G. Corōnās pulchrās fīlia mea parva portat. I. Cui fīlia tua corōnās pulchrās dat? G. Diānae corōnās dat. I. Quis est cum fīliā tuā? Estne sōla? G. Sōla nōn est; fīlia mea parva est cum ancillā meā.

_a._ When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called the _voc´ative_ (Latin _vocāre_, “to call”). _In form the vocative is regularly like the nominative_. In English the name of the person addressed usually stands first in the sentence. _The Latin vocative rarely stands first_. Point out five examples of the vocative in this dialogue.

_b._ Observe that questions answered by _yes_ or _no_ in English are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to answer in Latin the question _Is the sailor fighting?_ «Pugnatne nauta?» you would say «Pugnat», _he is fighting_, or «Nōn pugnat», _he is not fighting._

LESSON VII

THE FIRST OR _Ā_-DECLENSION

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS «casa, -ae», f., _cottage_ cēna, -ae, f., _dinner_ «gallī´na, -ae», f., _hen, chicken_ «īn´sula, ae», f., _island_ (pen-insula)

ADVERBS «de-in´de», _then, in the next place_ «ubi», _where_

PREPOSITION «ad», _to_, with acc. to express motion toward

PRONOUN «quem», interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., _whom?_

VERBS ha´bitat, _he (she, it) lives, is living, does live_ (inhabit) «laudat», _he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise_ (laud) «parat», _he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare_ «vocat», _he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites, is inviting, does invite_ (vocation)

«57.» In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases, singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a». All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a» belong to the First Declension. It is also called the _Ā_-Declension because of the prominent part which the vowel «a» plays in the formation of the cases. We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case. These results are summarized in the following table:

«58.» «The Base.» That part of a word which remains unchanged in inflection and to which the terminations are added is called the «base».

Thus, in the declension above, «domin-» is the base and «-a» is the termination of the nominative singular.

«59.» Write the declension of the following nouns, separating the base from the termination by a hyphen. Also give them orally.

«pugna», «terra», «lūna», «ancil´la», «corō´na», «īn´sula», «silva»

«60.» «Gender.» In English, names of living beings are either masculine or feminine, and names of things without life are neuter. This is called «natural gender». Yet in English there are some names of things to which we refer as if they were feminine; as, “Have you seen my yacht? _She_ is a beauty.” And there are some names of living beings to which we refer as if they were neuter; as, “Is the baby here? No, the nurse has taken _it_ home.” Some words, then, have a gender quite apart from sex or real gender, and this is called «grammatical gender».

Latin, like English, has three genders. Names of males are usually masculine and of females feminine, but _names of things have grammatical gender and may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter_. Thus we have in Latin the three words, «lapis», _a stone_; «rūpēs», _a cliff_; and «saxum», _a rock_. «Lapis» is _masculine_, «rūpēs» _feminine_, and «saxum» _neuter_. The gender can usually be determined by the ending of the word, and _must always be learned_, for without knowing the gender it is impossible to write correct Latin.

«61.» «Gender of First-Declension Nouns.» Nouns of the first declension are feminine unless they denote males. Thus «silva» is feminine, but «nauta», _sailor_, and «agricola», _farmer_, are masculine.

«62.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.

I. 1. Agricola cum fīliā in casā habitat. 2. Bona fīlia agricolae cēnam parat. 3. Cēna est grāta agricolae[1] et agricola bonam fīliam laudat. 4. Deinde fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cēnam vocat. 5. Gallīnae fīliam agricolae amant. 6. Malae fīliae bonās cēnās nōn parant. 7. Fīlia agricolae est grāta dominae. 8. Domina in īnsulā magnā habitat. 9. Domina bonae puellae parvae pecūniam dat.

II. 1. Where does the farmer live? 2. The farmer lives in the small cottage. 3. Who lives with the farmer? 4. (His) little daughter lives with the farmer. 5. (His) daughter is getting («parat») a good dinner for the farmer. 6. The farmer praises the good dinner. 7. The daughter’s good dinner is pleasing to the farmer.

[Footnote 1: Note that the relation expressed by the dative case covers that _to which a feeling is directed._ (Cf. §43.)]

What Latin words are suggested by this picture?

«63.» CONVERSATION

Answer the questions in Latin.

1. Quis cum agricolā in casā habitat? 2. Quid bona fīlia agricolae parat? 3. Quem agricola laudat? 4. Vocatne fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cēnam? 5. Cuius fīlia est grāta dominae? 6. Cui domina pecūniam dat?

LESSON VIII

FIRST DECLENSION (_Continued_)

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS «Italia, -ae», f., _Italy_ Sicilia, -ae, f., _Sicily_ «tuba, -ae», f., _trumpet_ (tube) «via, -ae», f., _way, road, street_ (viaduct)

ADJECTIVES «alta», _high, deep_ (altitude) «clāra», _clear, bright; famous_ «lāta», _wide_ (latitude) «longa», _long_ (longitude) «nova», _new_ (novelty)

«64.» We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together and you have noticed an agreement between them in _case_ and in _number_ (§54). They agree also in _gender_. In the phrase «silva magna», we have a feminine adjective in «-a» agreeing with a feminine noun in «-a».

«65.» RULE. «Agreement of Adjectives.» _Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case._

«66.» Feminine adjectives in «-a» are declined like feminine nouns in «-a», and you should learn to decline them together as follows:

NOUN ADJECTIVE «domina» (base «domin-»), «bona» (base «bon-»), f., _lady_ _good_

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ do´mina bona -a _Gen._ dominae bonae -ae _Dat._ dominae bonae -ae _Acc._ dominam bonam -am _Abl._ dominā bonā -ā

PLURAL _Nom._ dominae bonae -ae _Gen._ dominā´rum bonā´rum -ārum _Dat._ dominīs bonīs -īs _Acc._ dominās bonās -ās _Abl._ dominīs bonīs -īs

_a._ In the same way decline together «puella mala», _the bad girl_; «ancil´la parva», _the little maid_; «fortū´na magna», _great fortune._

«67.» The words «dea», _goddess_, and «fīlia», _daughter_, take the ending «-ābus» instead of «-īs» in the _dative and ablative plural._ Note the _dative and ablative plural_ in the following declension:

«dea bona» (bases «de-» «bon-»)

SINGULAR PLURAL _Nom._ dea bona deae bonae _Gen._ deae bonae deā´rum bonā´rum _Dat._ deae bonae deā´bus bonīs _Acc._ deam bonam deās bonās _Abl._ deā bonā dea´bus bonīs

_a._ In the same way decline together «fīlīa parva».

«68.» «Latin Word Order.» The order of words in English and in Latin sentences is not the same.

In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order. Thus, in the sentence _My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers_, we cannot alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence. We can, however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more force. Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force on _my, daughter, dinner, farmers_.

In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its _ending_ (cf. §32.1), and not by its _position_, the order of words is more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in English is secured by emphasis of voice. To a limited extent we can alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose. Compare the sentences

_I saw a game of football at Chicago last November_ (normal order) _«Last November» I saw a game of football at Chicago_ _At Chicago, last November, I saw a game of «football»_

1. In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the _first_; next in importance is the _last_; the weakest point is the _middle_. Generally the _subject_ is the most important word, and is placed _first_; usually the _verb_ is the next in importance, and is placed _last_. The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order of their importance. Hence the normal order of words--that is, where no unusual emphasis is expressed--is as follows:

_subject_--_modifiers of the subject_--_indirect object_-- _direct object_--_adverb_--_verb_

Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. _Notice the order of the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are turning English into Latin._

2. Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after their nouns. When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as

«fīlia mea», _my daughter_; «mea fīlia», _«my» daughter_; «casa Galbae», _Galba’s cottage_; «Galbae casa», _«Galba’s» cottage_.

Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following sentence in different ways:

«Fīlia mea agricolīs cēnam parat» (normal order) «Mea fīlia agricolīs parat cēnam» («mea» and «cēnam» emphatic) «Agricolīs fīlia mea cēnam parat» («agricolīs» emphatic)

3. An adjective placed before its noun is more emphatic than when it follows. When great emphasis is desired, the adjective is separated from its noun by other words.

«Fīlia mea casam parvam nōn amat» («parvam» not emphatic) «Fīlia mea parvam casam nōn amat» («parvam» more emphatic) «Parvam fīlia mea casam nōn amat» («parvam» very emphatic)

4. Interrogative words usually stand first, the same as in English.

5. The copula (as «est», «sunt») is of so little importance that it frequently does not stand last, but may be placed wherever it sounds well.

«69.» EXERCISE

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.

_Note the order of the words in these sentences and pick out those that are emphatic._

1. Longae nōn sunt tuae viae. 2. Suntne tubae novae in meā casā? Nōn sunt. 3. Quis lātā in silvā habitat? Diāna, lūnae clārae pulchra dea, lātā in silvā habitat. 4. Nautae altās et lātās amant aquās. 5. Quid ancilla tua portat? Ancilla mea tubam novam portat. 6. Ubi sunt Lesbia et Iūlia? In tuā casa est Lesbia et Iūlia est in meā. 7. Estne Italia lāta terra? Longa est Italia, nōn lāta. 8. Cui Galba agricola fābulam novam nārrat? Fīliābus dominae clārae fābulam novam nārrat. 9. Clāra est īnsula Sicilia. 10. Quem laudat Lātōna? Lātōna laudat fīliam.

* * * * *

«First Review of Vocabulary and Grammar, §§502-505»

* * * * *

LESSON IX

THE SECOND OR _O_-DECLENSION

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS «bellum, -ī», n., _war_ (re-bel) «cōnstantia, -ae», f., _firmness, constancy, steadiness_ dominus, -ī, m., _master, lord_ (dominate) «equus, -ī», m., _horse_ (equine) «frūmentum, -ī», n., _grain_ «lēgātus, -ī», m., _lieutenant, ambassador_ (legate) «Mārcus, -ī», m., _Marcus, Mark_ «mūrus, -ī», m., _wall_ (mural) «oppidānus, -ī», m., _townsman_ «oppidum, -ī», n., _town_ «pīlum, -ī», n., _spear_ (pile driver) «servus, -ī», m., _slave, servant_ Sextus, -ī, m., _Sextus_

VERBS «cūrat», _he (she, it) cares for_, with acc. «properat», _he (she, it) hastens_

«70.» Latin nouns are divided into five declensions.

The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of the genitive singular. This should always be learned along with the nominative and the gender.

«71.» The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or _O_-Declension ends in «-us», «-er», «-ir», or «-um». The genitive singular ends in «-ī».

«72.» «Gender.» Nouns in «-um» are neuter. The others are regularly masculine.

«73.» «Declension of nouns in -_us_ and -_um_.» Masculines in «-us» and neuters in «-um» are declined as follows:

«dominus» (base «domin-»), «pīlum» (base «pīl-»), m., _master_ n., _spear_

TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS SINGULAR _Nom._ do´minus[1] -us pīlum -um _Gen._ dominī -ī pīlī -ī _Dat._ dominō -ō pīlō -ō _Acc._ dominum -um pīlum -um _Abl._ dominō -ō pīlō -ō _Voc._ domine -e pīlum -um

PLURAL _Nom._ dominī -ī pīla -a _Gen._ dominō´rum -ōrum pīlō´rum -ōrum _Dat._ dominīs -īs pīlīs -īs _Acc._ dominōs -ōs pīla -a _Abl._ dominīs -īs pīlīs -īs

[Footnote 1: Compare the declension of «domina» and of «dominus».]

_a._ Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative and accusative plural.

_b._ The vocative singular of words of the second declension in «-us» ends in «-ĕ», as «domine», _O master_; «serve», _O slave_. This is the most important exception to the rule in §56.a.

«74.» Write side by side the declension of «domina», «dominus», and «pīlum». A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules, which are of great importance because they apply to all five declensions:

_a._ The vocative, with a single exception (see §73.b), is like the nominative. That is, the vocative singular is like the nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative plural.

_b._ The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are alike, and in the plural end in «-a».

_c._ The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in «-m» and the accusative plural in «-s».

_d._ The dative and ablative plural are always alike.

_e._ Final «-i» and «-o» are always _long_; final «-a» is _short_, except in the ablative singular of the first declension.

«75.» Observe the sentences

«Lesbia est bona», _Lesbia is good_ «Lesbia est ancilla», _Lesbia is a maidservant_

We have learned (§55) that «bona», when used, as here, in the predicate to describe the subject, is called a _predicate adjective_. Similarly a _noun_, as «ancilla», used in the _predicate_ to define the subject is called a «predicate noun».

«76.» RULE. «Predicate Noun.» _A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb._

«77.» DIALOGUE

GALBA AND MARCUS

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

G. Quis, Mārce, est lēgātus cum pīlō et tubā? M. Lēgātus, Galba, est Sextus. G. Ubi Sextus habitat?[2] M. In oppidō Sextus cum fīliābus habitat. G. Amantne oppidānī Sextum? M. Amant oppidānī Sextum et laudant, quod magnā cum cōnstantiā pugnat. G. Ubi, Mārce, est ancilla tua? Cūr nōn cēnam parat? M. Ancilla mea, Galba, equō lēgātī aquam et frūmentum dat. G. Cūr nōn servus Sextī equum dominī cūrat? M. Sextus et servus ad mūrum oppidī properant. Oppidānī bellum parant.[3]

[Footnote 2: «habitat» is here translated _does live_. Note the _three_ possible translations of the Latin present tense: «habitat» _he lives_ _he is living_ _he does live_ Always choose the translation which makes the best sense.]

[Footnote 3: Observe that the verb «parō» means not only _to prepare_ but also _to prepare for_, and governs the accusative case.]

«78.» CONVERSATION

Translate the questions and answer them in Latin.

1. Ubi fīliae Sextī habitant? 2. Quem oppidānī amant et laudant? 3. Quid ancilla equō lēgātī dat? 4. Cuius equum ancilla cūrat? 5. Quis ad mūrum cum Sextō properat? 6. Quid oppidānī parant?

LESSON X

SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_)

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS «amīcus, -ī», m., _friend_ (amicable) «Germānia, -ae», f., _Germany_ «patria, -ae», f., _fatherland_ «populus, -ī», m., _people_ «Rhēnus, -ī», m., _the Rhine_ «vīcus, -ī», m., _village_

«79.» We have been freely using feminine adjectives, like «bona», in agreement with feminine nouns of the first declension and declined like them. _Masculine_ adjectives of this class are declined like «dominus», and _neuters_ like pīlum. The adjective and noun, masculine and neuter, are therefore declined as follows:

MASCULINE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE NEUTER NOUN AND ADJECTIVE «dominus bonus», _the good master_ «pīlum bonum», _the good spear_ BASES domin- bon- BASES pīl- bon-

TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS SINGULAR _Nom._ do´minus bonus -us pīlum bonum -um _Gen._ dominī bonī -ī pīlī bonī -ī _Dat._ dominō bonō -ō pīlō bonō -ō _Acc._ dominum bonum -um pīlum bonum -um _Abl._ dominō bonō -ō pīlō bonō -ō _Voc._ domine bone -e pīlum bonum -um

PLURAL _Nom._ dominī bonī -ī īla bona -a _Gen._ dominō´rum bonō´rum -ōrum īlō´rum bonō´rum -ōrum _Dat._ dominīs bonīs -is īlīs bonīs -īs _Acc._ dominōs bonōs -ōs īla bona -a _Abl._ dominīs bonīs -īs īlīs bonīs -īs

Decline together «bellum longum», «equus parvus», «servus malus», «mūrus altus», «frūmentum novum».

«80.» Observe the sentences

«Lesbia ancilla est bona», _Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_ «Fīlia Lesbiae ancillae est bona», _the daughter of Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_ «Servus Lesbiam ancillam amat», _the slave loves Lesbia, the maidservant_

In these sentences «ancilla», «ancillae», and «ancillam» denote the class of persons to which _Lesbia_ belongs and explain who she is. Nouns so related that the second is only another name for the first and explains it are said to be in apposition, and are always in the same case.

«81.» RULE. «Apposition.» _An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains._

«82.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1. Patria servī bonī, vīcus servōrum bonōrum, bone popule. 2. Populus oppidī magnī, in oppidō magnō, in oppidīs magnīs. 3. Cum pīlīs longīs, ad pīla longa, ad mūrōs lātōs. 4. Lēgāte male, amīcī legātī malī, cēna grāta dominō bonō. 5. Frūmentum equōrum parvōrum, domine bone, ad lēgātōs clārōs. 6. Rhēnus est in Germāniā, patriā meā. 7. Sextus lēgātus pīlum longum portat. 8. Oppidānī bonī Sextō lēgātō clārā pecūniam dant. 9. Malī servī equum bonum Mārcī dominī necant. 10. Galba agricola et Iūlia fīlia bona labōrant. 11. Mārcus nauta in īnsulā Siciliā habitat.

II. 1. Wicked slave, who is your friend? Why does he not praise Galba, your master? 2. My friend is from («ex») a village of Germany, my fatherland. 3. My friend does not love the people of Italy. 4. Who is caring for[1] the good horse of Galba, the farmer? 5. Mark, where is Lesbia, the maidservant? 6. She is hastening[1] to the little cottage[2] of Julia, the farmer’s daughter.

[Footnote 1: See footnote 1, p. 33. Remember that «cūrat» is transitive and governs a direct object.]

[Footnote 2: Not the dative. (Cf. §43.)]

LESSON XI

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS «arma, armōrum», n., plur., _arms_, especially defensive weapons «fāma, -ae», f., _rumor; reputation, fame_ «galea, -ae», f., _helmet_ «praeda, -ae», f., _booty, spoils_ (predatory) «tēlum, -ī», n., _weapon of offense, spear_

ADJECTIVES «dūrus, -a, -um», _hard, rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome_ (durable) «Rōmānus, -a, -um», _Roman_. As a noun, «Rōmānus, -ī», m., _a Roman_

«83.» Adjectives of the first and second declensions are declined in the three genders as follows:

MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER SINGULAR _Nom._ bonus bona bonum _Gen._ bonī bonae bonī _Dat._ bonō bonae bonō _Acc._ bonum bonam bonum _Abl._ bonō bonā bonō _Voc._ bone bona bonum

PLURAL _Nom._ bonī bonae bona _Gen._ bonōrum bonārum bonōrum _Dat._ bonīs bonīs bonīs _Acc._ bonōs bonās bona _Abl._ bonīs bonīs bonīs

_a._ Write the declension and give it orally _across the page_, thus giving the three genders for each case.

_b._ Decline «grātus, -a, -um»; «malus, -a, -um»; «altus, -a, -um»; «parvus, -a, -um».

«84.» Thus far the adjectives have had the same terminations as the nouns. However, the agreement between the adjective and its noun does _not_ mean that they must have the same termination. If the adjective and the noun belong to different declensions, the terminations will, in many cases, not be the same. For example, «nauta», _sailor_, is masculine and belongs to the first declension. The masculine form of the adjective «bonus» is of the second declension. Consequently, _a good sailor_ is «nauta bonus». So, _the wicked farmer_ is «agricola malus». Learn the following declensions:

«85.» «nauta bonus» (bases naut- bon-), m., _the good sailor_

SINGULAR _Nom._ nauta bonus _Gen._ nautae bonī _Dat._ nautae bonō _Acc._ nautam bonum _Abl._ nautā bonō _Voc._ nauta bone

PLURAL _Nom._ nautae bonī _Gen._ nautārum bonōrum _Dat._ nautīs bonīs _Acc._ nautās bonōs _Abl._ nautīs bonīs _Voc._ nautae bonī

«86.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1. Est[1] in vīcō nauta bonus. 2. Sextus est amīcus nautae bonī. 3. Sextus nautae bonō galeam dat. 4. Populus Rōmānus nautam bonum laudat. 5. Sextus cum nautā bonō praedam portat. 6. Ubi, nauta bone, sunt arma et tēla lēgātī Rōmānī? 7. Nautae bonī ad bellum properant. 8. Fāma nautārum bonōrum est clāra. 9. Pugnae sunt grātae nautīs bonīs. 10. Oppidānī nautās bonōs cūrant. 11. Cūr, nautae bonī, malī agricolae ad Rhēnum properant? 12. Malī agricolae cum bonīs nautīs pugnant.

II. 1. The wicked farmer is hastening to the village with (his) booty. 2. The reputation of the wicked farmer is not good. 3. Why does Galba’s daughter give arms and weapons to the wicked farmer? 4. Lesbia invites the good sailor to dinner. 5. Why is Lesbia with the good sailor hastening from the cottage? 6. Sextus, where is my helmet? 7. The good sailors are hastening to the toilsome battle. 8. The horses of the wicked farmers are small. 9. The Roman people give money to the good sailors. 10. Friends care for the good sailors. 11. Whose friends are fighting with the wicked farmers?

[Footnote 1: «Est», beginning a declarative sentence, _there is._]

LESSON XII

NOUNS IN _-IUS_ AND _-IUM_

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS «fīlius, fīlī», m., _son_ (filial) fluvius, fluvī, m., _river_ (fluent) «gladius, gladī», m., _sword_ (gladiator) «praesidium, praesi´dī», n., _garrison, guard, protection_ «proelium, proelī», n., _battle_

ADJECTIVES «fīnitimus, -a, -um», _bordering upon, neighboring, near to_. As a noun, «fīnitimī, -ōrum», m., plur., _neighbors_ «Germānus, -a, -um», _German_. As a noun, «Germānus, -ī», m., _a German_ «multus, -a, -um», _much_; plur., _many_

ADVERB «saepe», _often_

«87.» Nouns of the second declension in «-ius» and «-ium» end in «-ī» in the genitive singular, _not_ in «-iī», and the accent rests on the penult; as, «fīlī» from «fīlius» (_son_), «praesi´dī» from «praesi´dium» (_garrison_).

«88.» Proper names of persons in «-ius», and «fīlius», end in «-ī» in the vocative singular, _not_ in «-ĕ», and the accent rests on the penult; as, «Vergi´lī», _O Vergil_; «fīlī», _O son._

_a._ Observe that in these words the vocative and the genitive are alike.

«89.» «praesidium» (base praesidi-), «fīlius» (base fīli-), n., _garrison_ m., _son_

SINGULAR _Nom._ praesidium fīlius _Gen._ praesi´dī fīlī _Dat._ praesidiō fīliō _Acc._ praesidium fīlium _Abl._ praesidiō fīliō _Voc._ praesidium fīlī

The plural is regular. Note that the «-i-» of the base is lost only in the genitive singular, and in the vocative of words like «fīlius».

Decline together «praesidium parvum»; «fīlius bonus»; «fluvius longus», _the long river_; «proelium clārum», _the famous battle._

«90.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1. Frūmentum bonae terrae, gladī malī, bellī longī. 2. Cōnstantia magna, praesidia magna, clāre Vergi´lī. 3. Male serve, Ō clārum oppidum, male fīlī, fīliī malī, fīlī malī. 4. Fluvī longī, fluviī longī, fluviōrum longōrum, fāma praesi´dī magnī. 5. Cum gladiīs parvīs, cum deābus clārīs, ad nautās clārōs. 6. Multōrum proeliōrum, praedae magnae, ad proelia dūra.

GERMĀNIA

II. Germānia, patria Germānōrum, est clāra terra. In Germāniā sunt fluviī multī. Rhēnus magnus et lātus fluvius Germāniae est. In silvīs lātīs Germāniae sunt ferae multae. Multi Germāni in oppidīs magnis et in vīcīs parvīs habitant et multī sunt agricolae bonī. Bella Germānōrum sunt magna et clāra. Populus Germāniae bellum et proelia amat et saepe cum finitimīs pugnat. Fluvius Rhēnus est fīnitimus oppidīs[1] multīs et clārīs.

[Footnote 1: Dative with «fīnitimus». (See §43.)]

LESSON XIII

SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_)

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS «ager, agrī», m., _field_ (acre) «cōpia, -ae», f., _plenty, abundance_ (copious); plur., _troops, forces_ «Cornēlius, Cornē´lī», m., _Cornelius_ «lōrī´ca, -ae», f., _coat of mail, corselet_ «praemium, praemī», n., _reward, prize_ (premium) «puer, puerī», m., _boy_ (puerile) «Rōma, -ae», f., _Rome_ «scūtum, -ī», n., _shield_ (escutcheon) «vir, virī», m., _man, hero_ (virile)

ADJECTIVES «legiōnārius, -a, -um»,[A] _legionary, belonging to the legion_. As a noun, «legiōnāriī, -ōrum», m., plur., _legionary soldiers_ «līber, lībera, līberum», _free_ (liberty) As a noun. «līberī, -ōrum», m., plur., _children_ (lit. _the freeborn_) «pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum», _pretty, beautiful_

PREPOSITION «apud», _among_, with acc.

CONJUNCTION «sed», _but_

[Footnote A: The genitive singular masculine of adjectives in «-ius» ends in «-iī» and the vocative in «-ie»; not in «-ī», as in nouns.]

«91.» «Declension of Nouns in _-er_ and _-ir_.» In early Latin all the masculine nouns of the second declension ended in «-os». This «-os» later became «-us» in words like «servus», and was dropped entirely in words with bases ending in «-r», like «puer», _boy_; «ager», _field_; and «vir», _man_. These words are therefore declined as follows:

«92.» «puer», m., _boy_ «ager», m., _field_ «vir», m., _man_ BASE «puer-» BASE «agr-» BASE «vir-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ puer ager vir ---- _Gen._ puerī agrī virī -ī _Dat._ puerō agrō virō -ō _Acc._ puerum agrum virum -um _Abl._ puerō agrō virō -ō

PLURAL _Nom._ puerī agrī virī -ī _Gen._ puerōrum agrōrum virōrum -ōrum _Dat._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs _Acc._ puerōs agrōs virōs -ōs _Abl._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs

_a._ The vocative case of these words is like the nominative, following the general rule (§74.a).

_b._ The declension differs from that of «servus» only in the nominative and vocative singular.

_c._ Note that in «puer» the «e» remains all the way through, while in «ager» it is present only in the nominative. In «puer» the «e» belongs to the base, but in «ager» (base «agr-») it does not, and was inserted in the nominative to make it easier to pronounce. Most words in «-er» are declined like «ager». _The genitive shows whether you are to follow_ «puer» _or_ «ager».

«93.» Masculine adjectives in «-er» of the second declension are declined like nouns in «-er». A few of them are declined like «puer», but most of them like «ager». The feminine and neuter nominatives show which form to follow, thus,

MASC. FEM. NEUT. līber lībera līberum (_free_) is like «puer» pulcher pulchra pulchrum (_pretty_) is like «ager»

For the full declension in the three genders, see §469._b._ _c._

«94.» Decline together the words «vir līber», «terra lībera», «frūmentum līberum», «puer pulcher», «puella pulchra», «oppidum pulchrum»

«95.» ITALIA[1]

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

Magna est Italiae fāma, patriae Rōmānōrum, et clāra est Rōma, domina orbis terrārum.[2] Tiberim,[3] fluvium Rōmānum, quis nōn laudat et pulchrōs fluviō fīnitimōs agrōs? Altōs mūrōs, longa et dūra bella, clārās victōriās quis nōn laudat? Pulchra est terra Italia. Agrī bonī agricolīs praemia dant magna, et equī agricolārum cōpiam frūmentī ad oppida et vīcōs portant. In agrīs populī Rōmānī labōrant multī servī. Viae Italiae sunt longae et lātae. Fīnitima Italiae est īnsula Sicilia.

[Footnote 1: In this selection note especially the emphasis as shown by the order of the words.]

[Footnote 2: «orbis terrārum», _of the world_.]

[Footnote 3: «Tiberim», _the Tiber_, accusative case.]

«96.» DIALOGUE

MARCUS AND CORNELIUS

C. Ubi est, Mārce, fīlius tuus? Estne in pulchrā terrā Italiā? M. Nōn est, Cornēlī, in Italiā. Ad fluvium Rhēnum properat cum cōpiīs Rōmānīs quia est[4] fāma Novī bellī cum Germānīs. Līber Germāniae populus Rōmānōs Nōn amat. C. Estne fīlius tuus copiārum Rōmānārum lēgātus? M. Lēgātus nōn est, sed est apud legiōnāriōs. C. Quae[5] arma portat[6]? M. Scūtum magnum et lōrīcam dūram et galeam pulchram portat. C. Quae tēla portat? M. Gladium et pīlum longum portat. C. Amatne lēgātus fīlium tuum? M. Amat, et saepe fīliō meō praemia pulchra et praedam multam dat. C. Ubi est terra Germānōrum? M. Terra Germānōrum, Cornēlī est fīnitima Rhēnō, fluviō magnō et altō.

[Footnote 4: «est», before its subject, _there is_; so «sunt», _there are._]

[Footnote 5: «Quae», _what kind of_, an interrogative adjective pronoun.]

[Footnote 6: What are the three possible translations of the present tense?]

LESSON XIV

THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS «auxilium, auxi´lī», n., _help, aid_ (auxiliary) «castrum, -ī», n., _fort_ (castle); plur., _camp_ (lit. _forts_) «cibus, -ī», m., _food_ «cōnsilium, cōnsi´lī», n., _plan_ (counsel) «dīligentia, -ae», f.. _diligence, industry_ magister, magistrī, m., _master, teacher_[A]

ADJECTIVES «aeger, aegra, aegrum», _sick_ «crēber, crēbra, crēbrum», _frequent_ «miser, misera, miserum», _wretched, unfortunate_ (miser)

[Footnote A: Observe that «dominus», as distinguished from «magister», means _master_ in the sense of _owner_.]

«97.» Observe the sentences

_This is my shield_ _This shield is mine_

In the first sentence _my_ is a possessive adjective; in the second _mine_ is a possessive pronoun, for it takes the place of a noun, _this shield is mine_ being equivalent to _this shield is my shield_. Similarly, in Latin the possessives are sometimes _adjectives_ and sometimes _pronouns_.

«98.» The possessives _my, mine, your, yours_, etc. are declined like adjectives of the first and second declensions.

SINGULAR _1st Pers._ meus, mea, meum _my, mine_ _2d Pers._ tuus, tua, tuum _your, yours_ _3d Pers._ suus, sua, suum _his (own), her (own), its (own)_ PLURAL _1st Pers._ noster, nostra, nostrum _our, ours_ _2d Pers._ vester, vestra, vestrum _your, yours_ _3d Pers._ suus, sua, suum _their (own), theirs_

NOTE. «Meus» has the irregular vocative singular masculine «mī», as «mī fīlī», _O my son_.

_a._ The possessives agree with the name of the _thing possessed_ in gender, number, and case. Compare the English and Latin in

_Sextus is calling «his» boy_ «Sextus» } «suum puerum vocat» _Julia is calling «her» boy_ «Iūlia» }

Observe that «suum» agrees with «puerum», and is unaffected by the gender of Sextus or Julia.

_b._ When _your, yours_, refers to _one_ person, use «tuus»; when to _more than one_, «vester»; as,

_Lesbia, your wreaths are pretty_ «Corōnae tuae, Lesbia, sunt pulchrae» _Girls, your wreaths are pretty_ «Corōnae vestrae, puellae, sunt pulchrae»

_c._ «Suus» is a _reflexive_ possessive, that is, it usually stands in the predicate and regularly refers back to the _subject_. Thus, «Vir suōs servōs vocat» means _The man calls his (own) slaves._ Here _his_ («suōs») refers to _man_ («vir»), and could not refer to any one else.

_d._ Possessives are used much less frequently than in English, being omitted whenever the meaning is clear without them. (Cf. §22.a.) This is especially true of «suus, -a, -um», which, when inserted, is more or less emphatic, like our _his own, her own_, etc.

«99.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

I. 1. Mārcus amīcō Sextō cōnsilium suum nūntiat 2. Est cōpia frūmentī in agrīs nostrīs. 3. Amīcī meī bonam cēnam ancillae vestrae laudant 4. Tua lōrīca, mī fīlī, est dūra. 5. Scūta nostra et tēla, mī amīce, in castrls Rōmānīs sunt. 6. Suntne virī patriae tuae līberī? Sunt. 7. Ubi, Cornēlī, est tua galea pulchra? 8. Mea galea, Sexte, est in casā meā. 9. Pīlum longum est tuum, sed gladius est meus. 10. Iūlia gallīnās suās pulchrās amat et gallīnae dominam suam amant. 11. Nostra castra sunt vestra. 12. Est cōpia praedae in castrīs vestrīs. 13. Amīcī tuī miserīs et aegrīs cibum et pecūniam saepe dant.

II. 1. Our teacher praises Mark’s industry. 2. My son Sextus is carrying his booty to the Roman camp.[1] 3. Your good girls are giving aid to the sick and wretched.[2] 4. There are [3] frequent battles in our villages. 5. My son, where is the lieutenant’s food? 6. The camp is mine, but the weapons are yours.

[Footnote 1: Not the dative. Why?]

[Footnote 2: Here the adjectives _sick_ and _wretched_ are used like nouns.]

[Footnote 3: Where should «sunt» stand? Cf. I. 2 above.]

LESSON XV

THE ABLATIVE DENOTING _WITH_

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS «carrus, -ī», m., _cart, wagon_ «inopia, -ae», f., _want, lack;_ the opposite of «cōpia» «studium, studī», n., _zeal, eagerness_ (study)

ADJECTIVES «armātus, -a, -um», _armed_ «īnfīrmus, -a, -um», _week, feeble_ (infirm) vali´dus, -a, -um, _strong, sturdy_

VERB «mātūrat», _he (she, it) hastens._ Cf. properat

ADVERB «iam», _already, now_

«-que», conjunction, _and_; an enclitic (cf. §16) and always added to the _second_ of two words to be connected, as «arma tēla´que», _arms and weapons_.

«100.» Of the various relations denoted by the ablative case (§50) there is none more important than that expressed in English by the preposition _with_. This little word is not so simple as it looks. It does not always convey the same meaning, nor is it always to be translated by «cum». This will become clear from the following sentences:

_a._ Mark is feeble _with_ (_for_ or _because of_) want of food _b._ Diana kills the beasts _with_ (or _by_) her arrows _c._ Julia is _with_ Sextus _d._ The men fight _with_ great steadiness

_a._ In sentence _a_, _with want_ (_of food_) gives the cause of Mark’s feebleness. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the «ablative of cause»:

«Mārcus est īnfīrmus inopiā cibī»

_b._ In sentence _b_, _with_ (or _by_) _her arrows_ tells «by means of what» Diana kills the beasts. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the «ablative of means»:

«Diāna sagittīs suīs ferās necat»

_c._ In sentence _c_ we are told that Julia is not alone, but «in company with» Sextus. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative with the preposition «cum», and the construction is called the «ablative of accompaniment»:

«Iūlia est cum Sextō»

_d._ In sentence _d_ we are told how the men fight. The idea is one of «manner». This is expressed in Latin by the ablative with «cum», unless there is a modifying adjective present, in which case «cum» may be omitted. This construction is called the «ablative of manner»:

«Virī (cum) cōnstantiā magnā pugnant»

«101.» You are now able to form four important rules for the ablative denoting _with_:

«102.» RULE. «Ablative of Cause.» _Cause is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what?_

«103.» RULE. «Ablative of Means.» _Means is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what? With what?_

N.B. «Cum» must never be used with the ablative expressing cause or means.

«104.» RULE. «Ablative of Accompaniment.» _Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative with «cum». This answers the question With whom?_

«105.» RULE. «Ablative of Manner.» _The ablative with «cum» is used to denote the manner of an action. «Cum» may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative. This answers the question How? In what manner?_

«106.» What uses of the ablative do you discover in the following passage, and what question does each answer?

The soldiers marched to the fort with great speed and broke down the gate with blows of their muskets. The inhabitants, terrified by the din, attempted to cross the river with their wives and children, but the stream was swollen with (_or_ by) the rain. Because of this many were swept away by the waters and only a few, almost overcome with fatigue, with great difficulty succeeded in gaining the farther shore.

«107.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

I. _The Romans prepare for War._ Rōmānī, clārus Italiae populus, bellum parant. Ex agrīs suīs, vicīs, oppidīsque magnō studiō virī validī ad arma properant. Iam lēgatī cum legiōnariīs ex Italiā ad Rhēnum, fluvium Germāniae altum et lātum, properant, et servī equīs et carrīs cibum frūmentumque ad castra Rōmāna portant. Inopiā bonōrum tēlōrum īnfirmī sunt Germānī, sed Rōmānī armāti galeīs, lōrīcīs, scūtīs, gladiīs, pīlīsque sunt validī.

II. 1. The sturdy farmers of Italy labor in the fields with great diligence. 2. Sextus, the lieutenant, and (his) son Mark are fighting with the Germans. 3. The Roman legionaries are armed with long spears. 4. Where is Lesbia, your maid, Sextus? Lesbia is with my friends in Galba’s cottage. 5. Many are sick because of bad water and for lack of food. 6. The Germans, with (their) sons and daughters, are hastening with horses and wagons.

LESSON XVI

THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES

«108.» There are nine irregular adjectives of the first and second declensions which have a peculiar termination in the genitive and dative singular of all genders:

MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Gen._ -īus -īus -īus _Dat._ -ī -ī -ī

Otherwise they are declined like «bonus, -a, -um». Learn the list and the meaning of each:

«alius, alia, aliud», _other, another_ (of several) «alter, altera, alterum», _the one, the other_ (of two) «ūnus, -a, -um», _one, alone_; (in the plural) _only_ «ūllus, -a, -um», _any_ «nūllus, -a, -um», _none, no_ «sōlus, -a, -um», _alone_ «tōtus, -a, -um», _all, whole, entire_ «uter, utra, utrum», _which?_ (of two) «neuter, neutra, neutrum», _neither_ (of two)

«109.» PARADIGMS

SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ nūllus nūlla nūllum _Gen._ nūllī´us nūllī´us nūllī´us _Dat._ nūllī nūllī nūllī _Acc._ nūllum nūllam nūllum _Abl._ nūllō nūllā nūllō

MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ alius alia aliud _Gen._ alī´us alī´us alī´us _Dat._ aliī aliī aliī _Acc._ alium aliam aliud _Abl._ aliō aliā aliō

THE PLURAL IS REGULAR

_a._ Note the peculiar neuter singular ending in «-d» of «alius». The genitive «alīus» is rare. Instead of it use «alterīus», the genitive of «alter».

_b._ These peculiar case endings are found also in the declension of pronouns (see §114). For this reason these adjectives are sometimes called the «pronominal adjectives».

«110.» Learn the following idioms:

«alter, -era, -erum» ... «alter, -era, -erum», _the one ... the other_ (of two) «alius, -a, -ud» ... «alius, -a, -ud», _one ... another _ (of any number) «aliī, -ae, -a» ... «aliī, -ae, -a», _some ... others_

EXAMPLES

1. «Alterum oppidum est magnum, alterum parvum», _the one town is large, the other small_ (of two towns).

2. «Aliud oppidum est validum, aliud īnfīrmum», _one town is strong, another weak_ (of towns in general).

3. «Aliī gladiōs, aliī scūta portant», _some carry swords, others shields._

«111.» EXERCISES

I. 1. In utrā casā est Iūlia? Iūlia est in neutrā casā. 2. Nūllī malō puerō praemium dat magister. 3. Alter puer est nauta, alter agricola. 4. Aliī virī aquam, aliī terram amant. 5. Galba ūnus (_or_ sōlus) cum studiō labōrat. 6. Estne ūllus carrus in agrō meō? 7. Lesbia est ancilla alterīus dominī, Tullia alterīus. 8. Lesbia sōla cēnam parat. 9. Cēna nūllīus alterīus ancillae est bona. 10. Lesbia nūllī aliī virō cēnam dat.

NOTE. The pronominal adjectives, as you observe, regularly stand before and not after their nouns.

II. 1. The men of all Germany are preparing for war. 2. Some towns are great and others are small. 3. One boy likes chickens, another horses. 4. Already the booty of one town is in our fort. 5. Our whole village is suffering for (i.e. _weak because of_) lack of food. 6. The people are already hastening to the other town. 7. Among the Romans (there) is no lack of grain.

LESSON XVII

THE DEMONSTRATIVE _IS, EA, ID_

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS «agrī cultūra, -ae», f., _agriculture_ «Gallia, -ae», f., _Gaul_ «domicilīum, domīci´lī», n., _dwelling place_ (domicile), _abode_ «Gallus, -i», m., _a Gaul_ «lacrima, -ae», f., _tear_ «fēmina, -ae», f., _woman_ (female) «numerus, -ī», m., _number_ (numeral)

ADJECTIVE «mātūrus, -a, -um», _ripe, mature_

ADVERB quō, _whither_

VERBS arat, _he (she, it) plows_ (arable) «dēsīderat», _he (she, it) misses, longs for_ (desire), with acc.

CONJUNCTION «an», _or_, introducing the second half of a double question, as _Is he a Roman or a Gaul_, «Estne Romanus an Gallus?»

«112.» A demonstrative is a word that points out an object definitely, as _this, that, these, those_. Sometimes these words are pronouns, as, _Do you hear these?_ and sometimes adjectives, as, _Do you hear these men?_ In the former case they are called «demonstrative pronouns», in the latter «demonstrative adjectives».

«113.» Demonstratives are similarly used in Latin both as _pronouns_ and as _adjectives_. The one used most is

«is», masculine; «ea», feminine; «id», neuter SINGULAR: _this, that_; PLURAL: _these, those_

«114.» «Is» is declined as follows. Compare its declension with that of «alius», §109.

BASE «e-»

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ is ea id eī eae ea (_or_ iī) _Gen._ eius eius eius eōrum eārum eōrum _Dat._ eī eī eī eīs eīs eīs (_or_ iīs iīs iīs) _Acc._ eum eam id eōs eās ea _Abl._ eō eā eō eīs eīs eīs (_or_ iīs iīs iīs)

Note that the base «e-» changes to «i-» in a few cases. The genitive singular «eius» is pronounced _eh´yus_. In the plural the forms with two «i»’s are preferred and the two «i»’s are pronounced as one. Hence, pronounce «iī» as «ī» and «iīs» as «īs».

«115.» Besides being used as demonstrative pronouns and adjectives the Latin demonstratives are regularly used for the personal pronoun _he, she, it_. As a personal pronoun, then, «is» would have the following meanings:

SINGULAR _Nom._ «is», _he_; «ea», _she_; «id», _it_ _Gen._ «eius», _of him_ or _his_; «eius», _of her, her_, or _hers_; «eius», _of it_ or _its_ _Dat._ «eī», _to_ or _for him_; «eī», _to_ or _for her_; «eī», _to_ or _for it_ _Acc._ «eum», _him_; «eam», _her_; «id», _it_ _Abl._ «eō», _with, from_, etc., _him_; «eā», _with, from_, etc., _her_; «eō», _with, from_, etc., _it_

PLURAL _Nom._ «eī» or «iī», «eae», «ea», _they_ _Gen._ «eōrum», «eārum», «eōrum», _of them, their_ _Dat._ «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», _to_ or _for them_ _Acc._ «eōs, eās, ea», _them_ _Abl._ «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», _with, from_, etc., _them_

«116.» «Comparison between _suus_ and _is_.» We learned above (§98.c) that «suus» is a _reflexive_ possessive. When _his, her_ (poss.), _its, their_, do not refer to the subject of the sentence, we express _his, her, its_ by «eius», the genitive singular of «is», «ea», «id»; and _their_ by the genitive plural, using «eōrum» to refer to a masculine or neuter antecedent noun and «eārum» to refer to a feminine one.

EXAMPLES

_Galba calls his_ (own) _son_, «Galba suum fīlium vocat» _Galba calls his son_ (not his own, but another’s), «Galba eius fīlium vocat» _Julia calls her_ (own) _children_, «Iūlia suōs līberōs vocat» _Julia calls her children_ (not her own, but another’s), «Iūlia eius līberōs vocat» _The men praise their_ (own) _boys_, «virī suōs puerōs laudant» _The men praise their boys_ (not their own, but others’), «virī eōrum puerōs laudant»

«117.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

1. He praises her, him, it, them. 2. This cart, that report, these teachers, those women, that abode, these abodes. 3. That strong garrison, among those weak and sick women, that want of firmness, those frequent plans.

4. The other woman is calling her chickens (_her own_). 5. Another woman is calling her chickens (_not her own_). 6. The Gaul praises his arms (_his own_). 7. The Gaul praises his arms (_not his own_). 8. This farmer often plows their fields. 9. Those wretched slaves long for their master (_their own_). 10. Those wretched slaves long for their master (_not their own_). 11. Free men love their own fatherland. 12. They love its villages and towns.

«118.» DIALOGUE[1]

CORNELIUS AND MARCUS

M. Quis est vir, Cornēlī, cum puerō parvō? Estne Rōmānus et līber? C. Rōmānus nōn est, Mārce. Is vir est servus et eius domicilium est in silvīs Galliae. M. Estne puer fīlius eius servī an alterīus? C. Neutrīus fīlius est puer. Is est fīlius lēgātī Sextī. M. Quō puer cum eō servō properat? C. Is cum servō properat ad lātōs Sextī agrōs.[2] Tōtum frūmentum est iam mātūrum et magnus servōrum numerus in Italiae[3] agrīs labōrat. M. Agricolaene sunt Gallī et patriae suae agrōs arant? C. Nōn agricolae sunt. Bellum amant Gallī, nōn agrī cultūram. Apud eōs virī pugnant et fēminae auxiliō līberōrum agrōs arant parantque cibum. M. Magister noster puerīs puellīsque grātās Gallōrum fābulās saepe nārrat et laudat eōs saepe. C. Mala est fortūna eōrum et saepe miserī servī multīs cum lacrimīs patriam suam dēsīderant.

[Footnote 1: There are a number of departures from the normal order in this dialogue. Find them, and give the reason.]

[Footnote 2: When a noun is modified by both a genitive and an adjective, a favorite order of words is _adjective, genitive, noun_.]

[Footnote 3: A modifying genitive often stands between a preposition and its object.]

* * * * *

«Second Review, Lessons IX-XVII, §§506-509»

* * * * *

LESSON XVIII

«CONJUGATION» THE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE TENSES OF «SUM»

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS lūdus, -ī, m.,_school_ «socius, socī», m., _companion, ally_ (social)

ADJECTIVES «īrātus, -a, -um», _angry, furious_ (irate) «laetus, -a, -um», _happy, glad_ (social)

ADVERBS hodiē, _to-day_ «ibi», _there, in that place_ mox, _presently, soon_, of the immediate future «nunc», _now, the present moment_ «nūper», _lately, recently_, of the immediate past

«119.» The inflection of a verb is called its _conjugation_ (cf. §23). In English the verb has but few changes in form, the different meanings being expressed by the use of personal pronouns and auxiliaries, as, _I am carried, we have carried, they shall have carried_, etc. In Latin, on the other hand, instead of using personal pronouns and auxiliary verbs, the form changes with the meaning. In this way the Romans expressed differences in _tense, mood, voice, person_, and _number_.

«120.» «The Tenses.» The different forms of a verb referring to different times are called its _tenses_. The chief distinctions of time are present, past, and future:

1. «The present», that is, _what is happening now_, or _what usually happens_, is expressed by THE PRESENT TENSE

2. «The past», that is, _what was happening, used to happen, happened, has happened_, or _had happened_, is expressed by THE IMPERFECT, PERFECT, AND PLUPERFECT TENSES

3. «The future», that is, _what is going to happen_, is expressed by THE FUTURE AND FUTURE PERFECT TENSES

«121.» «The Moods.» Verbs have inflection of _mood_ to indicate the manner in which they express action. The moods of the Latin verb are the _indicative, subjunctive, imperative_, and _infinitive_.

_a._ A verb is in the _indicative_ mood when it makes a statement or asks a question about something assumed as a fact. All the verbs we have used thus far are in the present indicative.

«122.» «The Persons.» There are three persons, as in English. The first person is the person speaking (_I sing_); the second person the person spoken to (_you sing_); the third person the person spoken of (_he sings_). Instead of using personal pronouns for the different persons in the two numbers, singular and plural, the Latin verb uses the personal endings (cf. §22 _a_; 29). We have already learned that «-t» is the ending of the third person singular in the active voice and «-nt» of the third person plural. The complete list of personal endings of the active voice is as follows:

SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ _I_ -m or -ō _we_ -mus _2d Pers._ _thou_ or _you_ -s _you_ -tis _3d Pers._ _he, she, it_ -t _they_ -nt

«123.» Most verbs form their moods and tenses after a regular plan and are called _regular_ verbs. Verbs that depart from this plan are called _irregular_. The verb _to be_ is irregular in Latin as in English. The present, imperfect, and future tenses of the indicative are inflected as follows:

PRESENT INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ su-m, _I am_ su-mus, _we are_ _2d Pers._ e-s, _you[1] are_ es-tis, _you[1] are_ _3d Pers._ es-t, _he, she_, or _it is_ su-nt, _they are_

IMPERFECT INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ er-a-m, _I was_ er-ā´-mus, _we were_ _2d Pers._ er-ā-s, _you were_ er-ā´-tis, _you were_ _3d Pers._ er-a-t, _he, she_, or _it was_ er-a-nt, _they were_

FUTURE INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ er-ō, _I shall be_ er´-i-mus, _we shall be_ _2d Pers._ er-i-s, _you will be_ er´-i-tis, _you will be_ _3d Pers._ er-i-t, _he will be_ er-u-nt, _they will be_

_a._ Be careful about vowel quantity and accent in these forms, and consult §§12.2; 14; 15.

[Footnote 1: Observe that in English _you are_, _you were_, etc. may be either singular or plural. In Latin the singular and plural forms are never the same.]

«124.» DIALOGUE

THE BOYS SEXTUS AND MARCUS

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

S. Ubi es, Mārce? Ubi est Quīntus? Ubi estis, amīcī? M. Cum Quīntō, Sexte, in silvā sum. Nōn sōlī sumus; sunt in silvā multī aliī puerī. S. Nunc laetus es, sed nūper nōn laetus erās. Cūr miser erās? M. Miser eram quia amīcī meī erant in aliō vicō et eram sōlus. Nunc sum apud sociōs meōs. Nunc laetī sumus et erimus. S. Erātisne in lūdo hodiē? M. Hodiē nōn erāmus in lūdō, quod magister erat aeger. S. Eritisne mox in lūdō? M. Amīcī meī ibi erunt, sed ego (_I_) nōn erō. S. Cūr nōn ibi eris? Magister, saepe irātus, inopiam tuam studī dīligentiaeque nōn laudat. M. Nūper aeger eram et nunc īnfīrmus sum.

«125.» EXERCISE

1. You are, you were, you will be, (_sing. and plur._). 2. I am, I was, I shall be. 3. He is, he was, he will be. 4. We are, we were, we shall be. 5. They are, they were, they will be.

6. Why were you not in school to-day? I was sick. 7. Lately he was a sailor, now he is a farmer, soon he will be a teacher. 8. To-day I am happy, but lately I was wretched. 9. The teachers were happy because of the boys’ industry.

LESSON XIX

THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_

«126.» There are four conjugations of the regular verbs. These conjugations are distinguished from each other by the final vowel of the present conjugation-stem.[1] This vowel is called the _distinguishing vowel_, and is best seen in the present infinitive.

[Footnote 1: The _stem_ is the body of a word to which the terminations are attached. It is often identical with the base (cf. §58). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional terminations. This point is further explained in §230.]

Below is given the _present infinitive_ of a verb of each conjugation, the _present stem_, and the _distinguishing vowel._

DISTINGUISHING CONJUGATION PRES. INFIN. PRES. STEM VOWEL I. «amā´re», _to love_ «amā-» «ā» II. «monē´re», _to advise_ «monē-» «ē» III. «re´gĕre», _to rule_ «regĕ-» «ĕ» IV. «audī´re», _to hear_ «audi-» «ī»

_a._ Note that the present stem of each conjugation is found by dropping «-re», the ending of the present infinitive.

NOTE. The present infinitive of «sum» is «esse», and «es-» is the present stem.

«127.» From the present stem are formed the _present_, _imperfect_, and _future_ tenses.

«128.» The inflection of the Present Active Indicative of the first and of the second conjugation is as follows:

«a´mō, amā´re» (_love_) «mo´neō, monē´re» (_advise_) PRES. STEM «amā-» PRES. STEM «monē-»

SINGULAR PLURAL PERSONAL ENDINGS 1. a´mō, _I love_ mo´neō, _I advise_ -ō 2. a´mās, _you love_ mo´nēs, _you advise_ -s 3. a´mat, _he (she, it) loves_ mo´net, _he (she, it) advises_ -t

1. amā´mus, _we love_ monē´mus, _we advise_ -mus 2. amā´tis, _you love_ monē´tis, _you advise_ -tis 3. a´mant, _they love_ mo´nent, _they advise_ -nt

1. The present tense is inflected by adding the personal endings to the present stem, and its first person uses «-o» and not «-m». The form «amō» is for «amā-ō», the two vowels «ā-ō» contracting to «ō». In «moneō» there is no contraction. _Nearly all regular verbs ending in «-eo» belong to the second conjugation._

2. Note that the long final vowel of the stem is shortened before another vowel («monē-ō» = «mo´nĕō»), and before final «-t» («amăt», «monĕt») and «-nt» («amănt», «monĕnt»). Compare §12.2.

«129.» Like «amō» and «moneō» inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs[2]:

[Footnote 2: The only new verbs in this list are the five of the second conjugation which are starred. Learn their meanings.]

INDICATIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT a´rō, _I plow_ arā´re, _to plow_ cū´rō, _I care for_ cūrā´re, _to care for_ *dē´leō, _I destroy_ dēlē´re, _to destroy_ dēsī´derō, _I long for_ dēsīderā´re, _to long for_ dō,[3] _I give_ da´re, _to give_ *ha´beō, _I have_ habē´re, _to have_ ha´bitō, _I live, I dwell_ habitā´re, _to live, to dwell_ *iu´beō, _I order_ iubē´re, _to order_ labō´rō, _I labor_ labōrā´re, _to labor_ lau´dō, _I praise_ laudā´re, _to praise_ mātū´rō, _I hasten_ mātūrā´re, _to hasten_ *mo´veō, _I move_ movē´re, _to move_ nār´rō, _I tell_ nārrā´re, _to tell_ ne´cō, _I kill_ necā´re, _to kill_ nūn´tiō, _I announce_ nūntiā´re, _to announce_ pa´rō, _I prepare_ parā´re, _to prepare_ por´tō, _I carry_ portā´re, _to carry_ pro´perō, _I hasten_ properā´re, _to hasten_ pug´nō, _I fight_ pugnā´re, _to fight_ *vi´deō, _I see_ vidē´re, _to see_ vo´cō, _I call_ vocā´re, _to call_

[Footnote 3: Observe that in «dō, dăre», the «a» is _short_, and that the present stem is «dă-» and not «dā-». The only forms of «dō» that have a long are «dās» (pres. indic.), «dā» (pres. imv.), and «dāns» (pres. part.).]

«130.» «The Translation of the Present.» In English there are three ways of expressing present action. We may say, for example, _I live, I am living_, or _I do live_. In Latin the one expression «habitō» covers all three of these expressions.

«131.» EXERCISES

Give the _voice_, _mood_, _tense_, _person_, and _number_ of each form.

I. 1. Vocāmus, properātis, iubent. 2. Movētis, laudās, vidēs. 3. Dēlētis, habētis, dant. 4. Mātūrās, dēsīderat, vidēmus. 5. Iubet, movent, necat. 6. Nārrāmus, movēs, vident. 7. Labōrātis, properant, portās, parant. 8. Dēlet, habētis, iubēmus, dās.

N.B. Observe that the personal ending is of prime importance in translating a Latin verb form. Give that your first attention.

II. 1. We plow, we are plowing, we do plow. 2. They care for, they are caring for, they do care for. 3. You give, you are having, you do have (_sing_.). 4. We destroy, I do long for, they are living. 5. He calls, they see, we are telling. 6. We do fight, we order, he is moving, he prepares. 7. They are laboring, we kill, you announce.

LESSON XX

IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS «fōrma, -ae», f., _form, beauty_ «regīna, -ae», f., _queen_ (regal) «poena, -ae», f., _punishment, penalty_ superbia, -ae, f., _pride, haughtiness_ «potentia, -ae», f., _power_ (potent) «trīstītīa, -ae», f., _sadness, sorrow_

ADJECTIVES «septem», indeclinable, _seven_ «superbus, -a, -um», _proud, haughty_ (superb)

CONJUNCTIONS «nōn sōlum ... sed etiam», _not only ... but also_

«132.» «Tense Signs.» Instead of using auxiliary verbs to express differences in tense, like _was_, _shall_, _will_, etc., Latin adds to the verb stem certain elements that have the force of auxiliary verbs. These are called _tense signs_.

«133.» «Formation and Inflection of the Imperfect.» The tense sign of the imperfect is «-bā-», which is added to the present stem. The imperfect consists, therefore, of three parts:

PRESENT STEM TENSE SIGN PERSONAL ENDING «amā-» «ba-» «m» _loving_ _was_ _I_

The inflection is as follows:

CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II PERSONAL SINGULAR ENDINGS 1. amā´bam, _I was loving_ monē´bam, _I was advising_ -m 2. amā´bās, _you were loving_ monē´bās, _you were advising_ -s 3. amā´bat, _he was loving_ monē´bat, _he was advising_ -t

PLURAL 1. amābā´mus, _we were loving_ monēbā´mus, _we were advising_ -mus 2. amābā´tis, _you were loving_ monēbā´tis, _you were advising_ -tis 3. amā´bant, _they were loving_ monē´bant, _they wereadvising_ -nt

_a._ Note that the «ā» of the tense sign «-bā-» is shortened before «-nt», and before «m» and «t» when final. (Cf. §12.2.)

In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §129.

«134.» «Meaning of the Imperfect.» The Latin imperfect describes an act as _going on_ or _progressing in past time_, like the English past-progressive tense (as, _I was walking_). It is the regular tense used to describe a past situation or condition of affairs.

«135.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Vidēbāmus, dēsīderābat, mātūrābās. 2. Dabant, vocābātis, dēlēbāmus. 3. Pugnant, laudābās, movēbātis. 4. Iubēbant, properābātis, portābāmus. 5. Dabās, nārrābant, labōrābātis. 6. Vidēbant, movēbās, nūntiābāmus. 7. Necābat, movēbam, habēbat, parābātis.

II. 1. You were having (_sing. and plur._), we were killing, they were laboring. 2. He was moving, we were ordering, we were fighting. 3. We were telling, they were seeing, he was calling. 4. They were living, I was longing for, we were destroying. 5. You were giving, you were moving, you were announcing, (_sing. and plur._). 6. They were caring for, he was plowing, we were praising.

«136.» NI´OBE AND HER CHILDREN

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

Niobē, rēgina Thēbānōrum, erat pulchra fēmina sed superba. Erat superba nōn sōlum fōrmā[1] suā marītīque potentiā[1] sed etiam magnō līberōrum numerō.[1] Nam habēbat[2] septem fīliōs et septem fīliās. Sed ea superbia erat rēgīnae[3] causa magnae trīstitiae et līberīs[3] causa dūrae poenae.

NOTE. The words «Niobē», «Thēbānōrum», and «marītī» will be found in the general vocabulary. Translate the selection without looking up any other words.

[Footnote 1: Ablative of cause.]

[Footnote 2: Translate _had_; it denotes a past situation. (See §134.)]

[Footnote 3: Dative, cf. §43.]

LESSON XXI

FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS sacrum, -ī, n., _sacrifice, offering, rite_ «verbum, -ī», n., _word_ (verb)

VERBS sedeō, -ēre, _sit_ (sediment) volō, -āre, _fly_ (volatile)

ADJECTIVES «interfectus, -a, -um», _slain_ «molestus, -a, -um», _troublesome, annoying_ (molest) «perpetuus, -a, -um», _perpetual, continuous_

«ego», personal pronoun, _I_ (egotism). Always emphatic in the nominative.

«137.» The tense sign of the Future Indicative in the first and second conjugations is «-bi-». This is joined to the present stem of the verb and followed by the personal ending, as follows:

PRESENT STEM TENSE SIGN PERSONAL ENDING «amā-» «bi-» «s» _love_ _will_ _you_

«138.» The Future Active Indicative is inflected as follows.

CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II SINGULAR 1. amā´bō, _I shall love_ monē´bō, _I shall advise_ 2. amā´bis, _you will love_ monē´bis, _you will advise_ 3. amā´bit, _he will love_ monē´bit, _he will advise_

PLURAL 1. amā´bimus, _we shall love_ monē´bimus, _we shall advise_ 2. amā´bitis _you will love_ monē´bitis, _you will advise_ 3. amā´bunt, _they will love_ monē´bunt, _they will advise_

_a._ The personal endings are as in the present. The ending «-bō» in the first person singular is contracted from «-bi-ō». The «-bi-» appears as «-bu-» in the third person plural. Note that the inflection is like that of «erō», the future of «sum». _Pay especial attention to the accent._

In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §129.

«139.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Movēbitis, laudābis, arābō. 2. Dēlēbitis, vocābitis, dabunt. 3. Mātūrābis, dēsīderābit, vidēbimus. 4. Habēbit, movēbunt, necābit. 5. Nārrābimus, monēbis, vidēbunt. 6. Labōrābitis, cūrābunt, dabis. 7. Habitābimus, properābitis, iubēbunt, parābit. 8. Nūntiābō, portābimus, iubēbō.

II. 1. We shall announce, we shall see, I shall hasten. 2. I shall carry, he will plow, they will care for. 3. You will announce, you will move, you will give, (_sing. and plur._). 4. We shall fight, we shall destroy, I shall long for. 5. He will call, they will see, you will tell (_plur._). 6. They will dwell, we shall order, he will praise. 7. They will labor, we shall kill, you will have (_sing. and plur._), he will destroy.

«140.» NI´OBE AND HER CHILDREN (_Concluded_)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Apollō et Diāna erant līberī Lātōnae. Iīs Thēbānī sacra crēbra parābant.[1] Oppidānī amābant Lātōnam et līberōs eius. Id superbae rēgīnae erat molestum. “Cūr,” inquit, “Lātōnae et līberīs sacra parātis? Duōs līberōs habet Lātōna; quattuordecim habeō ego. Ubi sunt mea sacra?” Lātōna iīs verbīs[2] īrāta līberōs suōs vocat. Ad eam volant Apollō Diānaque et sagittīs[3] suīs miserōs līberōs rēgīnae superbae dēlent. Niobē, nūper laeta, nunc misera, sedet apud līberōs interfectōs et cum perpetuīs lacrimīs[4] eōs dēsīderat.

NOTE. Consult the general vocabulary for «Apollō», «inquit», «duōs», and «quattuordecim». Try to remember the meaning of all the other words.

[Footnote 1: Observe the force of the imperfect here, _used to prepare_, _were in the habit of preparing_; so «amābant» denotes a past situation of affairs. (See §134.)]

[Footnote 2: Ablative of cause.]

[Footnote 3: Ablative of means.]

[Footnote 4: This may be either manner or accompaniment. It is often impossible to draw a sharp line between means, manner, and accompaniment. The Romans themselves drew no sharp distinction. It was enough for them if the general idea demanded the ablative case.]

LESSON XXII

REVIEW OF VERBS · THE DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS «disciplīna, -ae», f., _training, culture, discipline_ «Gāius, Gāī», m., _Caius_, a Roman first name «ōrnāmentum, -ī», n., _ornament, jewel_ Tiberius, Tibe´rī, m., _Tiberius_, a Roman first name

VERB «doceō, -ēre», _teach_ (doctrine)

ADVERB «maximē», _most of all, especially_

ADJECTIVE «antīquus, -qua, -quum», _old, ancient_ (antique)

«141.» Review the present, imperfect, and future active indicative, both orally and in writing, of «sum» and the verbs in §129.

«142.» We learned in §43 for what sort of expressions we may expect the dative, and in §44 that one of its commonest uses is with _verbs_ to express the indirect object. It is also very common with _adjectives_ to express the object toward which the quality denoted by the adjective is directed. We have already had a number of cases where «grātus», _agreeable to_, was so followed by a dative; and in the last lesson we had «molestus», _annoying to_, followed by that case. The usage may be more explicitly stated by the following rule:

«143.» RULE. «Dative with Adjectives.» _The dative is used with adjectives to denote the object toward which the given quality is directed. Such are, especially, those meaning «near», also «fit», «friendly», «pleasing», «like», and their opposites._

«144.» Among such adjectives memorize the following:

«idōneus, -a, -um», _fit, suitable_ (for) «amīcus, -a, -um», _friendly_ (to) «inimīcus, -a, -um», _hostile_ (to) «grātus, -a, -um», _pleasing_ (to), _agreeable_ (to) «molestus, -a, -um», _annoying_ (to), _troublesome_ (to) «fīnitimus, -a, -um», _neighboring_ (to) «proximus, -a, -um», _nearest, next_ (to)

«145.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Rōmānī terram idōneam agrī cultūrae habent. 2. Gallī cōpiīs Rōmānīs inimīcī erant. 3. Cui dea Lātōna amīca non erat? 4. Dea Lātōna superbae rēgīnae amīca nōn erat. 5. Cibus noster, Mārce, erit armātīs virīs grātus. 6. Quid erat molestum populīs Italiae? 7. Bella longa cum Gallīs erant molesta populīs Italiae. 8. Agrī Germānōrum fluviō Rhēnō fīnitimī erant. 9. Rōmānī ad silvam oppidō proximam castra movēbant. 10. Nōn sōlum fōrma sed etiam superbia rēgīnae erat magna. 11. Mox rēgīna pulchra erit aegra trīstitiā. 12. Cūr erat Niobē, rēgīna Thēbānōrum, laeta? Laeta erat Niobē multīs fīliīs et fīliābus.

II. 1. The sacrifices of the people will be annoying to the haughty queen. 2. The sacrifices were pleasing not only to Latona but also to Diana. 3. Diana will destroy those hostile to Latona. 4. The punishment of the haughty queen was pleasing to the goddess Diana. 5. The Romans will move their forces to a large field[1] suitable for a camp. 6. Some of the allies were friendly to the Romans, others to the Gauls.

[Footnote 1: Why not the dative?]

«146.» CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Apud antīquās dominās, Cornēlia, Āfricānī fīlia, erat[2] maximē clāra. Fīliī eius erant Tiberius Gracchus et Gāius Gracchus. Iī puerī cum Cornēliā in oppidō Rōmā, clārō Italiae oppidō, habitābant. Ibi eōs cūrābat Cornēlia et ibi magnō cum studiō eōs docēbat. Bona fēmina erat Cornēlia et bonam disciplīnam maximē amābat.

NOTE. Can you translate the paragraph above? There are no new words.

[Footnote 2: Observe that all the imperfects denote continued or progressive action, or describe a state of affairs. (Cf. §134.)]

LESSON XXIII

PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGŌ_ AND _AUDIŌ_

«147.» As we learned in §126, the present stem of the third conjugation ends in «-ĕ», and of the fourth in «-ī». The inflection of the Present Indicative is as follows:

CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV «re´gō, re´gere» (_rule_) «au´diō, audī´re» (_hear_) PRES. STEM «regĕ-» PRES. STEM «audī-»

SINGULAR 1. re´gō, _I rule_ au´diō, _I hear_ 2. re´gis, _you rule_ au´dīs, _you hear_ 3. re´git, _he (she, it) rules_ au´dit, _he (she, it) hears_

PLURAL 1. re´gimus, _we rule_ audī´mus, _we hear_ 2. re´gitis, _you rule_ audī´tis, _you hear_ 3. re´gunt, _they rule_ au´diunt, _they hear_

1. The personal endings are the same as before.

2. The final short «-e-» of the stem «regĕ-» combines with the «-ō» in the first person, becomes «-u-» in the third person plural, and becomes «-ĭ-» elsewhere. The inflection is like that of «erō», the future of «sum».

3. In «audiō» the personal endings are added regularly to the stem «audī-». In the third person plural «-u-» is inserted between the stem and the personal ending, as «audi-u-nt». Note that the long vowel of the stem is shortened before final «-t» just as in «amō» and «moneō». (Cf. §12.2.)

Note that «-i-» is always short in the third conjugation and long in the fourth, excepting where long vowels are regularly shortened. (Cf. §12.1, 2.)

«148.» Like «regō» and «audiō» inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs:

INDICATIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT

agō, _I drive_ agere, _to drive_ dīcō, _I say_ dīcere, _to say_ dūcō, _I lead_ dūcere, _to lead_ mittō, _I send_ mittere, _to send_ mūniō, _I fortify_ mūnīre, _to fortify_ reperiō, _I find_ reperīre, _to find_ veniō, _I come_ venīre, _to come_

«149.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Quis agit? Cūr venit? Quem mittit? Quem dūcis? 2. Quid mittunt? Ad quem veniunt? Cuius castra mūniunt? 3. Quem agunt? Venīmus. Quid puer reperit? 4. Quem mittimus? Cuius equum dūcitis? Quid dīcunt? 5. Mūnīmus, venītis, dīcit. 6. Agimus, reperītis, mūnīs. 7. Reperis, ducitis, dīcis. 8. Agitis, audimus, regimus.

II. 1. What do they find? Whom do they hear? Why does he come? 2. Whose camp are we fortifying? To whom does he say? What are we saying? 3. I am driving, you are leading, they are hearing. 4. You send, he says, you fortify (_sing. and plur._). 5. I am coming, we find, they send. 6. They lead, you drive, he does fortify. 7. You lead, you find, you rule, (_all plur._).

«150.» CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS (_Concluded_)

Proximum domicīliō Cornēliae erat pulchrae Campānae domicilium. Campāna erat superba nōn sōlum fōrmā suā sed maximē ōrnāmentīs suīs. Ea[1] laudābat semper. “Habēsne tū ūlla ornāmenta, Cornēlia?” inquit. “Ubi sunt tua ōrnāmenta?” Deinde Cornēlia fīliōs suōs Tiberium et Gāium vocat. “Puerī meī,” inquit, “sunt mea ōrnāmenta. Nam bonī līberī sunt semper bonae fēminae ōrnāmenta maximē clāra.”

NOTE. The only new words here are «Campāna», «semper», and «tū».

[Footnote 1: «Ea», accusative plural neuter.]

LESSON XXIV

IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGŌ_ AND _AUDIŌ_ THE DATIVE WITH SPECIAL INTRANSITIVE VERBS

«151.» PARADIGMS

CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV SINGULAR 1. regē´bam, _I was ruling_ audiē´bam, _I was hearing_ 2. regē´bās, _you were riding_ audiē´bās, _you were hearing_ 3. regē´bat, _he was ruling_ audiē´bat, _he was hearing_

PLURAL 1. regēbā´mus, _we were ruling_ audiēbā´mus, _we were hearing_ 2. regēbā´tis, _you were ruling_ audiēbā´tis, _you were hearing_ 3. regē´bant, _they were ruling_ audiē´bant, _they were hearing_

1. The tense sign is «-bā-», as in the first two conjugations.

2. Observe that the final «-ĕ-» of the stem is lengthened before the tense sign «-bā-». This makes the imperfect of the third conjugation just like the imperfect of the second (cf. «monēbam» and «regēbam»).

3. In the fourth conjugation «-ē-» is inserted between the stem and the tense sign «-bā-» («audi-ē-ba-m»).

4. In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §148.

«152.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Agēbat, veniēbat, mittēbat, dūcēbant. 2. Agēbant, mittēbant, dūcēbas, mūniēbant. 3. Mittēbāmus, dūcēbātis, dīcēbant. 4. Mūniēbāmus, veniēbātis, dīcēbās. 5. Mittēbās, veniēbāmus, reperiēbat. 6. Reperiēbās, veniēbās, audiēbātis. 7. Agēbāmus, reperiēbātis, mūniēbat. 8. Agēbātis, dīcēbam, mūniēbam.

II. 1. They were leading, you were driving (_sing. and plur._), he was fortifying. 2. They were sending, we were finding, I was coming. 3. You were sending, you were fortifying, (_sing. and plur._), he was saying. 4. They were hearing, you were leading (_sing. and plur._), I was driving. 5. We were saying, he was sending, I was fortifying. 6. They were coming, he was hearing, I was finding. 7. You were ruling (_sing. and plur._), we were coming, they were ruling.

«153.» «The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs.» We learned above (§20.a) that a verb which does not admit of a direct object is called an _intransitive_ verb. Many such verbs, however, are of such meaning that they can govern an indirect object, which will, of course, be in the dative case (§45). Learn the following list of intransitive verbs with their meanings. In each case the dative indirect object is the person or thing to which a benefit, injury, or feeling is directed. (Cf. §43.)

«crēdō, crēdere», _believe_ (give belief to) «faveō, favēre», _favor_ (show favor to) «noceō, nocēre», _injure_ (do harm to) «pāreō, pārēre», _obey_ (give obedience to) «persuādeō, persuādēre», _persuade_ (offer persuasion to) «resistō, resistere», _resist_ (offer resistance to) «studeō, studēre», _be eager for_ (give attention to)

«154.» RULE. «Dative with Intransitive Verbs.» _The dative of the indirect object is used with the intransitive verbs «crēdō», «faveō», «noceō», «pāreō», «persuādeō», «resistō», «studeō», and others of like meaning._

«155.» EXERCISE

1. Crēdisne verbīs sociōrum? Multī verbīs eōrum nōn crēdunt. 2. Meī fīnitimī cōnsiliō tuō nōn favēbunt, quod bellō student. 3. Tiberius et Gāius disciplīnae dūrae nōn resistēbant et Cornēliae pārēbant. 4. Dea erat inimīca septem fīliābus rēgīnae. 5. Dūra poena et perpetua trīstitia rēgīnae nōn persuādēbunt. 6. Nūper ea resistēbat et nunc resistit potentiae Lātōnae. 7. Mox sagittae volābunt et līberīs miserīs nocēbunt.

LESSON XXV

FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGŌ_ AND _AUDIŌ_

«156.» In the future tense of the third and fourth conjugations we meet with a new tense sign. Instead of using «-bi-», as in the first and second conjugations, we use «-ā-»[1] in the first person singular and «-ē-» in the rest of the tense. In the third conjugation the final «-ĕ-» of the stem is dropped before this tense sign; in the fourth conjugation the final «-ī-» of the stem is retained.[2]

[Footnote 1: The «-ā-» is shortened before «-m» final, and «-ē-» before «-t» final and before «-nt». (Cf. §12.2.)]

[Footnote 2: The «-ī-» is, of course, shortened, being before another vowel. (Cf. §12.1.)]

«157.» PARADIGMS

CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV SINGULAR 1. re´gam, _I shall rule_ au´diam, _I shall hear_ 2. re´gēs, _you will rule_ au´diēs, _you will hear_ 3. re´get, _he will rule_ au´diet, _he will hear_

PLURAL 1. regē´mus, _we shall rule_ audiē´mus, _we shall hear_ 2. regē´tis, _you will rule_ audiē´tis, _you will hear_ 3. re´gent, _they will rule_ au´dient, _they will hear_

1. Observe that the future of the third conjugation is like the present of the second, excepting in the first person singular.

2. In the same manner inflect the verbs given in §148.

«158.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Dīcet, dūcētis, mūniēmus. 2. Dīcent, dīcētis, mittēmus. 3. Mūnient, venient, mittent, agent. 4. Dūcet, mittēs, veniet, aget. 5. Mūniet, reperiētis, agēmus. 6. Mittam, veniēmus, regent. 7. Audiētis, veniēs, reperiēs. 8. Reperiet, agam, dūcēmus, mittet. 9. Vidēbitis, sedēbō, vocābimus.

II. 1. I shall find, he will hear, they will come. 2. I shall fortify, he will send, we shall say. 3. I shall drive, you will lead, they will hear. 4. You will send, you will fortify, (_sing. and plur._), he will say. 5. I shall come, we shall find, they will send.

6. Who[3] will believe the story? I[4] shall believe the story. 7. Whose friends do you favor? We favor our friends. 8. Who will resist our weapons? Sextus will resist your weapons. 9. Who will persuade him? They will persuade him. 10. Why were you injuring my horse? I was not injuring your horse. 11. Whom does a good slave obey? A good slave obeys his master. 12. Our men were eager for another battle.

[Footnote 3: Remember that «quis», _who_, is singular in number.]

[Footnote 4: Express by «ego», because it is emphatic.]

LESSON XXVI

VERBS IN _-IŌ_ OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION · THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

«159.» There are a few common verbs ending in «-iō» which do not belong to the fourth conjugation, as you might infer, but to the third. The fact that they belong to the third conjugation is shown by the ending of the infinitive. (Cf. §126.) Compare

«audiō, audī´re» (_hear_), fourth conjugation «capiō, ca´pere» (_take_), third conjugation

«160.» The present, imperfect, and future active indicative of «capiō» are inflected as follows:

«capiō, capere», _take_ PRES. STEM «cape-»

PRESENT IMPERFECT FUTURE SINGULAR 1. ca´piō capiē´bam ca´piam 2. ca´pis capiē´bās ca´piēs 3. ca´pit capiē´bat ca´piet

PLURAL 1. ca´pimus capiēbā´mus capiē´mus 2. ca´pitis capiēbā´tis capiē´tis 3. ca´piunt capiē´bant ca´pient

1. Observe that «capiō» and the other «-iō» verbs follow the fourth conjugation wherever in the fourth conjugation _two vowels occur in succession._ (Cf. capiō, audiō; capiunt, audiunt; and all the imperfect and future.) All other forms are like the third conjugation. (Cf. capis, regis; capit, regit; etc.)

2. Like «capiō», inflect

«faciō, facere», _make, do_ «fugiō, fugere», _flee_ «iaciō, iacere», _hurl_ «rapiō, rapere», _seize_

«161.» «The Imperative Mood.» The imperative mood expresses a command; as, _come!_ _send!_ The present tense of the imperative is used only in the second person, singular and plural. _The singular in the active voice is regularly the same in form as the present stem. The plural is formed by adding «-te» to the singular._

CONJUGATION SINGULAR PLURAL I. amā, _love thou_ amā´te, _love ye_ II. monē, _advise thou_ monē´te, _advise ye_ III. (_a_) rege, _rule thou_ re´gite, _rule ye_ (_b_) cape, _take thou_ ca´pite, _take ye_ IV. audī, _hear thou_ audī´te, _hear ye_ sum (irregular) es, _be thou_ este, _be ye_

1. In the third conjugation the final -ĕ- of the stem becomes -ĭ- in the plural.

2. The verbs «dīcō», _say_; «dūcō», _lead_; and «faciō», _make_, have the irregular forms «dīc», «dūc», and «fac» in the singular.

3. Give the present active imperative, singular and plural, of «veniō», «dūcō», «vocō», «doceō», «laudō», «dīcō», «sedeō», «agō», «faciō», «mūniō», «mittō», «rapiō».

«162.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Fugient, faciunt, iaciēbat. 2. Dēlē, nūntiāte, fugiunt. 3. Venīte, dīc, faciētis. 4. Dūcite, iaciam, fugiēbant. 5. Fac, iaciēbāmus, fugimus, rapite. 6. Sedēte, reperī, docēte. 7. Fugiēmus, iacient, rapiēs. 8. Reperient, rapiēbātis, nocent. 9. Favēte, resistē, pārēbitis.

10. Volā ad multās terrās et dā auxilium. 11. Ego tēla mea capiam et multās ferās dēlēbō. 12. Quis fābulae tuae crēdet? 13. Este bonī, puerī, et audīte verba grāta magistrī.

II. 1. The goddess will seize her arms and will hurl her weapons. 2. With her weapons she will destroy many beasts. 3. She will give aid to the weak.[1] 4. She will fly to many lands and the beasts will flee. 5. Romans, tell[2] the famous story to your children.

[Footnote 1: Plural. An adjective used as a noun. (Cf. §99.II.3.)]

[Footnote 2: Imperative. The imperative generally stands first, as in English.]

* * * * *

«Third Review, Lessons XVIII-XXVI, §§510-512»

* * * * *

LESSON XXVII

THE PASSIVE VOICE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS «āla, -ae», f., _wing_ «deus, -ī», m., _god_ (deity)[A] «monstrum, -ī», n., _omen, prodigy; monster_ ōrāculum, -ī, n., _oracle_

VERB «vāstō, -āre», _lay waste, devastate_

ADJECTIVES «commōtus, -a, -um», _moved, excited_ «maximus, -a, -um», _greatest_ (maximum) «saevus, -a, -um», _fierce, savage_

ADVERBS «ita», _thus, in this way, as follows_ «tum», _then, at that time_

[Footnote A: For the declension of «deus», see §468]

«163.» «The Voices.» Thus far the verb forms have been in the _active voice_; that is, they have represented the subject as _performing_ an action; as,

The lion ---> _killed_ ---> the hunter

A verb is said to be in the _passive voice_ when it represents its subject as _receiving_ an action; as,

The lion <--- _was killed_ <--- by the hunter

Note the direction of the arrows.

«164.» «Passive Personal Endings.» In the passive voice we use a different set of personal endings. They are as follows:

SINGULAR PLURAL 1. -r, _I_ 1. -mur, _we_ 2. -ris, -re, _you_ 2. -minī, _you_ 3. -tur, _he, she, it_ 3. -ntur, _they_

_a._ Observe that the letter «-r» appears somewhere in all but one of the endings. This is sometimes called the _passive sign_.

«165.» PARADIGMS

«amō, amāre» «monēo, monēre» PRES. STEM «amā-» PRES. STEM «monē-»

PRESENT INDICATIVE PERSONAL ENDINGS SINGULAR a´mor, _I am loved_ mo´neor, _I am advised_ -or[1] amā´ris or amā´re, monē´ris or monē´re. -ris or -re _you are loved_ _you are advised_ amā´tur, _he is loved_ monē´tur, _he is advised_ -tur

PLURAL amā´mur, _we are loved_ monē´mur, _we are advised_ -mur amā´minī, _you are loved_ monē´minī, _you are advised_ -mini aman´tur, _they are loved_ monen´tur, _they are advised_ -ntur

[Footnote 1: In the present the personal ending of the first person singular is «-or».]

IMPERFECT INDICATIVE (TENSE SIGN «-bā-»)

SINGULAR amā´bar, monē´bar, -r _I was being loved_ _I was being advised_ amābā´ris or amābā´re, monēbā´ris or monēbā´re -ris or -re _you were being loved_ _you were being advised_ amābā´tur, monēbā´tur, -tur _he was being loved_ _he was being advised_

PLURAL amābā´mur, monēbā´mur, -mur _we were being loved_ _we were being advised_ amābā´minī, monēbā´minī, -minī _you were being loved_ _you were being advised_ amāban´tur, monēban´tur, -ntur _they were being loved_ _they were being advised_

FUTURE (TENSE SIGN «-bi-»)

SINGULAR amā´bor, monē´bor, -r _I shall be loved_ _I shall be advised_ amā´beris, _or_ amā´bere monē´beris _or_ monē´bere, -ris or -re _you will be loved_ _you will be advised_ amā´bitur, monē´bitur, -tur _he will be loved_ _he will be advised_

PLURAL amā´bimur, monē´bimur, -mur _we shall be loved_ _we shall be advised_ amābi´minī, monēbi´minī, -minī _you will be loved_ _you will be advised_ amābun´tur, monēbun´tur, -ntur _they will be loved_ _they will be advised_

1. The tense sign and the personal endings are added as in the active.

2. In the future the tense sign «-bi-» appears as «-bo-» in the first person, «-be-» in the second, singular number, and as «-bu-» in the third person plural.

3. Inflect «laudō», «necō», «portō», «moveō», «dēleō», «iubeō», in the present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive.

«166.» Intransitive verbs, such as «mātūrō», _I hasten_; «habitō», _I dwell_, do not have a passive voice with a personal subject.

«167.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Laudāris _or_ laudāre, laudās, datur, dat. 2. Dabitur, dabit, vidēminī, vidētis. 3. Vocābat, vocābātur, dēlēbitis, dēlēbiminī. 4. Parābātur, parābat, cūrās, cūrāris _or_ cūrāre. 5. Portābantur, portābant, vidēbimur, vidēbimus. 6. Iubēris _or_ iubēre, iubēs, laudābāris _or_ laudābāre, laudābās. 7. Movēberis or movēbere, movēbis, dabantur, dabant. 8. Dēlentur, dēlent, parābāmur, parābāmus.

II. 1. We prepare, we are prepared, I shall be called, I shall call, you were carrying, you were being carried. 2. I see, I am seen, it was being announced, he was announcing, they will order, they will be ordered. 3. You will be killed, you will kill, you move, you are moved, we are praising, we are being praised. 4. I am called, I call, you will have, you are cared for. 5. They are seen, they see, we were teaching, we were being taught, they will move, they will be moved.

«168.» PER´SEUS AND ANDROM´EDA

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Perseus fīlius erat Iovis,[2] maximī[3] deōrum. Dē eō multās fabulās nārrant poētae. Eī favent deī, eī magica arma et ālās dant. Eīs tēlīs armātus et ālīs frētus ad multās terrās volābat et mōnstra saeva dēlēbat et miserīs īnfīrmīsque auxilium dabat.

Aethiopia est terra Āfricae. Eam terram Cēpheus[4] regēbat. Eī[5] Neptūnus, maximus aquārum deus, erat īrātus et mittit[6] mōnstrum saevum ad Aethiopiam. Ibi mōnstrum nōn sōlum lātīs pulchrīsque Aethiopiae agrīs nocēbat sed etiam domicilia agricolārum dēlēbat, et multōs virōs, fēminās, līberōsque necābat. Populus ex agrīs fugiēbat et oppida mūrīs validīs mūniēbat. Tum Cēpheus magnā trīstitiā commōtus ad Iovis ōrāculum properat et ita dīcit: “Amīcī meī necantur; agrī meī vāstantur. Audī verba mea, Iuppiter. Dā miserīs auxilium. Age mōnstrum saevum ex patriā.”

[Footnote 2: «Iovis», the genitive of «Iuppiter».]

[Footnote 3: Used substantively, _the greatest_. So below, l. 4, «miserīs» and «īnfīrmīs» are used substantively.]

[Footnote 4: Pronounce in two syllables, _Ce´pheus_.]

[Footnote 5: «Eī», _at him_, dative with «īrātus».]

[Footnote 6: The present is often used, as in English, in speaking of a past action, in order to make the story more vivid and exciting.]

LESSON XXVIII

PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF _REGŌ_ AND _AUDIŌ_

[Special Vocabulary]

VERBS «respondeō, -ēre», _respond, reply_ «servō, -āre», _save, preserve_

ADJECTIVE «cārus, -a, -um», _dear_ (cherish)

CONJUNCTION «autem», _but, moreover, now_. Usually stands second, never first

NOUN «vīta, -ae», f., _life_ (vital)

«169.» Review the present, imperfect, and future indicative active of «regō» and «audiō», and learn the passive of the same tenses (§§490, 491).

_a._ Observe that the tense signs of the imperfect and future are the same as in the active voice, and that the passive personal endings (§164) are added instead of the active ones.

_b._ Note the slight irregularity in the second person singular present of the third conjugation. There the final «-e-» of the stem is not changed to «-i-», as it is in the active. We therefore have «re´geris» or «re´gere», _not_ «re´giris», «re´gire».

_c._ Inflect «agō», «dīcō», «dūcō», «mūniō», «reperiō», in the present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive.

«170.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Agēbat, agēbātur, mittēbat, mittēbātur, dūcēbat. 2. Agunt, aguntur, mittuntur, mittunt, mūniunt. 3. Mittor, mittar, mittam, dūcēre, dūcere. 4. Dīcēmur, dīcimus, dīcēmus, dīcimur, mūniēbaminī. 5. Dūcitur, dūciminī, reperīmur, reperiar, agitur. 6. Agēbāmus, agēbāmur, reperīris, reperiēminī. 7. Mūnīminī, veniēbam, dūcēbar, dīcētur. 8. Mittiminī, mittitis, mittēris, mitteris, agēbāminī. 9. Dīcitur, dīcit, mūniuntur, reperient, audientur.

II. 1. I was being driven, I was driving, we were leading, we were being led, he says, it is said. 2. I shall send, I shall be sent, you will find, you will be found, they lead, they are led. 3. I am found, we are led, they are driven, you were being led (_sing. and plur._). 4. We shall drive, we shall be driven, he leads, he is being led, they will come, they will be fortified. 5. They were ruling, they were being ruled, you will send, you will be sent, you are sent, (_sing. and plur._). 6. He was being led, he will come, you are said (_sing. and plur._).

«171.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Tum ōrāculum ita respondet: “Mala est fortūna tua. Neptūnus, magnus aquārum deus, terrae Aethiopiae inimīcus, eās poenās mittit. Sed parā īrātō deō sacrum idōneum et mōnstrum saevum ex patriā tuā agētur. Andromeda fīlia tua est mōnstrō grāta. Dā eam mōnstrō. Servā cāram patriam et vītam populī tuī.” Andromeda autem erat puella pulchra. Eam amābat Cēpheus maximē.

LESSON XXIX

PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF _-IŌ_ VERBS PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE

[Special Vocabulary]

VERB «superō, -āre», _conquer, overcome_ (insuperable)

NOUNS «cūra, -ae», f., _care, trouble_ «locus, -ī», m., _place, spot_ (location). «Locus» is neuter in the plural and is declined «loca, -ōrum», etc. «perīculum, -ī», n., _danger, peril_

ADVERBS «semper», _always_ «tamen», _yet, nevertheless_

PREPOSITIONS «dē», with abl., _down from; concerning_ «per», with acc., _through_

CONJUNCTION «si», _if_

«172.» Review the active voice of «capiō», present, imperfect, and future, and learn the passive of the same tenses (§492).

_a._ The present forms «capior» and «capiuntur» are like «audior, audiuntur», and the rest of the tense is like «regor».

_b._ In like manner inflect the passive of «iaciō» and «rapiō».

«173.» «The Infinitive.» The infinitive mood gives the general meaning of the verb without person or number; as, «amāre», _to love_. Infinitive means _unlimited_. The forms of the other moods, being limited by person and number, are called the _finite_, or limited, verb forms.

«174.» The forms of the Present Infinitive, active and passive, are as follows:

CONJ. PRES. PRES. INFINITIVE PRES. INFINITIVE STEM ACTIVE PASSIVE

I. «amā-» amā´re, amā´rī, _to love_ _to be loved_ II. «monē-» monē´re, monē´rī, _to advise_ _to be advised_ III. «rege-» re´gere, re´gī, _to rule_ _to be ruled_ «cape-» ca´pere ca´pī, _to take_ _to be taken_ IV. «audī-» audī´re, audīrī, _to hear_ _to be heard_

1. Observe that to form the present active infinitive we add «-re» to the present stem.

_a._ The present infinitive of «sum» is «esse». There is no passive.

2. Observe that the present passive infinitive is formed from the active by changing final «-e» to «-ī», except in the third conjugation, which changes final «-ere» to «-ī».

3. Give the active and passive present infinitives of «doceō», «sedeō», «volō», «cūrō», «mittō», «dūcō», «mūniō», «reperiō», «iaciō», «rapiō.»

«175.» The forms of the Present Imperative, active and passive, are as follows:

ACTIVE[1] PASSIVE CONJ. SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL I. «a´mā» amā´te amā´re, amā´minī, _be thou loved_ _be ye loved_ II. «mo´nē» monē´te monē´re, monē´minī, _be thou advised_ _be ye advised_ III. «re´ge» re´gite re´gere, regi´minī, _be thou ruled _ _be ye ruled_ «ca´pe» ca´pite ca´pere, capi´minī, _be thou taken_ _be ye taken_ IV. «au´dī» audī´te audī´re, audī´minī, _be thou heard_ _be ye heard_

1. Observe that the second person singular of the present passive imperative is like the present active infinitive, and that both singular and plural are like the second person singular[2] and plural, respectively, of the present passive indicative.

2. Give the present imperative, both active and passive, of the verbs in §174.3.

[Footnote 1: For the sake of comparison the active is repeated from §161.]

[Footnote 2: That is, using the personal ending «-re». A form like «amāre» may be either _indicative_, _infinitive_, or _imperative_.]

«176.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

I. 1. Tum Perseus ālīs ad terrās multās volabit. 2. Mōnstrum saevum per aquās properat et mox agrōs nostrōs vāstābit. 3. Sī autem Cēpheus ad ōrāculum properābit, ōrāculum ita respondēbit. 4. Quis tēlīs Perseī superābitur? Multa mōnstra tēlīs eius superābuntur. 5. Cum cūrīs magnīs et lacrimīs multīs agricolae ex domiciliīs cārīs aguntur. 6. Multa loca vāstābantur et multa oppida dēlēbantur. 7. Mōnstrum est validum, tamen superābitur. 8. Crēdēsne semper verbīs ōrāculī? Ego iīs non semper crēdam. 9. Pārēbitne Cēpheus ōrāculō? Verba ōrāculī eī persuādēbunt. 10. Si nōn fugiēmus, oppidum capiētur et oppidānī necābuntur. 11. Vocāte puerōs et nārrāte fābulam clāram dē mōnstrō saevō.

II. 1. Fly thou, to be cared for, be ye sent, lead thou. 2. To lead, to be led, be ye seized, fortify thou. 3. To be hurled, to fly, send thou, to be found. 4. To be sent, be ye led, to hurl, to be taken. 5. Find thou, hear ye, be ye ruled, to be fortified.

LESSON XXX

SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS · THE ABLATIVE DENOTING _FROM_

[Special Vocabulary]

VERBS «absum, abesse», irreg., _be away, be absent, be distant_, with separative abl. «adpropinquō, -āre», _draw near, approach_ (propinquity), with dative[A] «contineō, -ēre», _hold together, hem in, keep_ (contain) «discēdō, -ere», _depart, go away, leave_, with separative abl. «egeō, -ēre», _lack, need, be without_, with separative abl. «interficiō, -ere», _kill_ «prohibeō, -ēre», _restrain, keep from_ (prohibit) «vulnerō, -āre», _wound_ (vulnerable)

NOUNS «prōvincia, -ae», f., _province_ «vīnum, -ī», n., _wine_

ADJECTIVE «dēfessus, -a, -um», _weary, worn out_

ADVERB «longē», _far, by far, far away_

[Footnote A: This verb governs the dative because the idea of _nearness to_ is stronger than that of _motion to_. If the latter idea were the stronger, the word would be used with «ad» and the accusative.]

«177.» You should learn to give rapidly synopses of the verbs you have had, as follows:[1]

CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ a´mō a´mor mo´neō mo´neor _Imperf._ amā´bam amā´bar monē´bam monē´bar _Fut._ amā´bo amā´bor monē´bo monē´bor

[Footnote 1: Synopses should be given not only in the first person, but in other persons as well, particularly in the third singular and plural.]

CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II IMPERATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ a´mā amā´re mo´nē monē´re

INFINITIVE _Pres._ amā´re amā´rī monē´re monē´rī

CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION III («-iō» verbs) INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ re´gō re´gor ca´piō ca´pior _Imperf._ regē´bam regē´bar capiē´bam capiē´bar _Fut._ re´gam re´gar ca´piam ca´piar

IMPERATIVE _Pres._ re´ge re´gere ca´pe ca´pere

INFINITIVE _Pres._ re´gere re´gī ca´pere ca´pī

CONJUGATION IV INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ au´diō au´dior _Imperf._ audiē´bam audiē´bar _Fut._ au´diam au´diar

IMPERATIVE _Pres._ au´dī audī´re

INFINITIVE _Pres._ audī´re audī´rī

1. Give the synopsis of «rapiō», «mūniō», «reperiō», «doceō», «videō», «dīcō», «agō», «laudō», «portō», and vary the person and number.

«178.» We learned in §50 that one of the three relations covered by the ablative case is expressed in English by the preposition _from._ This is sometimes called the _separative ablative_, and it has a number of special uses. You have already grown familiar with the first mentioned below.

«179.» RULE. «Ablative of the Place From.» _The place from which is expressed by the ablative with the prepositions «ā» or «ab», «dē», «ē» or «ex»._

«Agricolae ex agrīs veniunt», _the farmers come from the fields_

_a._ «ā» or «ab» denotes _from near_ a place; «ē» or «ex», _out from_ it; and «dē», _down from_ it. This may be represented graphically as follows:

_________ | | «ā» or «ab» | | «ē» or «ex» /_____________| ___________________\ \ | Place | / |_________| | | «dē» | V

«180.» RULE. «Ablative of Separation.» _Words expressing separation or deprivation require an ablative to complete their meaning._

_a._ If the separation is _actual_ and _literal_ of one material thing from another, the preposition «ā» or «ab», «ē» or «ex», or «dē» is generally used. If no actual motion takes place of one thing from another, no preposition is necessary.

(a) «Perseus terram ā mōnstrīs līberat» _Perseus frees the land from monsters_ (literal separation--actual motion is expressed) (b) «Perseus terram trīstitiā līberat» _Perseus frees the land from sorrow_ (figurative separation--no actual motion is expressed)

«181.» RULE. «Ablative of the Personal Agent.» _The word expressing the person from whom an action starts, when not the subject, is put in the ablative with the preposition «ā» or «ab.»_

_a._ In this construction the English translation of «ā», «ab» is _by_ rather than _from_. This ablative is regularly used with passive verbs to indicate the _person by whom_ the act was performed.

«Mōnstrum ā Perseō necātur», _the monster is being slain by_ (lit. _from_) _Perseus_

_b._ Note that the active form of the above sentence would be «Perseus monstrum necat», _Perseus is slaying the monster_. In the passive the _object_ of the active verb becomes the _subject_, and the _subject_ of the active verb becomes the _ablative of the personal agent_, with «ā» or «ab».

_c._ Distinguish carefully between the ablative of means and the ablative of the personal agent. Both are often translated into English by the preposition _by_. (Cf. §100. _b._) _Means is a «thing»; the agent or actor is a «person»_. The ablative of means has no preposition. The ablative of the personal agent has «ā» or «ab». Compare

«Fera sagittā necātur», _the wild beast is killed by an arrow_ «Fera ā Diānā necātur», _the wild beast is killed by Diana_

«Sagittā», in the first sentence, is the ablative of means; «ā Diānā», in the second, is the ablative of the personal agent.

«182.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

I. 1. Viri inopiā cibī dēfessī ab eō locō discēdent. 2. Germānī castrīs Rōmānīs adpropinquābant, tamen lēgātus cōpiās ā proeliō continēbat. 3. Multa Gallōrum oppida ab Rōmanīs capientur. 4. Tum Rōmānī tōtum populum eōrum oppidōrum gladiīs pīlīsque interficient. 5. Oppidānī Rōmānīs resistent, sed defessī longō proelīo fugient. 6. Multī ex Galliā fugiēbant et in Germānōrum vicīs habitābant. 7. Miserī nautae vulnerantur ab inimīcīs[2] saevīs et cibō egent. 8. Discēdite et date virīs frūmentum et cōpiam vīnī. 9. Cōpiae nostrae ā proeliō continēbantur ab Sextō lēgatō. 10. Id oppidum ab prōvinciā Rōmānā longē aberat.

II. 1. The weary sailors were approaching a place dear to the goddess Diana. 2. They were without food and without wine. 3. Then Galba and seven other men are sent to the ancient island by Sextus. 4. Already they are not far away from the land, and they see armed men on a high place. 5. They are kept from the land by the men with spears and arrows. 6. The men kept hurling their weapons down from the high place with great eagerness.

[Footnote 2: «inimīcīs», here used as a noun. See vocabulary.]

LESSON XXXI

PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF _SUM_

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS aurum, -ī, n., _gold_ (oriole) «mora, -ae», f., _delay_ «nāvigium, nāvi´gī», n., _boat, ship_ «ventus, -ī», m., _wind_ (ventilate)

VERB «nāvigō, -āre», _sail_ (navigate)

ADJECTIVES attentus, -a, -um, _attentive, careful_ «dubius, -a, -um», _doubtful_ (dubious) perfidus, -a, -um, _faithless, treacherous_ (perfidy)

ADVERB «anteā», _before, previously_

PREPOSITION «sine», with abl., _without_

«183.» «Principal Parts.» There are certain parts of the verb that are of so much consequence in tense formation that we call them the _principal parts._

The principal parts of the Latin verb are the present, the past, and the past participle; as _go, went, gone_; _see, saw, seen_, etc.

The principal parts of the Latin verb are the _first person singular of the present indicative_, the _present infinitive_, the _first person singular of the perfect indicative_, and _the perfect passive participle._

«184.» «Conjugation Stems.» From the principal parts we get three conjugation stems, from which are formed the entire conjugation. We have already learned about the «present stem», which is found from the present infinitive (cf. §126.a). The other two stems are the «perfect stem» and the «participial stem».

«185.» «The Perfect Stem.» The perfect stem of the verb is formed in various ways, but may always be _found by dropping «-ī» from the first person singular of the perfect_, the third of the principal parts. From the perfect stem are formed the following tenses:

THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE THE PLUPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE (ENGLISH PAST PERFECT) THE FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE

All these tenses express completed action in present, past, or future time respectively.

«186.» «The Endings of the Perfect.» The perfect active indicative is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. These endings are different from those found in any other tense, and are as follows:

SINGULAR PLURAL 1. -ī, _I_ 1. -imus, _we_ 2. -istī, _you_ 2. -istis, _you_ 3. -it, _he, she, it_ 3. -ērunt or -ēre, _they_

«187.» Inflection of «sum» in the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative:

PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PRIN. PARTS sum esse fuī

PERFECT STEM fu-

PERFECT SINGULAR PLURAL fu´ī, _I have been, I was_ fu´imus, _we have been, we were_ fuis´tī, fuis´tis, _you have been, you were_ _you have been, you were_ fu´it, _he has been, he was_ fuē´runt _or_ fuē´re, _they have been, they were_

PLUPERFECT (TENSE SIGN «-erā-») fu´eram, _I had been_ fuerā´mus, _we had been_ fu´erās, _you had been_ fuerā´tis, _you had been_ fu´erat, _he had been_ fu´erant, _they had been_

FUTURE PERFECT (TENSE SIGN «-eri-») fu´erō, _I shall have been_ fue´rimus, _we shall have been_ fu´eris, _you will have been_ fue´ritis, _you will have been_ fu´erit, _he will have been_ fu´erint, _they will have been_

1. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect.

2. Observe that the pluperfect may be formed by adding «eram», the imperfect of «sum», to the perfect stem. The tense sign is «-erā-».

3. Observe that the future perfect may be formed by adding «erō», the future of «sum», to the perfect stem. But the third person plural ends in «-erint», not in «-erunt». The tense sign is «-eri-».

4. All active perfects, pluperfects, and future perfects are formed on the perfect stem and inflected in the same way.

«188.» DIALOGUE

THE BOYS TITUS, MARCUS, AND QUINTUS

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

M. Ubi fuistis, Tite et Quīnte? T. Ego in meō lūdō fuī et Quīntus in suō lūdō fuit. Bonī puerī fuimus. Fuitne Sextus in vīcō hodiē? M. Fuit. Nūper per agrōs proximōs fluviō properābat. Ibi is et Cornēlius habent nāvigium. T. _Nāvigium_ dīcis? Aliī[1] nārrā eam fābulam! M. Vērō (_Yes, truly_), pulchrum et novum nāvigium! Q. Cuius pecūniā[2] Sextus et Cornēlius id nāvigium parant? Quis iīs pecūniam dat? M. Amīcī Cornēlī multum habent aurum et puer pecūniā nōn eget. T. Quō puerī nāvigābunt? Nāvigābuntne longē ā terrā? M. Dubia sunt cōnsilia eōrum. Sed hodiē, crēdō, sī ventus erit idōneus, ad maximam īnsulam nāvigābunt. Iam anteā ibi fuērunt. Tum autem ventus erat perfidus et puerī magnō in perīculō erant. Q. Aqua ventō commōta est inimīca nautīs semper, et saepe perfidus ventus nāvigia rapit, agit, dēletque. Iī puerī, sī nōn fuerint maximē attentī, īrātā aquā et validō ventō superābuntur et ita interficientur.

[Footnote 1: Dative case. (Cf. §109.)]

[Footnote 2: Ablative of means.]

«189.» EXERCISE

1. Where had the boys been before? They had been in school. 2. Where had Sextus been? He had been in a field next to the river. 3. Who has been with Sextus to-day? Cornelius has been with him. 4. Who says so? Marcus. 5. If the wind has been suitable, the boys have been in the boat. 6. Soon we shall sail with the boys. 7. There[3] will be no danger, if we are (shall have been) careful.[4]

[Footnote 3: The expletive _there_ is not expressed, but the verb will precede the subject, as in English.]

[Footnote 4: This predicate adjective must be nominative plural to agree with _we_.]

LESSON XXXII

THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS «animus, -ī», m., _mind, heart; spirit, feeling_ (animate) «bracchium, bracchī», n., _forearm, arm_ «porta, -ae», f., _gate_ (portal)

ADJECTIVES «adversus, -a, -um», _opposite; adverse, contrary_ «plēnus, -a, -um», _full_ (plenty)

PREPOSITION «prō», with abl., _before; in behalf of; instead of_

ADVERB «diū», _for a long time, long_

«190.» «Meanings of the Perfect.» The perfect tense has two distinct meanings. The first of these is equivalent to the English present perfect, or perfect with _have_, and denotes that the action of the verb is complete at the time of speaking; as, _I have finished my work_. As this denotes completed action at a definite time, it is called the «perfect definite».

The perfect is also used to denote an action that happened _sometime in the past_; as, _I finished my work._ As no definite time is specified, this is called the «perfect indefinite». It corresponds to the ordinary use of the English past tense.

_a._ Note carefully the difference between the following tenses:

_I {was finishing } my work_ (imperfect, §134) {used to finish} _I finished my work_ (perfect indefinite) _I have finished my work_ (perfect definite)

When telling a story the Latin uses the _perfect indefinite_ to mark the different _forward steps_ of the narrative, and the _imperfect_ to _describe situations and circumstances_ that attend these steps. If the following sentences were Latin, what tenses would be used?

“Last week I went to Boston. I was trying to find an old friend of mine, but he was out of the city. Yesterday I returned home.”

«191.» «Inflection of the Perfect.» We learned in §186 that any perfect is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. The inflection in the four regular conjugations is then as follows:

CONJ. I «amāvī» _I have loved_, _I loved_ or _did love_ CONJ. II «monuī» _I have advised_, _I advised_ or _did advise_ CONJ. III «rēxī» _I have ruled_, _I ruled_ or _did rule_ «cēpī» _I have taken_, _I took_ or _did take_ CONJ. IV «audīvī» _I have heard_, _I heard_ or _did hear_

PERFECT STEMS «amāv-» «monu-» «rēx-» «cēp-» «audīv-»

SINGULAR 1. amā´vī mo´nuī rē´xī cē´pī audī´vī 2. amāvis´tī monuis´tī rēxis´tī cēpis´tī audīvis´tī 3. amā´vit mo´nuit rē´xit cē´pit audī´vit

PLURAL 1. amā´vimus monu´imus rē´ximus cē´pimus audī´vimus 2. amāvis´tis monuis´tis rēxis´tis cēpis´tis audīvis´tis 3. amāvē´runt monuē´runt rēxē´runt cēpē´runt audīvē´runt _or_ _or_ _or_ _or_ _or_ amāvē´re monuē´re rēxē´re cēpē´re audīvē´re

1. The first person of the perfect is always given as the third of the principal parts. From this we get the perfect stem. _This shows the absolute necessity of learning the principal parts thoroughly._

2. Nearly all perfects of the first conjugation are formed by adding «-vī» to the present stem. Like «amāvī» inflect «parāvī», «vocāvī», «cūrāvī», «laudāvī».

3. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect. Drill on it.

«192.» Learn the principal parts and inflect the perfects:

PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. dō dăre dedī _give_ dēleō dēlēre dēlēvī _destroy_ habeō habēre habuī _have_ moveō movēre mōvī _move_ pāreō pārēre pāruī _obey_ prohibeō prohibēre prohibuī _restrain, keep from_ videō vidēre vīdī _see_ dīcō dīcere dīxī _say_ discēdō discēdere discessī _depart_ dūcō dūcere dūxī _lead_ faciō facere fēcī _make, do_ mittō mittere mīsī _send_ mūniō mūnīre mūnīvī _fortify_ veniō venīre vēnī _come_

«193.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290.

Cēpheus, adversā fortūnā maximē commōtus, discessit et multīs cum lacrimīs populō Aethiopiae verba ōrāculī nārrāvit. Fāta Andromedae, puellae pulchrae, ā tōtō populō dēplōrābantur, tamen nūllum erat auxilium. Deinde Cēpheus cum plēnō trīstitiae animō cāram suam fīliam ex oppidī portā ad aquam dūxit et bracchia eius ad saxa dūra revīnxit. Tum amīcī puellae miserae longē discessērunt et diū mōnstrum saevum exspectāvērunt.

Tum forte Perseus, ālīs frētus, super Aethiopiam volābat. Vīdit populum, Andromedam, lacrimās, et, magnopere attonitus, ad terram dēscendit. Tum Cēpheus eī tōtās cūrās nārrāvit et ita dīxit: “Pārēbō verbīs ōrāculī, et prō patriā fīliam meam dabō; sed sī id mōnstrum interficiēs et Andromedam servābis, tibi (_to you_) eam dabō.”

LESSON XXXIII

PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE

«194.» CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV «amō» «moneō» «regō» «capiō» «audiō» PERFECT STEMS «amāv-» «monu-» «rēx-» «cēp-» «audīv-»

PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE TENSE SIGN «-erā-»

SINGULAR I had loved I had advised I had ruled I had taken I had heard

1. amā´veram monu´eram rē´xeram cē´peram audī´veram 2. amā´verās monu´erās rē´xerās cē´perās audī´verās 3. amā´verat monu´erat rē´xerat cē´perat audī´verat

PLURAL 1. amāverā´mus monuerā´mus rēxerā´mus cēperā´mus audīverā´mus 2. amāverā´tis monuerā´tis rēxerā´tis cēperā´tis audīverā´tis 3. amā´verant monu´erant rē´xerant cē´perant audī´verant

FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE TENSE SIGN «-eri-»

SINGULAR I shall have I shall have I shall have I shall have I shall have loved advised ruled taken heard

1. amā´verō monu´erō rē´xerō cē´perō audī´verō 2. amā´veris monu´eris rē´xeris cē´peris audī´veris 3. amā´verit monu´erit rē´xerit cē´perit audī´verit

PLURAL 1. amāve´rimus monue´rimus rēxe´rimus cēpe´rimus audīve´rimus 2. amāve´ritis monue´ritis rēxe´ritis cēpe´ritis audīve´ritis 3. amā´verint monu´erint rē´xerint cē´perint audī´verint

1. Observe that these are all inflected alike and the rules for formation given in §187.2-4 hold good here.

2. In like manner inflect the pluperfect and future perfect indicative active of «dō», «portō», «dēleō», «moveō», «habeō», «dīcō», «discēdō», «faciō», «veniō», «mūniō.»

«195.» «The Perfect Active Infinitive.» The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding «-isse» to the perfect stem.

CONJ PERFECT STEM PERFECT INFINITIVE I. amāv- amāvis´se, _to have loved_ II. monu- monuis´se, _to have advised_ III. (_a_) rēx- rēxis´se, _to have ruled_ (_b_) cēp- cēpis´se, _to have taken_ IV. audīv» audīvis´se, _to have heard_ sum fu- fuis´se, _to have been_

1. In like manner give the perfect infinitive active of «dō», «portō», «dēleō», «moveō», «habeō», «dīcō», «discēdō», «faciō», «veniō», «mūniō».

«196.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Habuistī, mōvērunt, miserant. 2. Vīdit, dīxeris, dūxisse. 3. Mīsistis, pāruērunt, discesserāmus. 4. Mūnīvit, dederam, mīserō. 5. Habuerimus, dēlēvī, pāruit, fuisse. 6. Dederās, mūnīveritis, vēnerātis, mīsisse. 7. Vēnerās, fēcisse, dederātis, portāveris.

8. Quem verba ōrāculī mōverant? Populum verba ōrāculī mōverant. 9. Cui Cēpheus verba ōrāculī nārrāverit? Perseō Cēpheus verba ōrāculī nārrāverit. 10. Amīcī ab Andromedā discesserint. 11. Mōnstrum saevum domicilia multa dēlēverat. 12. Ubi mōnstrum vīdistis? Id in aquā vīdimus. 13. Quid mōnstrum faciet? Mōnstrum Andromedam interficiet.

II. 1. They have obeyed, we have destroyed, I shall have had. 2. We shall have sent, I had come, they have fortified. 3. I had departed, he has obeyed, you have sent (_sing. and plur._). 4. To have destroyed, to have seen, he will have given, they have carried. 5. He had destroyed, he has moved, you have had (_sing. and plur._). 6. I have given, you had moved (_sing. and plur._), we had said. 7. You will have made (_sing. and plur._), they will have led, to have given.

8. Who had seen the monster? Andromeda had seen it. 9. Why had the men departed from[1] the towns? They had departed because the monster had come. 10. Did Cepheus obey[2] the oracle[3]? He did.

[Footnote 1: «ex». What would «ab» mean?]

[Footnote 2: _Did ... obey_, perfect tense.]

[Footnote 3: What case?]

LESSON XXXIV

REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE

[Special Vocabulary]

ADVERBS «celeriter», _quickly_ (celerity) «dēnique», _finally_ «graviter», _heavily, severely_ (gravity) «subitō», _suddenly_

VERB «reportō, -āre, -āvī», _bring back, restore; win, gain_ (report)

«197.» A review of the tenses of the indicative active shows the following formation:

{ PRESENT = First of the principal parts TENSES { IMPERFECT = Present stem + -ba-m OF THE { FUTURE = Present stem + -bō, Conj. I and II INDICATIVE { -a-m, Conj. III and IV { PERFECT = Third of the principal parts { PLUPERFECT = Perfect stem + -era-m { FUTURE PERFECT = Perfect stem + -erō

«198.» The synopsis of the active voice of «amō», as far as we have learned the conjugation, is as follows:

PRINCIPAL PARTS «amō, amāre, amāvī»

PRES. STEM «amā-»

{ _Pres._ amō INDIC. { _Imperf._ amābam { _Fut._ amābō PRES. IMV. amā PRES. INFIN. amāre

PERF. STEM «amāv-»

{ _Perf._ amāvī INDIC. { _Pluperf._ amāveram { _Fut. perf._ amāverō PERF. INFIN. amāvisse

1. Learn to write in the same form and to give rapidly the principal parts and synopsis of «parō», «dō», «laudō», «dēleō», «habeō», «moveō», «pāreō», «videō», «dīcō», «discēdō», «dūcō», «mittō», «capiō», «muniō», «veniō».[1]

[Footnote 1: Learn to give synopses rapidly, and not only in the first person singular but in any person of either number.]

«199.» Learn the following principal parts:[2]

PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC.

IRREGULAR VERBS sum esse fuī _be_ ab´sum abes´se ā´fuī _be away_ dō dare dedī _give_

CONJUGATION II contineō continēre continuī _hold in, keep_ doceō docēre docuī _teach_ egeō egēre eguī _need_ faveō favēre fāvī _favor_ iubeō iubēre iussī _order_ noceō nocēre nocuī _injure_ persuādeō persuādēre persuāsī _persuade_ respondeō respondēre respondī _reply_ sedeō sedēre sēdī _sit_ studeō studēre studuī _be eager_

CONJUGATION III agō agere ēgī _drive_ crēdō crēdere crēdidī _believe_ fugiō fugere fūgī _flee_ iaciō iacere iēcī _hurl_ interficiō interficere interfēcī _kill_ rapiō rapere rapuī _seize_ resis´tō resis´tere re´stitī _resist_

CONJUGATION IV repe´riō reperī´re rep´perī _find_

[Footnote 2: These are all verbs that you have had before, and the perfect is the only new form to be learned.]

«200.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Concluded_)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290. Read the whole story.

Perseus semper proeliō studēbat[3] et respondit,[3] “Verba tua sunt maximē grāta,” et laetus arma sua magica parāvit.[3] Subitō mōnstrum vidētur; celeriter per aquam properat et Andromedae adpropinquat. Eius amīcī longē absunt et misera puella est sōla. Perseus autem sine morā super aquam volāvit.[3] Subitō dēscendit[3] et dūrō gladiō saevum mōnstrum graviter vulnerāvit.[3] Diū pugnātur,[4] diū proelium est dubium. Dēnique autem Perseus mōnstrum interfēcit[3] et victōriam reportāvit.[3] Tum ad saxum vēnit[3] et Andromedam līberāvit[3] et eam ad Cēpheum dūxit.[3] Is, nūper miser, nunc laetus, ita dīxit[3]: “Tuō auxiliō, mī amīce, cāra fīlia mea est lībera; tua est Andromeda.” Diū Perseus cum Andromedā ibi habitābat[3] et magnopere ā tōtō populō amābātur.[3]

[Footnote 3: See if you can explain the use of the perfects and imperfects in this passage.]

[Footnote 4: The verb pugnātur means, literally, _it is fought_; translate freely, _the battle is fought_, or _the contest rages_. The verb pugnō in Latin is intransitive, and so does not have a personal subject in the passive. A verb with an indeterminate subject, designated in English by _it_, is called impersonal.]

LESSON XXXV

THE PASSIVE PERFECTS OF THE INDICATIVE THE PERFECT PASSIVE AND FUTURE ACTIVE INFINITIVE

«201.» The fourth and last of the principal parts (§183) is the «perfect passive participle». _From it we get the participial stem on which are formed the future active infinitive and all the passive perfects._

1. Learn the following principal parts, which are for the first time given in full:

CONJ. PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PASS. PART. I. amō amā´-re amā´v-ī amā´t-us This is the model for all regular verbs of the first conjugation. II. mo´neō monē´-re mo´nu-ī mo´nit-us III. regō re´ge-re rēx-ī rēct-us ca´piō ca´pe-re cēp-ī capt-us IV. au´diō audī´-re audī´v-ī audī´t-us

2. The base of the participial stem is found by dropping «-us» from the perfect passive participle.

«202.» In English the perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses of the indicative passive are made up of forms of the auxiliary verb _to be_ and the past participle; as, _I have been loved_, _I had been loved_, _I shall have been loved._

Very similarly, in Latin, the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect passive tenses use respectively the present, imperfect, and future of «sum» as an auxiliary verb with the perfect passive participle, as

Perfect passive, «amā´tus sum», _I have been_ or _was loved_ Pluperfect passive, «amā´tus eram», _I had been loved_ Future perfect passive, «amā´tus erō», _I shall have been loved_

1. In the same way give the synopsis of the corresponding tenses of «moneō», «regō», «capiō», and «audiō», and give the English meanings.

«203.» «Nature of the Participle.» A participle is partly verb and partly adjective. As a verb it possesses tense and voice. As an adjective it is declined and agrees with the word it modifies in gender, number, and case.

«204.» The perfect passive participle is declined like «bonus, bona, bonum», and in the compound tenses (§202) it agrees as a predicate adjective with the subject of the verb.

EXAMPLES IN SINGULAR «Vir laudātus est», _the man was praised_, or _has been praised_ «Puella laudāta est», _the girl was praised_, or _has been praised_ «Cōnsilium laudātum est», _the plan was praised_, or _has been praised_

EXAMPLES IN PLURAL «Virī laudātī sunt», _the men were praised_, or _have been praised_ «Puellae laudātae sunt», _the girls were praised_, or _have been praised_ «Cōnsilia laudāta sunt», _the plans were praised_, or _have been praised_

1. Inflect the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative passive of «amō», «moneō», «regō», «capiō», and «audiō» (§§488-492).

«205.» «The perfect passive infinitive» is formed by adding «esse», the present infinitive of «sum», to the perfect passive participle; as, amā´t-us (-a, -um) «esse», _to have been loved_; mo´nit-us (-a, -um) «esse», _to have been advised_.

1. Form the perfect passive infinitive of «regō», «capiō», «audiō», and give the English meanings.

«206.» The future active infinitive is formed by adding «esse», the present infinitive of «sum», to the future active participle. This participle is made by adding «-ūrus, -a, -um» to the base of the participial stem. Thus the future active infinitive of «amō» is amat-ū´rus (-a, -um) «esse», _to be about to love_.

_a._ Note that in forming the three tenses of the active infinitive we use all three conjugation stems:

Present, amāre (present stem), _to love_ Perfect, amāvisse (perfect stem), _to have loved_ Future, amātūrus esse (participial stem), _to be about to love_

1. Give the three tenses of the active infinitive of «laudō», «moneō», «regō», «capiō», «audiō», with the English meanings.

«207.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Fābula Andromedae nārrāta est. 2. Multae fābulae ā magistrō nārrātae sunt. 3. Ager ab agricolā validō arātus erat. 4. Agrī ab agricolīs validīs arātī erant. 5. Aurum ā servō perfidō ad domicilium suum portātum erit. 6. Nostra arma ā lēgātō laudāta sunt. Quis vestra arma laudāvit? 7. Ab ancillā tuā ad cēnam vocātae sumus. 8. Andromeda mōnstrō nōn data est, quia mōnstrum ā Perseō necātum erat.

II. 1. The provinces were laid waste, the field had been laid waste, the towns will have been laid waste. 2. The oracles were heard, the oracle was heard, the oracles had been heard. 3. The oracle will have been heard, the province had been captured, the boats have been captured. 4. The fields were laid waste, the man was advised, the girls will have been advised. 5. The towns had been ruled, we shall have been captured, you will have been heard.

LESSON XXXVI

REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS · PREPOSITIONS _YES_-OR-_NO_ QUESTIONS

[Special Vocabulary]

«dexter, dextra, dextrum», _right_ (dextrous) «sinister, sinistra, sinistrum», _left_ «frūstrā», adv., _in vain_ (frustrate)

«gerō, gerere, gessī, gestus», _bear, carry on; wear_; «bellum gerere», _to wage war_ «occupō, occupāre, occupāvī, occupātus», _seize, take possession of_ (occupy) «postulō, postulāre, postulāvī, postulātus», _demand_ (ex-postulate) «recūsō, recūsāre, recūsāvī, recūsātus», _refuse_ «stō, stāre, stetī, status», _stand_ «temptō, temptāre, temptāvī, temptātus», _try, tempt, test; attempt_ «teneō, tenēre, tenuī, ----», _keep, hold_ (tenacious)

The word «ubi», which we have used so much in the sense of _where_ in asking a question, has two other uses equally important:

1. «ubi» = _when_, as a relative conjunction denoting time; as, «Ubi mōnstrum audīvērunt, fūgērunt», _when they heard the monster, they fled_

2. «ubi» = _where_, as a relative conjunction denoting place; as, «Videō oppidum ubi Galba habitat», _I see the town where Galba lives_

«ubi» is called a _relative conjunction_ because it is equivalent to a relative pronoun. _When_ in the first sentence is equivalent to _at the time «at which»;_ and in the second, _where_ is equivalent to _the place «in which»._

«208.» The following list shows the principal parts of all the verbs you have had excepting those used in the paradigms. The parts you have had before are given for review, and the perfect participle is the only new form for you to learn. Sometimes one or more of the principal parts are lacking, which means that the verb has no forms based on that stem. A few verbs lack the perfect passive participle but have the future active participle in «-ūrus», which appears in the principal parts instead.

IRREGULAR VERBS

«sum» «esse» «fuī» «futūrus» _be_ «absum» «abesse» «āfuī» «āfutūrus» _be away_ «dō»[1] «dare» «dedī» «datus» _give_

[Footnote 1: «dō» is best classed with the irregular verbs because of the short «a» in the present and participial stems.]

CONJUGATION I

«portō» «portāre» «portāvī» «portātus» _carry_

So for all verbs of this conjugation thus far used.

CONJUGATION II

«contineō» «continēre» «continuī» «contentus» _hold in, keep_ «dēleō» «dēlēre» «dēlēvī» «dēlētus» _destroy_ «doceō» «docēre» «docuī» «doctus» _teach_ «egeō» «egēre» «eguī» ---- _lack_ «faveō» «favēre» «fāvī» «fautūrus» _favor_ «iubeō» «iubēre» «iussī» «iussus» _order_ «moveō» «movēre» «mōvī» «mōtus» _move_ «noceō» «nocēre» «nocuī» «nocitūrus» _injure_ «pāreō» «pārēre» «pāruī» ---- _obey_ «persuādeō» «persuādēre» «persuāsī» «persuāsus» _persuade (from)_ «prohibeō» «prohibēre» «prohibuī» «prohibitus» _restrain, keep_ «respondeō» «respondēre» «respondī» «respōnsus» _reply_ «sedeō» «sedēre» «sēdī» «-sessus» _sit_ «studeō» «studēre» «studuī» ---- _be eager_ «videō» «vidēre» «vīdī» «vīsus» _see_

CONJUGATION III

«agō» «agere» «ēgī» «āctus» _drive_ «crēdō» «crēdere» «crēdidī» «crēditus» _believe_ «dīcō» «dīcere» «dīxī» «dictus» _say_ «discēdō» «discēdere» «discessī» «discessus» _depart_ «dūcō» «dūcere» «dūxī» «ductus» _lead_ «faciō»[2] «facere» «fēcī» «factus» _make_ «fugiō» «fugere» «fūgī» «fugitūrus» _flee_ «iaciō» «iacere» «iēcī» «iactus» _hurl_ «interficiō» «interficere» «interfēcī» «interfectus» _kill_ «mittō» «mittere» «mīsī» «missus» _send_ «rapiō» «rapere» «rapuī» «raptus» _seize_ «resistō» «resistere» «restitī» ---- _resist_

CONJUGATION IV

«mūniō» «mūnīre» «mūnīvī» «mūnītus» _fortify_ «reperiō» «reperīre» «rep´perī» «repertus» _find_ «veniō» «venīre» «vēnī» «ventus» _come_

[Footnote 2: «faciō» has an irregular passive which will be presented later.]

«209.» «Prepositions.» 1. We learned in §§52, 53 that only the _accusative_ and the _ablative_ are used with prepositions, and that prepositions expressing ablative relations govern the ablative case. Those we have had are here summarized. The table following should be learned.

«ā» or «ab», _from, by_ «cum», _with_ «dē», _down from, concerning_ «ē» or «ex», _out from, out of_ «prō», _before, in front of; for, in behalf of_ «sine», _without_

2. Prepositions not expressing ablative relations must govern the _accusative_ (§52). Of these we have had the following:

«ad», _to_; «apud», _among_; «per», _through_

There are many others which you will meet as we proceed.

3. The preposition «in» when meaning _in_ or _on_ governs the _ablative_; when meaning _to, into, against_ (relations foreign to the ablative) «in» governs the _accusative_.

«210.» «_Yes_-or-_No_ Questions.» Questions not introduced by some interrogative word like _who, why, when_, etc., but expecting the answer _yes_ or _no_, may take one of three forms:

1. _Is he coming?_ (Asking for information. Implying nothing as to the answer expected.) 2. _Is he not coming?_ (Expecting the answer _yes_.) 3. _He isn´t coming, is he?_ (Expecting the answer _no_.)

These three forms are rendered in Latin as follows:

1. «Venitne?» _is he coming?_ 2. «Nōnne venit?» _is he not coming?_ 3. «Num venit?» _he isn´t coming, is he?_

_a._ «-ne», the question sign, is usually added to the verb, which then stands first.

_b._ We learned in §56.b that _yes_-or-_no_ questions are usually answered by repeating the verb, with or without a negative. Instead of this, «ita», «vērō», «certē», etc. (_so, truly, certainly_, etc.) may be used for _yes_, and «nōn», «minimē», etc. for _no_ if the denial is emphatic, as, _by no means_, _not at all_.

«211.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290.

I. 1. Nōnne habēbat Cornēlia ōrnāmenta aurī? Habēbat. 2. Num Sextus lēgātus scūtum in dextrō bracchiō gerēbat? Nōn in dextrō, sed sinistrō in bracchiō Sextus scūtum gerēbat. 3. Frūstrā bella multa ab Gallīs gesta erant. 4. Ubi oppidum ā perfidō Sextō occupātum est, oppidānī miserī gladiō interfectī sunt. 5. Id oppidum erat plēnum frūmentī. 6. Nōnne Sextus ab oppidānīs frūmentum postulāvit? Vērō, sed iī recūsāvērunt frūmentum dare. 7. Cūr oppidum ab Sextō dēlētum est? Quia frūmentum recūsātum est. 8. Ea victōria nōn dubia erat. 9. Oppidānī erant dēfessī et armīs egēbant. 10. Num fugam temptāvērunt? Minimē.

II. 1. Where was Julia standing? She was standing where you had ordered. 2. Was Julia wearing any ornaments? She had many ornaments of gold. 3. Did she not attempt flight when she saw the danger? She did. 4. Who captured her? Galba captured her without delay and held her by the left arm. 5. She didn´t have the lady’s gold, did she? No, the gold had been taken by a faithless maid and has been brought back.

* * * * *

«Fourth Review, Lessons XXVII-XXXVI, §§513-516»

* * * * *

LESSON XXXVII

CONJUGATION OF _POSSUM_ · THE INFINITIVE USED AS IN ENGLISH

[Special Vocabulary]

«neque» or «nec», conj., _neither_, _nor_, _and ... not_; «neque ... neque», _neither ... nor_ «castellum, -ī», n., _redoubt, fort_ (castle) «cotīdiē», adv., _daily_ cessō, cessāre, cessāvī, cessātus, _cease_, with the infin.

«incipiō, incipere, incēpī, inceptus», _begin_ (incipient), with the infin. «oppugnō, oppugnāre, oppugnāvī, oppugnātus», _storm, assail_ «petō, petere, petivi» or «petiī, petītus», _aim at, assail, storm, attack; seek, ask_ (petition) «pōnō, pōnere, posuī, positus», _place, put_ (position); «castra pōnere», _to pitch camp_ «possum, posse, potuī, ----», _be able, can_ (potent), with the infin. «vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitus», _forbid_ (veto), vith the infin.; opposite of «iubeō», _command_ «vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus», _conquer_ (in-vincible) «vīvō, vīvere, vīxī, ----», _live, be alive_ (re-vive)

«212.» Learn the principal parts of «possum», _I am able_, _I can_, and its inflection in the indicative and infinitive. (Cf. §495.)

_a._ «Possum», _I can_, is a compound of «potis», _able_, and «sum», _I am_.

«213.» «The Infinitive with Subject Accusative.» The _infinitive_ (cf. §173) is a _verbal noun_. Used as a noun, it has the constructions of a noun. As a verb it can govern a case and be modified by an adverb. The uses of the infinitive are much the same in Latin as in English.

1. In English certain verbs of _wishing, commanding, forbidding_, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of a substantive in the objective case and an infinitive, as, _he commanded the men to flee_. Such object clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, some verbs of _wishing, commanding, forbidding_, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of an infinitive with a subject in the accusative case, as, «Is virōs fugere iussit», _he commanded the men to flee_.

«214.» RULE. «Subject of the Infinitive.» _The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative._

«215.» «The Complementary Infinitive.» In English a verb is often followed by an infinitive to complete its meaning, as, _the Romans are able to conquer the Gauls_. This is called the _complementary_ infinitive, as the predicate is not _complete_ without the added infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, _verbs of incomplete predication_ are completed by the infinitive. Among such verbs are «possum», _I am able, I can_; «properō», «mātūrō», _I hasten_; «temptō», _I attempt_; as

«Rōmānī Gallōs superāre possunt», _the Romans are able to_ (or _can_) _conquer the Gauls_ «Bellum gerere mātūrant», _they hasten to wage war_

_a._ A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb.

«Malī puerī esse bonī nōn possunt», _bad boys are not able to_ (or _cannot_) _be good._

Observe that «bonī» agrees with «puerī».

«216.» «The Infinitive used as a Noun.» In English the infinitive is often used as a pure noun, as the subject of a sentence, or as a predicate nominative. For example, _To conquer_ (= conquering) _is pleasing; To see_ (= seeing) _is to believe_ (= believing). The same use of the infinitive is found in Latin, especially with «est», as

«Superāre est grātum», _to conquer is pleasing_ «Vidēre est crēdere», _to see is to believe_

_a._ In the construction above, the infinitive often has a subject, which must then be in the accusative case, as

«Galbam superāre inimīcōs est grātum multīs», _for Galba to conquer his enemies is pleasing to many_

_b._ An infinitive used as a noun is neuter singular. Thus, in the sentence «superāre est grātum», the predicate adjective «grātum» is in the neuter nominative singular to agree with «superāre» the subject.

«217.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1. Magister lūdī līberōs cum dīligentiā labōrāre iussit. 2. Egēre cibō et vinō est virīs molestum. 3. Virī armātī vetuērunt Gallōs castra ibi pōnere. 4. Estne lēgātus in castellō an in mūrō? Is est prō portā. 5. Ubi nostrī[1] fugere incēpērunt, lēgātus ab vestrīs[1] captus est. 6. Gallī castellum ibi oppugnāverant ubi praesidium erat īnfīrmum. 7. Aliī pugnāre temptābant, aliī portās petēbant. 8. Fēminae prō domiciliīs sedēbant neque resistere validīs Gallīs poterant. 9. Bellum est saevum, nec īnfīrmīs nec miserīs favet. 10. Sed virī arma postulābant et studēbant Gallōs dē mūrīs agere. 11. Id castellum ab Gallīs occupārī Rōmānīs nōn grātum erit. 12. Gallī ubi ā Rōmānīs victī sunt, esse līberī[2] cessāvērunt. 13. Diū sine aquā vīvere nōn potestis.

II. 1. The girl began daily to carry water from the river to the gates. 2. The Gauls had pitched their camp in a place suitable for a battle. 3. For a long time they tried in vain to seize the redoubt. 4. Neither did they cease to hurl weapons against[3] the walls. 5. But they were not able to (could not) take the town.

[Footnote 1: Supply _men_. «nostri», «vestrī», and «suī» are often used as nouns in this way.]

[Footnote 2: Not _children_. The Romans used «līberī» either as an adjective, meaning _free_, or as a noun, meaning _the free_, thereby signifying their _free-born children_. The word was never applied to children of slaves.]

[Footnote 3: «in» with the accusative.]

«218.» THE FAITHLESS TARPE´IA

Sabīnī ōlim cum Rōmānīs bellum gerēbant et multās victōriās reportāverant. Iam agrōs proximōs mūrīs vāstābant, iam oppidō adpropinquābant. Rōmānī autem in Capitōlium fūgerant et longē perīculō aberant. Mūrīs validīs et saxīs altīs crēdēbant. Frūstrā Sabīnī tēla iaciēbant, frūstrā portās dūrās petēbant; castellum occupāre nōn poterant. Deinde novum cōnsilium cēpērunt.[4]

Tarpēia erat puella Rōmāna pulchra et superba. Cotīdiē aquam cōpiīs Rōmānīs in Capitōlium portābat. Eī[5] nōn nocēbant Sabīnī, quod ea sine armīs erat neque Sabīnī bellum cum fēminīs līberīsque gerēbant. Tarpēia autem maximē amābat ōrnāmenta aurī. Cotīdiē Sabīnōrum ōrnāmenta vidēbat et mox ea dēsīderāre incipiēbat. Eī ūnus ex[6] Sabīnīs dīxit, “Dūc cōpiās Sabīnās intrā portās, Tarpēia, et maxima erunt praemia tua.”

[Footnote 4: «cōnsilium capere», _to make a plan_. Why is the _perfect_ tense used here and the imperfect in the preceding sentences? Explain the use of tenses in the next paragraph.]

[Footnote 5: Dative with «nocēbant». (Cf. §154.)]

[Footnote 6: «ex», _out of_, i.e. _from the nuumber of_; best translated _of_.]

LESSON XXXVIII

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN

«219.» Sentences are _simple, compound_, or _complex_.

_a._ A _simple sentence_ is a sentence containing but one statement, that is, one subject and one predicate: _The Romans approached the town._

_b._ A _compound sentence_ is a sentence containing two or more independent statements: _The Romans approached the town_ | and | _the enemy fled._

NOTE. An independent statement is one that can stand alone; it does not depend upon another statement.

_c._ A _complex sentence_ is a sentence containing one independent statement and one or more dependent statements: _When the Romans approached the town | the enemy fled._

NOTE. A dependent or subordinate statement is one that depends on or qualifies another statement; thus _the enemy fled_ is independent, and _when the Romans approached the town_ is dependent or subordinate.

_d._ The separate statements in a compound or complex sentence are called _clauses_. In a complex sentence the independent statement is called the _main clause_ and the dependent statement the _subordinate clause._

«220.» Examine the complex sentence

_The Romans killed the men who were taken_

Here are two clauses:

_a._ The main clause, _The Romans killed the men_

_b._ The subordinate clause, _who were taken_

The word _who_ is a pronoun, for it takes the place of the noun _men_. It also connects the subordinate clause _who were taken_ with the noun _men_. Hence the clause is an _adjective clause_. A pronoun that connects an _adjective clause_ with a substantive is called a _relative pronoun_, and the substantive for which the relative pronoun stands is called its _antecedent_. The relative pronouns in English are _who, whose, whom, which, what, that_.

«221.» The relative pronoun in Latin is «quī», «quae», «quod», and it is declined as follows:

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ «quī» «quae» «quod» «quī» «quae» «quae» _Gen._ «cuius» «cuius» «cuius» «quōrum» «quārum» «quōrum» _Dat._ «cui» «cui» «cui» «quibus» «quibus» «quibus» _Acc._ «quem» «quam» «quod» «quōs» «quās» «quae» _Abl._ «quō» «quā» «quō» «quibus» «quibus» «quibus»

1. Review the declension of «is», §114, and note the similarity in the endings. The forms «quī», «quae», and «quibus» are the only forms showing new endings.

NOTE. The genitive «cuius» and the dative «cui» are pronounced _co͝oi´yo͝os_ (two syllables) and _co͝oi_ (one syllable).

«222.» «The Relative Pronoun is translated as follows:»[1]

MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ _who, that_ _which, what, that_ _Gen._ _of whom, whose_ _of which, of what, whose_ _Dat._ _to_ or _for whom_ _to_ or _for which_, _to_ or _for what_ _Acc._ _whom, that_ _which, what, that_ _Abl._ _from_, etc., _whom_ _from_, etc., _which_ or _what_

[Footnote 1: This table of meanings need not be memorized. It is inserted for reference when translating.]

_a._ We see from the table above that «quī», when it refers to a person, is translated by some form of _who_ or by _that_; and that when it refers to anything else it is translated by _which, what_, or _that_.

«223.» Note the following sentences:

_The Romans killed the men who were taken_ _The Romans killed the woman who was taken_ «Rōmānī interfēcērunt virōs quī captī sunt» «Rōmānī interfēcērunt fēminam quae capta est»

In the first sentence _who_ («quī») refers to the antecedent _men_ («virōs»), and is _masculine plural_. In the second, _who_ («quae») refers to _woman_ («fēminam»), and _feminine singular_. From this we learn that the relative must agree with its antecedent in _gender_ and _number_. In neither of the sentences are the antecedents and relatives in the same case. «Virōs» and «fēminam» are accusatives, and «quī» and «quae» are nominatives, being the subjects of the subordinate clauses. Hence

«224.» RULE. «Agreement of the Relative.» _A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own clause._

«225.» «Interrogative Pronouns.» An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that asks a question. In English the interrogatives are _who?_ _which?_ _what?_ In Latin they are «quis?» «quid?» (pronoun) and «quī?» «quae?» «quod?» (adjective).

«226.» Examine the sentences

_a._ _Who is the man?_ «Quis est vir?» _b._ _What man is leading them?_ «Quī vir eōs dūcit?»

In _a_, _who_ is an interrogative _pronoun_. In _b_, _what_ is an interrogative _adjective_. Observe that in Latin «quis», «quid» is the _pronoun_ and «quī», «quae», «quod» is the _adjective_.

«227.» 1. The interrogative adjective «quī», «quae», «quod» is declined just like the relative pronoun. (See §221.)

2. The interrogative pronoun «quis», «quid» is declined like «quī», «quae», «quod» in the plural. In the singular it is declined as follows:

MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ «quis», _who?_ «quid», _what? which?_ _Gen._ «cuius», _whose?_ «cuius», _whose?_ _Dat._ «cui», _to_ or _for whom?_ «cui», _to_ or _for_ _what_ or _which?_ _Acc._ «quem», _whom?_ «quid», _what? which?_ _Abl._ «quō», _from_, etc., _whom?_ «quō», _from_, etc., _which_ or _what?_

NOTE. Observe that the masculine and feminine are alike and that all the forms are like the corresponding forms of the relative, excepting quis and quid.

«228.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Quis est aeger? Servus quem amō est aeger. 2. Cuius scūtum habēs? Scūtum habeō quod lēgātus ad castellum mīsit. 3. Cui lēgātus suum scūtum dabit? Fīliō meō scūtum dabit. 4. Ubi Germānī antīquī vīvēbant? In terrā quae est proxima Rhēnō Germānī vīvēbant. 5. Quibuscum[1] Germānī bellum gerēbant? Cum Rōmānīs, qui eōs superāre studēbant, Germānī bellum gerēbant. 6. Quī virī castra pōnunt? Iī sunt virī quōrum armīs Germānī victī sunt. 7. Quibus tēlīs cōpiae nostrae eguērunt? Gladiīs et telīs nostrae cōpiae eguērunt. 8. Ā quibus porta sinistra tenēbātur? Ā sociīs porta sinistra tenēbātur. 9. Quae prōvinciae ā Rōmānīs occupātae sunt? Multae prōvinciae ā Rōmānīs occupātae sunt. 10. Quibus virīs deī favēbunt? Bonīs virīs deī favēbunt.

[Footnote 1: «cum» is added to the ablative of relative, interrogative, and personal pronouns instead of being placed before them.]

II. 1. What victory will you announce? 2. I will announce to the people the victory which the sailors have won. 3. The men who were pitching camp were eager for battle. 4. Nevertheless they were soon conquered by the troops which Sextus had sent. 5. They could not resist our forces, but fled from that place without delay.

«229.» THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA (_Concluded_)[2]

Tarpēia, commōta ōrnamentīs Sabīnōrum pulchrīs, diū resistere nōn potuit et respondit: “Date mihi[3] ōrnāmenta quae in sinistrīs bracchīs geritis, et celeriter cōpiās vestrās in Capitōlium dūcam.” Nec Sabīnī recūsāvērunt, sed per dūrās magnāsque castellī portās properāvērunt quō[1] Tarpēia dūxit et mox intrā validōs et altōs mūrōs stābant. Tum sine morā in[2] Tarpēiam scūta graviter iēcērunt; nam scūta quoque in sinistrīs bracchiīs gerēbant. Ita perfida puella Tarpēia interfecta est; ita Sabīnī Capitōlium occupāvērunt.

[Footnote 2: Explain the use of the tenses in this selection.]

[Footnote 3: _to me._]

[Footnote 1: quō = _whither_, _to the place where_. Here «quo» is the relative adverb. We have had it used before as the interrogative adverb, _whither?_ _to what place?_]

[Footnote 2: _upon_.]

LESSON XXXIX

THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS

[Special Vocabulary]

«barbarus, -a, -um», _strange, foreign, barbarous_. As a noun, «barbarī, -ōrum», m., plur., _savages, barbarians_ «dux, ducis», m., _leader_ (duke). Cf. the verb «dūcō» «eques, equitis», m., _horseman, cavalryman_ (equestrian) iūdex, iūdicis, _m., judge_ «lapis, lapidis», m., _stone_ (lapidary) «mīles, mīlitis», m., _soldier_ (militia) «pedes, peditis», m., _foot soldier_ (pedestrian) «pēs, pedis»,[A] m., _foot_ (pedal) «prīnceps, prīncipis», m., _chief_ (principal) «rēx, rēgis», m., _king_ (regal) «summus, -a, -um», _highest, greatest_ (summit) «virtūs, virtūtis», f., _manliness, courage_ (virtue)

[Footnote A: Observe that «e» is _long_ in the nom. sing, and _short_ in the other cases.]

«230.» «Bases and Stems.» In learning the first and second declensions we saw that the different cases were formed by adding the case terminations to the part of the word that did not change, which we called the «base». If to the base we add «-ā» in the first declension, and «-o» in the second, we get what is called the «stem». Thus «porta» has the base «port-» and the stem «portā-»; «servus» has the base «serv-» and the stem «servo-».

These stem vowels, «-ā-» and «-o-», play so important a part in the formation of the case terminations that these declensions are named from them respectively the _Ā_- and _O_-Declensions.

«231.» «Nouns of the Third Declension.» The third declension is called the Consonant or _I_-Declension, and its nouns are classified according to the way the _stem_ ends. If the last letter of the stem is a consonant, the word is said to have a _consonant stem_; if the stem ends in «-i-», the word is said to have an «i-»_stem_. _In consonant stems the stem is the same as the base. In_ «i-»_stems the stem is formed by adding_ «-i-» _to the base._ The presence of the «i» makes a difference in certain of the cases, so the distinction is a very important one.

«232.» Consonant stems are divided into two classes:

I. Stems that add «-s» to the base to form the nominative singular. II. Stems that add no termination in the nominative singular.

CLASS I

«233.» Stems that add «-s» to the base in the nominative singular are either masculine or feminine and are declined as follows:

«prīnceps», «mīles», m., «lapis», m., _chief_ _soldier_ m., _stone_ BASES OR STEMS «prīncip-» «mīlit-» «lapid-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. _Nom._ prīnceps mīles lapis -s _Gen._ prīn´cipis mīlitis lapidis -is _Dat._ prīn´cipī mīlitī lapidī -ī _Acc._ prīn´cipem mīlitem lapidem -em _Abl._ prīn´cipe mīlite lapide -e

PLURAL _Nom._ prīn´cipēs mīlitēs lapidēs -ēs _Gen._ prīn´cipum mīlitum lapidum -um _Dat._ prīnci´pibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus _Acc._ prīn´cipēs mīlitēs lapidēs -ēs _Abl._ prīnci´pibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus

«rēx», «iūdex», «virtūs», f., m., _king_ m.,_judge_ _manliness_ BASES OR STEMS «rēg-» «iūdic-» «virtūt-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. _Nom._ rēx iūdex virtūs -s _Gen._ rēgis iūdicis virtū´tis -is _Dat._ rēgī iūdicī virtū´tī -ī _Acc._ rēgem iūdicem virtū´tem -em _Abl._ rēge iūdice virtū´te -e

PLURAL _Nom._ rēgēs iūdicēs virtū´tēs -ēs _Gen._ rēgum iūdicum virtū´tum -um _Dat._ rēgibus iūdicibus virtū´tibus -ibus _Acc._ rēgēs iūdicēs virtū´tēs -ēs _Abl._ rēgibus iūdicibus virtū´tibus -ibus

1. The base or stem is found by dropping «-is» in the genitive singular.

2. Most nouns of two syllables, like «prīnceps» («prīncip-»), «mīles» («mīlit-»), «iūdex» («iūdic-»), have «i» in the base, but «e» in the nominative.

_a._ «lapis» is an exception to this rule.

3. Observe the consonant changes of the base or stem in the nominative:

_a._ A final «-t» or «-d» is dropped before «-s»; thus «mīles» for «mīlets», «lapis» for «lapids», «virtūs» for «virtūts».

_b._ A final «-c» or «-g» unites with «-s» and forms «-x»; thus «iūdec» + «s» = «iūdex», «rēg» + «s» = «rēx».

4. Review §74 and apply the rules to this declension.

In like manner decline «dux, ducis», m., _leader_; «eques, equitis», m., _horseman_; «pedes, peditis», m., _foot soldier_; «pēs, pedis», m.,_foot_.

«234.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1. Neque peditēs neque equitēs occupāre castellum Rōmānum poterant. 2. Summā virtūte mūrōs altōs cotīdiē oppugnābant. 3. Pedes mīlitum lapidibus quī dē mūrō iaciēbantur saepe vulnerābantur. 4. Quod novum cōnsilium dux cēpit? 5. Is perfidam puellam pulchrīs ōrnāmentīs temptāvit. 6. Quid puella fēcit? 7. Puella commōta aurō mīlitēs per portās dūxit. 8. Tamen praemia quae summō studiō petīverat nōn reportāvit. 9. Apud Rōmānōs antīquōs Tarpēia nōn est laudāta.

II. 1. What ship is that which I see? That («illud») ship is the _Victory_. It is sailing now with a favorable wind and will soon approach Italy. 2. The judges commanded the savages to be seized and to be killed. 3. The chiefs of the savages suddenly began to flee, but were quickly captured by the horsemen. 4. The king led the foot soldiers to the wall from which the townsmen were hurling stones with the greatest zeal.

LESSON XL

THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS (_Continued_)

[Special Vocabulary]

«Caesar, -aris», m., _Cæsar_ «captīvus, -ī», m., _captive, prisoner_ «cōnsul, -is», m., _consul_ «frāter, frātris», m., _brother_ (fraternity) «homō, hominis», m., _man, human being_ «impedīmentum, -ī», n., _hindrance_ (impediment); plur. «impedīmenta, -ōrum», _baggage_ «imperātor, imperātōris», m., _commander in chief, general_ (emperor) «legiō, legiōnis», f., _legion_ «māter, mātris», f., _mother_ (maternal) «ōrdō, ōrdinis», m., _row, rank_ (order) «pater, patris», m., _father_ (paternal) «salūs, salūtis», f., _safety_ (salutary) «soror, sorōris», f., _sister_ (sorority)

CLASS II

«235.» Consonant stems that add no termination in the nominative are declined in the other cases exactly like those that add «-s.» They may be masculine, feminine, or neuter.

«236.» PARADIGMS

MASCULINES AND FEMININES

«cōnsul», «legiō», f., «ōrdō», «pater», m., m., _consul_ _legion_ m., _row_ _father_ BASES OR STEMS «cōnsul-» «legiōn-» «ōrdin-» «patr-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. _Nom._ cōnsul legiō ōrdō pater -- _Gen._ cōnsulis legiōnis ōrdinis patris -is _Dat._ cōnsulī legiōnī ōrdinī patrī -ī _Acc._ cōnsulem legiōnem ōrdinem patrem -em _Abl._ cōnsule legiōne ōrdine patre -e

PLURAL _Nom._ cōnsulēs legiōnēs ōrdinēs patrēs -ēs _Gen._ cōnsulum legiōnum ōrdinum patrum -um _Dat._ cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus _Acc._ cōnsulēs legiōnēs ōrdinēs patrēs -ēs _Abl._ cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus

1. With the exception of the nominative, the terminations are exactly the same as in Class I, and the base or stem is found in the same way.

2. Masculines and feminines with bases or stems in -in- and -ōn- drop -n- and end in -ō in the nominative, as legiō (base or stem legiōn-), ōrdō (base or stem ōrdin-).

3. Bases or stems in -tr- have -ter in the nominative, as pater (base or stem patr-).

4. Note how the genitive singular gives the clue to the whole declension. _Always learn this with the nominative._

«237.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1. Audīsne tubās, Mārce? Nōn sōlum tubās audiō sed etiam ōrdinēs militum et carrōs impedīmentōrum plēnōs vidēre possum. 2.Quās legiōnēs vidēmus? Eae legiōnēs nūper ex Galliā vēnērunt. 3. Quid ibi fēcērunt? Studēbantne pugnāre an sine virtūte erant? 4.Multa proelia fēcērunt[1] et magnās victōriās et multōs captīvōs reportāvērunt. 5.Quis est imperātor eārum legiōnum? Caesar, summus Rōmānōrum imperātor. 6.Quis est eques quī pulchram corōnam gerit? Is eques est frāter meus. Eī corōna ā cōnsule data est quia summā virtūte pugnāverat et ā barbarīs patriam servāverat.

II. 1. Who has seen my father to-day? 2. I saw him just now («nūper»). He was hastening to your dwelling with your mother and sister. 3. When men are far from the fatherland and lack food, they cannot be restrained[2] from wrong[3]. 4. The safety of the soldiers is dear to Cæsar, the general. 5. The chiefs were eager to storm a town full of grain which was held by the consul. 6. The king forbade the baggage of the captives to be destroyed.

[Footnote 1: «proelium facere» = _to fight a battle._]

[Footnote 2: «contineō.» Cf. §180.]

[Footnote 3: Abl. iniūriā.]

LESSON XLI

THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS (_Concluded_)

[Special Vocabulary]

«calamitās, calamitātis», f., _loss, disaster, defeat_ (calamity) «caput, capitis», n., _head_ (capital) «flūmen, flūminis», n., _river_ (flume) «labor, labōris», m., _labor, toil_ «opus, operis», n., _work, task_ «ōrātor, ōrātōris», m., _orator_ «rīpa, -ae», f., _bank_ (of a stream) «tempus, temporis», n., _time_ (temporal) «terror, terrōris», m., _terror, fear_ «victor, victōris», m., _victor_

«accipiō, accipere, accēpī, acceptus», _receive, accept_ «cōnfirmō, cōnfīrmāre, cōnfīrmāvī, cōnfīrmātus», _strengthen, establish, encourage_ (confirm)

«238.» Neuter consonant stems add no termination in the nominative and are declined as follows:

«flūmen», «tempus», «opus», «caput», n., _river_ n., _time_ n., _work_ n., _head_ BASES OR STEMS «flūmin-» «tempor-» «oper-» «capit-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ flūmen tempus opus caput -- _Gen._ flūminis temporis operis capitis -is _Dat._ flūminī temporī operī capitī -ī _Acc._ flūmen tempus opus caput -- _Abl._ flūmine tempore opere capite -e

PLURAL _Nom._ flūmina tempora opera capita -a _Gen._ flūminum temporum operum capitum -um _Dat._ flūminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus _Acc._ flūmina tempora opera capita -a _Abl._ flūminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus

1. Review §74 and apply the rules to this declension.

2. Bases or stems in -in- have -e- instead of -i- in the nominative, as flūmen, base or stem flūmin-.

3. Most bases or stems in -er- and -or- have -us in the nominative, as opus, base or stem oper-; tempus, base or stem tempor-.

«239.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292.

I. 1. Barbarī ubi Rōmam cēpērunt, maxima rēgum opera dēlēvērunt. 2. Rōmānī multās calamitātēs ā barbarīs accēpērunt. 3. Ubi erat summus terror apud oppidānōs, animī dubiī eōrum ab ōrātōre clarō cōnfīrmāti sunt. 4. Rōma est in rīpīs fiūminis magnī. 5. Ubi Caesar imperātor mīlitēs suōs arma capere iussit, iī ā proeliō continērī nōn potuērunt. 6. Ubi proelium factum est, imperātor reperīrī nōn potuit. 7. Imperātor sagittā in capite vulnerātus erat et stāre nōn poterat. 8. Eum magnō labōre pedes ex proeliō portāvit. 9. Is bracchiīs suīs imperātōrem tenuit et eum ex perīculīs summīs servāvit. 10. Virtūte suā bonus mīles ab imperātōre corōnam accēpit.

II. 1. The consul placed a crown on the head of the victor. 2. Before the gates he was received by the townsmen. 3. A famous orator praised him and said, “By your labors you have saved the fatherland from disaster.” 4. The words of the orator were pleasing to the victor. 5. To save the fatherland was a great task.

LESSON XLII

REVIEW LESSON

«240.» Review the paradigms in §§233, 236, 238; and decline all nouns of the third declension in this selection.

TERROR CIMBRICUS[1]

Ōlim Cimbrī et Teutonēs, populī Germāniae, cum fēminīs līberīsque Italiae adpropinquāverant et cōpiās Rōmānās maximō proeliō vīcerant. Ubi fuga legiōnum nūntiāta est, summus erat terror tōtīus Rōmae, et Rōmānī, graviter commōtī, sacra crēbra deīs faciēbant et salūtem petēbant.

Tum Mānlius ōrātor animōs populī ita cōnfīrmāvit:--“Magnam calamitātem accēpimus. Oppida nostra ā Cimbrīs Teutonibusque capiuntur, agricolae interficiuntur, agrī vāstantur, cōpiae barbarōrum Rōmae adpropinquant. Itaque, nisi novīs animīs proelium novum faciēmus et Germānōs ex patriā nostrā sine morā agēmus, erit nūlla salūs fēminīs nostrīs līberīsque. Servāte līberōs! Servāte patriam! Anteā superātī sumus quia imperātōrēs nostrī fuērunt īnfīrmī. Nunc Marius, clārus imperātor, quī iam multās aliās victōriās reportāvit, legiōnēs dūcet et animōs nostrōs terrōre Cimbricō līberāre mātūrābit.”

Marius tum in Āfricā bellum gerēbat. Sine morā ex Āfricā in Italiam vocātus est. Cōpiās novās nōn sōlum tōtī Italiae sed etiam prōvinciīs sociōrum imperāvit.[2] Disciplīnā autem dūrā labōribusque perpetuīs mīlitēs exercuit. Tum cum peditibus equitibusque, quī iam proeliō studēbant, ad Germānōrum castra celeriter properāvit. Diū et ācriter pugnātum est.[3] Dēnique barbarī fūgērunt et multī in fugā ab equitibus sunt interfectī. Marius pater patriae vocātus est.

[Footnote 1: About the year 100 B.C. the Romans were greatly alarmed by an invasion of barbarians from the north known as Cimbri and Teutons. They were traveling with wives and children, and had an army of 300,000 fighting men. Several Roman armies met defeat, and the city was in a panic. Then the Senate called upon Marius, their greatest general, to save the country. First he defeated the Teutons in Gaul. Next, returning to Italy, he met the Cimbri. A terrible battle ensued, in which the Cimbri were utterly destroyed; but the _terror Cimbricus_ continued to haunt the Romans for many a year thereafter.]

[Footnote 2: _He made a levy_ (of troops) _upon_, «imperāvit» with the acc. and the dat.]

[Footnote 3: Cf. §200. II. 2.]

LESSON XLIII

THE THIRD DECLENSION · _I_-STEMS

[Special Vocabulary]

«animal, animālis (-ium[A])», n., _animal_ «avis, avis (-ium)», f., _bird_ (aviation) «caedēs, caedis (-ium)», f., _slaughter_ calcar, calcāris (-ium), n., _spur_ «cīvis, cīvis (-ium)», m. and f., _citizen_ (civic) «cliēns, clientis (-ium)», m., _retainer, dependent_ (client) «fīnis, fīnis (-ium)», m., _end, limit_ (final); plur., _country, territory_ «hostis, hostis (-ium)», m. and f., _enemy_ in war (hostile). Distinguish from «inimīcus», which means a _personal_ enemy «ignis, ignis (-ium)», m., _fire_ (ignite) «īnsigne, īnsignis (-ium)», n. _decoration, badge_ (ensign) «mare, maris (-ium[B])», n., _sea_ (marine) «nāvis, nāvis (-ium)», f., _ship_ (naval); «nāvis longa», _man-of-war_ «turris, turris (-ium)», f., _tower_ (turret) «urbs, urbis (-ium)», f., _city_ (suburb). An «urbs» is larger than an «oppidum».

[Footnote A: The genitive plural ending «-ium» is written to mark the i-stems.]

[Footnote B: The genitive plural of «mare» is not in use.]

«241.» To decline a noun of the third declension correctly we must know whether or not it is an «i»-stem. Nouns with «i»-stems are

1. Masculines and feminines:

_a._ Nouns in «-ēs» and «-īs» with the same number of syllables in the genitive as in the nominative. Thus «caedēs, caedis», is an «i»-stem, but «mīles, mīlitis», is a consonant stem.

_b._ Nouns in «-ns» and «-rs».

_c._ Nouns of one syllable in «-s» or «-x» preceded by a consonant.

2. Neuters in «-e», «-al», and «-ar».

«242.» The declension of «i»-stems is nearly the same as that of consonant stems. Note the following differences:

_a._ Masculines and feminities have «-ium» in the genitive plural and «-īs» or «-ēs» in the accusative plural.

_b._ Neuters have «-ī» in the ablative singular, and an «-i-» in every form of the plural.

«243.» «Masculine and Feminine _I_-Stems.» Masculine and feminine «i»-stems are declined as follows:

«caedēs», f., «hostis», «urbs», f., «cliēns», m., _slaughter_ m., _enemy_ _city_ _retainer_ STEMS «caedi-» «hosti-» «urbi-» «clienti-» BASES «caed-» «host-» «urb-» «client-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. _Nom._ caedēs hostis urbs cliēns[1] -s, -is, _or_ -ēs _Gen._ caedis hostis urbis clientis -is _Dat._ caedī hostī urbī clientī -ī _Acc._ caedem hostem urbem clientem -em (-im) _Abl._ caede hoste urbe cliente -e (-ī)

PLURAL _Nom._ caedēs hostēs urbēs clientēs -ēs _Gen._ caedium hostium urbium clientium -ium _Dat._ caedibus hostibus urbibus clientibus -ibus _Acc._ caedīs, -ēs hostīs, -ēs urbīs, -ēs clientīs, -ēs -īs, -ēs _Abl._ caedibus hostibus urbibus clientibus -ibus

[Footnote 1: Observe that the vowel before «-ns» is long, but that it is shortened before «-nt». Cf. §12.2, 3.]

1. «avis», «cīvis», «fīnis», «ignis», «nāvis» have the ablative singular in «-ī» or «-e».

2. «turris» has accusative «turrim» and ablative «turrī» or «turre».

«244.» «Neuter _I_-Stems.» Neuter «i»-stems are declined as follows:

«īnsigne», n., «animal», n., «calcar», _decoration_ _animal_ n., _spur_ STEMS «īnsigni-» «animāli-» «calcāri-» BASES «īnsign-» «animāl-» «calcār-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ īnsigne animal calcar -e _or_ -- _Gen._ īnsignis animālis calcāris -is _Dat._ īnsignī animālī calcārī -ī _Acc._ īnsigne animal calcar -e _or_ -- _Abl._ īnsignī animālī calcārī -ī

PLURAL _Nom._ īnsignia animālia calcāria -ia _Gen._ īnsignium animālium calcārium -ium _Dat._ īnsignibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus _Acc._ īnsignia animālia calcāria -ia _Abl._ īnsignibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus

1. Review §74 and see how it applies to this declension.

2. The final «-i-» of the stem is usually dropped in the nominative. If not dropped, it is changed to «-e».

3. A long vowel is shortened before final «-l» or «-r». (Cf. §12.2.)

«245.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292.

I. 1. Quam urbem vidēmus? Urbs quam vidētis est Rōma. 2. Cīvēs Rōmānī urbem suam turribus altīs et mūrīs longīs mūnīverant. 3. Ventī nāvīs longās prohibēbant fīnibus hostium adpropinquāre. 4. Imperātor a clientibus suīs calcāria aurī et alia īnsignia accēpit. 5. Mīlitēs Rōmānī cum hostibus bella saeva gessērunt et eōs caede magnā superāvērunt. 6. Alia animālia terram, alia mare amant. 7. Nāvēs longae quae auxilium ad imperātōrem portābant ignī ab hostibus dēlētae sunt. 8. In eō marī avis multās vīdimus quae longē ā terrā volāverant. 9. Nōnne vīdistis nāvīs longās hostium et ignīs quibus urbs nostra vāstābātur? Certē, sed nec caedem cīvium nec fugam clientium vīdimus. 10. Avēs et alia animālia, ubi ignem vīdērunt, salūtem fugā petere celeriter incēpērunt. 11. Num. iūdex in peditum ōrdinibus stābat? Minimē, iūdex erat apud equitēs et equus eius īnsigne pulchrum gerēbat.

II. 1. Because of the lack of grain the animals of the village were not able to live. 2. When the general[2] heard the rumor, he quickly sent a horseman to the village. 3. The horseman had a beautiful horse and wore spurs of gold. 4. He said to the citizens, “Send your retainers with horses and wagons to our camp, and you will receive an abundance of grain.” 5. With happy hearts they hastened to obey his words.[3]

[Footnote 2: Place first.]

[Footnote 3: Not the accusative. Why?]

LESSON XLIV

IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION · GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION

[Special Vocabulary]

«arbor, arboris», f., _tree_ (arbor) «collis, collis (-ium)», m., _hill_ «dēns, dentis (-ium)», m., _tooth_ (dentist) fōns, fontis (-ium), m.. _fountain, spring; source_ «iter, itineris», n., _march, journey, route_ (itinerary) «mēnsis, mēnsis (-ium)», m., _month_ «moenia, -ium», n., plur., _walls, fortifications_. Cf. «mūrus» «mōns, montis (-ium)», m., _mountain_; «summus mōns», _top of the mountain_ «numquam», adv., _never_ «pōns, pontis», m., _bridge_ (pontoon) «sanguis, sanguinis», m., blood (sanguinary) «summus, -a, -um», _highest, greatest_ (summit) «trāns», prep, with acc., _across_ (transatlantic) «vīs (vīs)», gen. plur. «virium», f. _strength, force, violence_ (vim)

«246.» PARADIGMS

[Transcriber’s Note: The original text gives «vī-» and «vīr-» as the “Bases” of «vīs», and omits the “Stems” for both words. The forms have been regularized to agree with the inflectional table in the Appendix.]

«vīs», f., _force_ «iter», n., _march_ STEMS «vī-» and «vīri-» «iter-» and «itiner-» BASES «v-» and «vīr-» «iter-» and «itiner-»

SINGULAR _Nom._ vīs iter _Gen._ vīs (rare) itineris _Dat._ vī (rare) itinerī _Acc._ vim iter _Abl._ vī itinere

PLURAL _Nom._ vīrēs itinera _Gen._ vīrium itinerum _Dat._ vīribus itineribus _Acc._ vīrīs, or -ēs itinera _Abl._ vīribus itineribus

«247.» There are no rules for gender in the third declension that do not present numerous exceptions.[1] The following rules, however, are of great service, and should be thoroughly mastered:

1. «Masculine» are nouns in «-or», «-ōs», «-er», «-ĕs» (gen. «-itis»).

_a._ «arbor», _tree_, is feminine; and «iter», _march_, is neuter.

2. «Feminine» are nouns in «-ō», «-is», «-x», and in «-s» preceded by a consonant or by any long vowel but «ō».

_a._ Masculine are «collis» (_hill_), «lapis», «mēnsis» (_month_), «ōrdō», «pēs», and nouns in «-nis» and «-guis»--as «ignis», «sanguis» (_blood_)--and the four monosyllables

«dēns», _a tooth_; «mōns», _a mountain_ «pōns», _a bridge_; «fōns», _a fountain_

3. «Neuters» are nouns in «-e», «-al», «-ar», «-n», «-ur», «-ŭs», and «caput».

[Footnote 1: Review §60. Words denoting males are, of course, masculine, and those denoting females, feminine.]

«248.» Give the gender of the following nouns and the rule by which it is determined:

«animal» «calamitās» «flūmen» «lapis» «nāvis» «avis» «caput» «ignis» «legiō» «opus» «caedēs» «eques» «īnsigne» «mare» «salūs» «calcar» «fīnis» «labor» «mīles» «urbs»

«249.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292.

I. _The First Bridge over the Rhine._ Salūs sociōrum erat semper cāra Rōmānīs. Ōlim Gallī, amīcī Rōmānōrum, multās iniūriās ab Germānīs quī trāns flūmen Rhēnum vivēbant accēperant. Ubi lēgātī ab iīs ad Caesarem imperātōrem Rōmānum vēnērunt et auxilium postulāvērunt, Rōmānī magnīs itineribus ad hostium fīnīs properāvērunt. Mox ad rīpās magnī flūminis vēnērunt. Imperātor studēbat cōpiās suās trāns fluvium dūcere, sed nūllā viā[2] poterat. Nūllās nāvīs habēbat. Alta erat aqua. Imperātor autem, vir clārus, numquam adversā fortūnā commōtus, novum cōnsilium cēpit. Iussit suōs[3] in[4] lātō flūmine facere pontem. Numquam anteā pōns in Rhēnō vīsus erat. Hostēs ubi pontem quem Rōmānī fēcerant vīdērunt, summō terrōre commōtī, sine morā fugam parāre incēpērunt.

II. 1. The enemy had taken (possession of) the top of the mountain. 2. There were many trees on the opposite hills. 3. We pitched our camp near («ad») a beautiful spring. 4. A march through the enemies’ country is never without danger. 5. The time of the month was suitable for the march. 6. The teeth of the monster were long. 7. When the foot soldiers[5] saw the blood of the captives, they began to assail the fortifications with the greatest violence.[2]

[Footnote 2: Abl. of manner.]

[Footnote 3: «suōs», used as a noun, _his men_.]

[Footnote 4: We say _build a bridge over_; the Romans, _make a bridge on_.]

[Footnote 5: Place first.]

* * * * *

«Fifth Review, Lessons XXXVII-XLIV, §§517-520»

* * * * *

LESSON XLV

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION · _I_-STEMS

[Special Vocabulary]

«ācer, ācris, ācre», _sharp, keen, eager_ (acrid) «brevis, breve», _short, brief_ «difficilis, difficile», _difficult_ «facilis, facile», _facile, easy_ «fortis, forte», _brave_ (fortitude) «gravis, grave», _heavy, severe, serious_ (grave) «omnis, omne», _every, all_ (omnibus) «pār», gen. «paris», _equal_ (par) «paucī, -ae, -a», _few, only a few_ (paucity) «secundus, -a, -um», _second; favorable_, opposite of adversus «signum, -ī», n., _signal, sign, standard_ «vēlōx», gen. «vēlōcis», _swift_ (velocity)

«conlocō, conlocāre, conlocāvī, conlocātus», _arrange, station, place_ (collocation) «dēmōnstrō, dēmōnstrāre, dēmōnstrāvī, dēmōnstrātus», _point out, explain_ (demonstrate) «mandō, mandāre, mandāvī, mandātus», _commit, intrust_ (mandate)

«250.» Adjectives are either of the first and second declensions (like «bonus», «aeger», or «līber»), or they are of the third declension.

«251.» Nearly all adjectives of the third declension have «i»-_stems_, and they are declined almost like nouns with «i»-stems.

«252.» Adjectives learned thus far have had a different form in the nominative for each gender, as, «bonus», m.; «bona», f.; «bonum», n. Such an adjective is called an _adjective of three endings_. Adjectives of the third declension are of the following classes:

I. Adjectives of three endings-- a different form in the nominative for each gender.

II. Adjectives of two endings-- masculine and feminine nominative alike, the neuter different.

III. Adjectives of one ending-- masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative all alike.

«253.» Adjectives of the third declension in «-er» have three endings; those in «-is» have two endings; the others have one ending.

CLASS I

«254.» Adjectives of Three Endings are declined as follows:

«ācer, ācris, ācre», _keen, eager_ STEM «ācri-» BASE «ācr-»

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ ācer ācris ācre ācrēs ācrēs ācria _Gen._ ācris ācris ācris ācrium ācrium ācrium _Dat._ ācrī ācrī ācrī ācribus ācribus ācribus _Acc._ ācrem ācrem ācre ācrīs, -ēs ācrīs, -ēs ācria _Abl._ ācrī ācrī ācrī ācribus ācribus ācribus

CLASS II

«255.» Adjectives of Two Endings are declined as follows:

«omnis, omne», _every, all_[1] STEM «omni-» BASE «omn-»

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ omnis omne omnēs omnia _Gen._ omnis omnis omnium omnium _Dat._ omnī omnī omnibus omnibus _Acc._ omnem omne omnīs, -ēs omnia _Abl._ omnī omnī omnibus omnibus

[Footnote 1: «omnis» is usually translated _every_ in the singular and _all_ in the plural.]

CLASS III

«256.» Adjectives of One Ending are declined as follows:

«pār», _equal_ STEM «pari-» BASE «par-»

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ pār pār parēs paria _Gen._ paris paris parium parium _Dat._ parī parī paribus paribus _Acc._ parem pār parīs, -ēs paria _Abl._ parī parī paribus paribus

1. All «i»-stem adjectives have «-ī» in the ablative singular.

2. Observe that the several cases of adjectives of one ending have the same form for all genders excepting in the accusative singular and in the nominative and accusative plural.

3. Decline «vir ācer», «legiō ācris», «animal ācre», «ager omnis», «scūtum omne», «proelium pār».

«257.» There are a few adjectives of one ending that have consonant stems. They are declined exactly like nouns with consonant stems.

«258.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293.

I. _The Romans invade the Enemy’s Country._ Ōlim peditēs Rōmānī cum equitibus vēlōcibus in hostium urbem iter faciēbant. Ubi nōn longē āfuērunt, rapuērunt agricolam, quī eīs viam brevem et facilem dēmōnstrāvit. Iam Rōmānī moenia alta, turrīs validās aliaque opera urbis vidēre poterant. In moenibus stābant multī prīncipēs. Prīncipēs ubi vīdērunt Rōmānōs, iussērunt cīvīs lapidēs aliaque tēla dē mūrīs iacere. Tum mīlitēs fortēs continērī ā proeliō nōn poterant et ācer imperātor signum tubā darī iussit. Summā vī omnēs mātūrāvērunt. Imperātor Sextō lēgātō impedīmenta omnia mandāvit. Sextus impedīmenta in summō colle conlocāvit. Grave et ācre erat proelium, sed hostēs nōn parēs Rōmānīs erant. Aliī interfectī, aliī captī sunt. Apud captīvōs erant māter sororque rēgis. Paucī Rōmānōrum ab hostibus vulnerātī sunt. Secundum proelium Rōmānīs erat grātum. Fortūna fortibus semper favet.

II. 1. Some months are short, others are long. 2. To seize the top of the mountain was difficult. 3. Among the hills of Italy are many beautiful springs. 4. The soldiers were sitting where the baggage had been placed because their feet were weary. 5. The city which the soldiers were eager to storm had been fortified by strong walls and high towers. 6. Did not the king intrust a heavy crown of gold and all his money to a faithless slave? Yes, but the slave had never before been faithless.

LESSON XLVI

THE FOURTH OR _U_-DECLENSION

[Special Vocabulary]

«adventus, -ūs», m., _approach, arrival_ (advent) «ante», prep, with acc., _before_ (ante-date) «cornū, -ūs», n., _horn, wing_ of an army (cornucopia); «ā dextrō cornū», _on the right wing_; «ā sinistrō cornū», _on the left wing_ «equitātus, -ūs», m., _cavalry_ «exercitus, -ūs», m., _army_ «impetus, -ūs», m., _attack_ (impetus); «impetum facere in», with acc., _to make an attack on_ «lacus, -ūs, dat. and abl. plur. lacubus», m., _lake_ «manus, -ūs», f., _hand; band, force_ (manual) «portus, -ūs», m., _harbor_ (port) «post», prep, with acc., _behind, after_ (post-mortem)

«cremō, cremāre, cremāvī, cremātus», _burn_ (cremate) «exerceō, exercēre, exercuī, exercitus», _practice, drill, train_ (exercise)

«259.» Nouns of the fourth declension are either masculine or neuter.

«260.» Masculine nouns end in «-us», neuters in «-ū». The genitive ends in «-ūs».

_a._ Feminine by exception are «domus», _house_; «manus», _hand_; and a few others.

PARADIGMS

[Transcriber’s Note: The “Stems” are missing in the printed book. They have been supplied from the inflectional table in the Appendix.]

«adventus», «cornū», m., _arrival_ n., _horn_ STEMS «adventu-» «cornu-» BASES «advent-» «corn-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS MASC. NEUT. _Nom._ adventus cornū -us -ū _Gen._ adventūs cornūs -ūs -ūs _Dat._ adventuī (ū) cornū -uī (ū) -ū _Acc._ adventum cornū -um -ū _Abl._ adventū cornū -ū -ū

PLURAL _Nom._ adventūs cornua -ūs -ua _Gen._ adventuum cornuum -uum -uum _Dat._ adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus _Acc._ adventūs cornua -ūs -ua _Abl._ adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus

1. Observe that the base is found, as in other declensions, by dropping the ending of the genitive singular.

2. «lacus», _lake_, has the ending «-ubus» in the dative and ablative plural; «portus», _harbor_, has either «-ubus» or «-ibus».

3. «cornū» is the only neuter that is in common use.

«261.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293.

I. 1. Ante adventum Caesaris vēlōcēs hostium equitēs ācrem impetum in castra fēcērunt. 2. Continēre exercitum ā proeliō nōn facile erat. 3. Post adventum suum Caesar iussit legiōnēs ex castrīs dūcī. 4. Prō castrīs cum hostium equitātū pugnātum est. 5. Post tempus breve equitātus trāns flūmen fūgit ubi castra hostium posita erant. 6. Tum victor imperātor agrōs vāstāvit et vīcōs hostium cremāvit. 7. Castra autem nōn oppugnāvit quia mīlitēs erant dēfessī et locus difficilis. 8. Hostēs nōn cessāvērunt iacere tēla, quae paucīs nocuērunt. 9. Post adversum proelium principēs Gallōrum lēgātōs ad Caesarem mittere studēbant, sed populō persuādēre nōn poterant.

II. 1. Did you see the man-of-war on the lake? 2. I did not see it (_fem_.) on the lake, but I saw it in the harbor. 3. Because of the strong wind the sailor forbade his brother to sail. 4. Cæsar didn´t make an attack on the cavalry on the right wing, did he? 5. No, he made an attack on the left wing. 6. Who taught your swift horse to obey? 7. I trained my horse with my (own) hands, nor was the task difficult. 8. He is a beautiful animal and has great strength.

LESSON XLVII

EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE · THE DECLENSION OF _DOMUS_

[Special Vocabulary]

Athēnae, -ārum, f., plur., _Athens_ Corinthus, -ī, f., _Corinth_ «domus, -ūs», locative «domī», f., _house, home_ (dome). Cf. «domicilium» «Genāva, -ae», f., _Geneva_ Pompēii, -ōrum, m., plur., _Pompeii_, a city in Campania. See map «propter», prep. with acc., _on account of, because of_ rūs, rūris, in the plur. only nom. and acc. «rūra», n., _country_ (rustic) «tergum, tergī», n., _back_; «ā tergō», _behind, in the rear_ «vulnus, vulneris», n., _wound_ (vulnerable)

«committō, committere, commīsī, commissus», _intrust, commit;_ «proelium committere», _join battle_ «convocō, convocāre, convocāvī, convocātus», _call together, summon_ (convoke) «timeō, timēre, timuī, ----», _fear; be afraid_ (timid) «vertō, vertere, vertī, versus», _turn, change_ (convert); «terga vertere», _to turn the backs_, hence _to retreat_

«262.» We have become thoroughly familiar with expressions like the following:

«Galba ad» (or «in») «oppidum properat» «Galba ab» («dē» or «ex») «oppidō properat» «Galba in oppidō habitat»

From these expressions we may deduce the following rules:

«263.» RULE. «Accusative of the Place to.» _The «place to which» is expressed by «ad» or «in» with the accusative. This answers the question Whither?_

«264.» RULE. «Ablative of the Place from.» _The «place from which» is expressed by «ā» or «ab», «dē», «ē» or «ex», with the separative ablative. This answers the question Whence?_ (Cf. Rule, §179.)

«265.» RULE. «Ablative of the Place at or in.» _The «place at or in which» is expressed by the ablative with «in». This answers the question Where?_

_a._ The ablative denoting the _place where_ is called the _locative ablative_ (cf. «locus», _place_).

«266.» «Exceptions.» Names of towns, small islands,[1] «domus», _home_, «rūs», _country_, and a few other words in common use omit the prepositions in expressions of place, as,

«Galba Athēnās properat», _Galba hastens to Athens_ «Galba Athēnīs properat», _Galba hastens from Athens_ «Galba Athēnīs habitat», _Galba lives at_ (or _in_) _Athens_ «Galba domum properat», _Galba hastens home_ «Galba rūs properat», _Galba hastens to the country_ «Galba domō properat», _Galba hastens from home_ «Galba rūre properat», _Galba hastens from the country_ «Galba rūrī» (less commonly «rūre») «habitat», _Galba lives in the country_

_a._ Names of _countries_, like «Germānia», «Italia», etc., do not come under these exceptions. _With them prepositions must not be omitted._

[Footnote 1: Small islands are classed with towns because they generally have but one town, and the name of the town is the same as the name of the island.]

«267.» «The Locative Case.» We saw above that the place-relation expressed by _at_ or _in_ is regularly covered by the locative ablative. However, Latin originally expressed this relation by a separate form known as the _locative case_. This case has been everywhere merged in the ablative excepting in the singular number of the first and second declensions. The form of the locative in these declensions is like the genitive singular, and its use is limited to names of towns and small islands, «domī», _at home_, and a few other words.

«268.» RULE. «Locative and Locative Ablative.» _To express the «place in which» with names of towns and small islands, «if they are singular and of the first or second declension», use the locative; otherwise use the locative ablative without a preposition; as_,

«Galba Rōmae habitat», _Galba lives at Rome_ «Galba Corinthī habitat», _Galba lives at Corinth_ «Galba domī habitat», _Galba lives at home_

Here «Rōmae», «Corinthī», and «domī» are _locatives_, being _singular_ and of the first and second declensions respectively. But in

«Galba Athēnīs habitat», _Galba lives at Athens_, «Galba Pompēiīs habitat», _Galba lives at Pompeii_

«Athēnīs» and «Pompēiīs» are locative ablatives. These words can have no locative case, as the nominatives «Athēnae» and «Pompēiī» are _plural_ and there is no plural locative case form.

«269.» The word «domus», _home, house_, has forms of both the second and the fourth declension. Learn its declension (§468).

«270.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293.

I. 1. Corinthī omnia īnsignia aurī ā ducibus victōribus rapta erant. 2. Caesar Genāvam exercitum magnīs itineribus dūxit. 3. Quem pontem hostēs cremāverant? Pontem in Rhēnō hostēs cremāverant. 4. Pompēiīs multās Rōmānōrum domōs vidēre poteritis. 5. Rōmā cōnsul equō vēlōcī rūs properāvit. 6. Domī cōnsulis hominēs multī sedēbant. 7. Imperātor iusserat lēgātum Athēnās cum multīs nāvibus longīs nāvigāre. 8. Ante moenia urbis sunt ōrdinēs arborum altārum. 9. Propter arborēs altās nec lacum nec portum reperīre potuimus. 10. Proeliīs crēbrīs Caesar legiōnēs suās quae erant in Galliā exercēbat. 11. Cotīdiē in locō idoneō castra pōnēbat et mūniēbat.

II. 1. Cæsar, the famous general, when he had departed from Rome, hastened to the Roman province on a swift horse.[2] 2. He had heard a rumor concerning the allies at Geneva. 3. After his arrival Cæsar called the soldiers together and commanded them to join battle. 4. The enemy hastened to retreat, some because[3] they were afraid, others because[3] of wounds. 5. Recently I was at Athens and saw the place where the judges used to sit.[4] 6. Marcus and Sextus are my brothers; the one lives at Rome, the other in the country.

[Footnote 2: Latin says “by a swift horse.” What construction?]

[Footnote 3: Distinguish between the English conjunction _because_ («quia» or «quod») and the preposition _because of_ («propter»).]

[Footnote 4: _used to sit_, express by the imperfect.]

«271.» DAED´ALUS AND IC´ARUS

Crēta est īnsula antīqua quae aquā altā magnī maris pulsātur. Ibi ōlim Mīnōs erat rēx. Ad eum vēnit Daedalus quī ex Graeciā patriā fugiēbat. Eum Mīnōs rēx benignīs verbīs accēpit et eī domicilium in Crētā dedit. [5]Quō in locō Daedalus sine cūrā vīvebat et rēgī multa et clāra opera faciēbat. Post tempus longum autem Daedalus patriam cāram dēsīderāre incēpit. Domum properāre studēbat, sed rēgī persuādēre nōn potuit et mare saevum fugam vetābat.

[Footnote 5: _And in this place_; «quō» does not here introduce a subordinate relative clause, but establishes the connection with the preceding sentence. Such a relative is called a _connecting relative_, and is translated by _and_ and a demonstrative or personal pronoun.]

LESSON XLVIII

THE FIFTH OR Ē-DECLENSION · THE ABLATIVE OF TIME

[Special Vocabulary]

«aciēs, -ēī», f., _line of battle_ «aestās, aestātis», f., _summer_ «annus, -ī», m., _year_ (annual) «diēs, diēī», m., _day_ (diary) «fidēs, fideī», no plur., f., _faith, trust; promise, word; protection_; «in fidem venīre», _to come under the protection_ «fluctus, -ūs», m. _wave, billow_ (fluctuate) «hiems, hiemis», f., _winter_ «hōra, -ae», f., _hour_ «lūx, lūcis», f., _light_ (lucid); «prīma lux», _daybreak_ «merīdiēs», acc. -em, abl. -ē, no plur., m., _midday_ (meridian) «nox, noctis (-ium)», f., _night_ (nocturnal) «prīmus, -a, -um», _first_ (prime) «rēs, reī», f., _thing, matter_ (real); «rēs gestae», _deeds, exploits_ (lit. _things performed_); «rēs adversae», _adversity_; «rēs secundae», _prosperity_ «spēs, speī», f., _hope_

«272.» «Gender.» Nouns of the fifth declension are feminine except «diēs», _day_, and «merīdiēs», _midday_, which are usually masculine.

«273.» PARADIGMS

[Transcriber’s Note: The “Stems” are missing in the printed book. They have been supplied from the inflectional table in the Appendix.]

«diēs», «rēs», f., m., _day_ _thing_ STEMS «diē-» «rē-» BASES «di-» «r-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ diēs rēs -ēs _Gen._ diēī reī -ē̆ī _Dat._ diēī reī -ē̆ī _Acc._ diem rem -em _Abl._ diē rē -ē

PLURAL _Nom._ diēs rēs -ēs _Gen._ diērum rērum -ērum _Dat._ diēbus rēbus -ēbus _Acc._ diēs rēs -ēs _Abl._ diēbus rēbus -ēbus

1. The vowel «e» which appears in every form is regularly long. It is shortened in the ending «-eī» after a consonant, as in «r-ĕī»; and before «-m» in the accusative singular, as in «di-em». (Cf. §12.2.)

2. Only «diēs» and «rēs» are complete in the plural. Most other nouns of this declension lack the plural. «Aciēs», _line of battle_, and «spēs», _hope_, have the nominative and accusative plural.

«274.» The ablative relation (§50) which is expressed by the prepositions _at, in_, or _on_ may refer not only to place, but also to time, as _at noon, in summer, on the first day_. The ablative which is used to express this relation is called the _ablative of time_.

«275.» RULE. «The Ablative of Time.» _The time «when» or «within which» anything happens is expressed by the ablative without a preposition._

_a._ Occasionally the preposition «_in_» is found. Compare the English _Next day we started_ and _«On» the next day we started_.

«276.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294.

I. _Galba the Farmer._ Galba agricola rūrī vīvit. Cotīdiē prīmā lūce labōrāre incipit, nec ante noctem in studiō suō cessat. Merīdiē Iūlia fīlia eum ad cēnam vocat. Nocte pedēs dēfessōs domum vertit. Aestāte fīliī agricolae auxilium patrī dant. Hieme agricola eōs in lūdum mittit. Ibi magister pueris multās fābulās dē rēbus gestīs Caesaris nārrat. Aestāte fīliī agricolae perpetuīs labōribus exercentur nec grave agrī opus est iīs molestum. Galba sine ūllā cūrā vivit nec rēs adversās timet.

II. 1. In that month there were many battles in Gaul. 2. The cavalry of the enemy made an attack upon Cæsar’s line of battle. 3. In the first hour of the night the ship was overcome by the billows. 4. On the second day the savages were eager to come under Cæsar’s protection. 5. The king had joined battle, moved by the hope of victory. 6. That year a fire destroyed many birds and other animals. 7. We saw blood on the wild beast’s teeth.

«277.» DAED´ALUS AND IC´ARUS (_Continued_)

Tum Daedalus gravibus cūrīs commōtus fīliō suō Īcarō ita dixit: “Animus meus, Īcare, est plēnus trīstitiae nec oculī lacrimīs egent. Discēdere ex Crētā, Athēnās properāre, maximē studeō; sed rēx recūsat audīre verba mea et omnem reditūs spem ēripit. Sed numquam rēbus adversīs vincar. Terra et mare sunt inimīca, sed aliam fugae viam reperiam.” Tum in artīs ignōtās animum dīmittit et mīrum capit cōnsilium. Nam pennās in ōrdine pōnit et vērās ālās facit.

LESSON XLIX

PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED · PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

[Special Vocabulary]

«amīcitia, -ae», f., _friendship_ (amicable) «itaque», conj., _and so, therefore, accordingly_ «littera, -ae», f., _a letter_ of the alphabet; plur., _a letter, an epistle_ «metus, metūs», m., _fear_ «nihil, indeclinable», n., _nothing_ (nihilist) «nūntius, nūntī», m., _messenger_. Cf. «nūntiō» «pāx, pācis», f., _peace_ (pacify) «rēgnum, -ī», n., _reign, sovereignty, kingdom_ «supplicum, suppli´cī», n., _punishment_; «supplicum sūmere dē», with abl., _inflict punishment on_; «supplicum dare», _suffer punishment_. Cf. «poena»

«placeō, placēre, placuī, placitus», _be pleasing to, please_, with dative. Cf. §154 «sūmō, sūmere, sūmpsī, sūmptus», _take up, assume_ «sustineō, sustinēre, sustinuī, sustentus», _sustain_

«278.» We have the same kinds of pronouns in Latin as in English. They are divided into the following eight classes:

1. «Personal pronouns», which show the person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of; as, «ego», _I_; «tū», _you_; «is», _he_. (Cf. §279. etc.)

2. «Possessive pronouns», which denote possession; as, «meus», «tuus», «suus», etc. (Cf. §98.)

3. «Reflexive pronouns», used in the predicate to refer back to the subject; as, _he saw himself_. (Cf. §281.)

4. «Intensive pronouns», used to emphasize a noun or pronoun; as, _I myself saw it_. (Cf. §285.)

5. «Demonstrative pronouns», which point out persons or things; as, «is», _this, that_. (Cf. §112.)

6. «Relative pronouns», which connect a subordinate adjective clause with an antecedent; as, «quī», _who_. (Cf. §220.)

7. «Interrogative pronouns», which ask a question; as, «quis», _who?_ (Cf. §225.)

8. «Indefinite pronouns», which point out indefinitely; as, _some one, any one, some, certain ones_, etc. (Cf. §296.)

«279.» The demonstrative pronoun «is», «ea», «id», as we learned in §115, is regularly used as the personal pronoun of the third person (_he_, _she_, _it_, _they_, etc.).

«280.» The personal pronouns of the first person are «ego», _I_; «nōs», _we_; of the second person, «tū», _thou_ or _you_; «vōs», _ye_ or _you_. They are declined as follows:

SINGULAR FIRST PERSON SECOND PERSON _Nom._ ego, _I_ tū, _you_ _Gen._ meī, _of me_ tuī, _of you_ _Dat._ mihi, _to_ or _for me_ tibi, _to_ or _for you_ _Acc._ mē, _me_ tē, _you_ _Abl._ mē, _with, from_, etc., _me_ tē, _with, from_, etc., _you_

PLURAL _Nom._ nōs, _we_ vōs, _you_ _Gen._ nostrum or nostrī, _of us_ vestrum or vestrī, _of you_ _Dat._ nōbīs, _to_ or _for us_ vōbīs, _to_ or _for you_ _Acc._ nōs, _us_ vōs, _you_ _Abl._ nōbīs, _with, from_, vōbīs, _with, from_, etc., _you_ etc., _us_

1. The personal pronouns are not used in the nominative excepting for emphasis or contrast.

«281.» «The Reflexive Pronouns.» 1. The personal pronouns «ego» and «tū» may be used in the predicate as reflexives; as,

«videō mē», _I see myself_ «vidēmus nōs», _we see ourselves_ «vidēs tē», _you see yourself_ «vidētis vōs», _you see yourselves_

2. The reflexive pronoun of the third person (_himself, herself, itself, themselves_) has a special form, used only in these senses, and declined alike in the singular and plural.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL _Gen._ suī _Acc._ sē _Dat._ sibi _Abl._ sē

EXAMPLES «Puer sē videt», _the boy sees himself_ «Puella sē videt», _the girl sees herself_ «Animal sē videt», _the animal sees itself_ «Iī sē vident», _they see themselves_

_a._ The form «sē» is sometimes doubled, «sēsē», for emphasis.

3. Give the Latin for

_I teach myself_ _We teach ourselves_ _You teach yourself_ _You teach yourselves_ _He teaches himself_ _They teach themselves_

«282.» The preposition «cum», when used with the ablative of «ego», «tū», or «suī», is appended to the form, as, «mēcum», _with me_; «tēcum», _with you_; «nōbīscum», _with us_; etc.

«283.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294.

I. 1. Mea māter est cāra mihi et tua māter est cāra tibi. 2. Vestrae litterae erant grātae nōbis et nostrae litterae erant grātae vōbīs. 3. Nūntius rēgis quī nōbīscum est nihil respondēbit. 4. Nūntiī pācem amīcitiamque sibi et suīs sociīs postulāvērunt. 5. Sī tū arma sūmēs, ego rēgnum occupābō. 6. Uter vestrum est cīvis Rōmānus? Neuter nostrum. 7. Eō tempore multī supplicium dedērunt quia rēgnum petierant. 8. Sūme supplicium, Caesar, dē hostibus patriae ācribus. 9. Prīmā lūce aliī metū commōtī sēsē fugae mandāvērunt; aliī autem magnā virtūte impetum exercitūs nostrī sustinuērunt. 10. Soror rēgis, ubi dē adversō proeliō audīvit, sēsē Pompēiīs interfēcit.

II. 1. Whom do you teach? I teach myself. 2. The soldier wounded himself with his sword. 3. The master praises us, but you he does not praise. 4. Therefore he will inflict punishment on you, but we shall not suffer punishment. 5. Who will march (i.e. make a march) with me to Rome? 6. I will march with you to the gates of the city. 7. Who will show us[1] the way? The gods will show you[1] the way.

[Footnote 1: Not accusative.]

DAED´ALUS AND IC´ARUS (_Concluded_)

«284.» Puer Īcarus ūnā[2] stābat et mīrum patris opus vidēbat. Postquam manus ultima[3] ālīs imposita est, Daedalus eās temptāvit et similis avī in aurās volāvit. Tum ālās umerīs fīlī adligāvit et docuit eum volāre et dīxit, “Tē vetō, mī fīlī, adpropinquāre aut sōlī aut marī. Sī fluctibus adpropinquāveris,[4] aqua ālīs tuīs nocēbit, et sī sōlī adpropinquāveris,[4] ignis eās cremābit.” Tum pater et filius iter difficile incipiunt. Ālās movent et aurae sēsē committunt. Sed stultus puer verbīs patris nōn pāret. Sōlī adpropinquat. Ālae cremantur et Īcarus in mare dēcidit et vitam āmittit. Daedalus autem sine ūllō perīculō trāns fluctūs ad īnsulam Siciliam volāvit.

[Footnote 2: Adverb, see vocabulary.]

[Footnote 3: «manus ultima», _the finishing touch_. What literally?]

[Footnote 4: Future perfect. Translate by the present.]

LESSON L

THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN _IPSE_ AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE _ĪDEM_

[Special Vocabulary]

«corpus, corporis», n., _body_ (corporal) «dēnsus, -a, -um», _dense_ «īdem, e´adem, idem», demonstrative pronoun, _the same_ (identity) «ipse, ipsa, ipsum», intensive pronoun, _self; even, very_ «mīrus, -a, -um», _wonderful, marvelous_ (miracle) «ōlim», adv., _formerly, once upon a time_ «pars, partis (-ium)», f., _part, region, direction_ «quoque», adv., _also_. Stands _after_ the word which it emphasizes «sōl, sōlis», m., _sun_ (solar) «vērus, -a, -um», _true, real_ (verity)

«dēbeō, dēbēre, dēbuī, dēbitus», _owe, ought_ (debt) «ēripiō, ēripere, ēripuī, ēreptus», _snatch from_

«285.» «Ipse» means _-self_ (_him-self, her-self_, etc.) or is translated by _even_ or _very_. It is used to emphasize a noun or pronoun, expressed or understood, with which it agrees like an adjective.

_a._ «Ipse» must be carefully distinguished from the reflexive «suī». The latter is always used as a pronoun, while «ipse» is regularly adjective. Compare

«Homō sē videt», _the man sees himself_ (reflexive) «Homō ipse perīculum videt», _the man himself_ (intensive) _sees the danger_ «Homō ipsum perīculum videt», _the man sees the danger itself_ (intensive)

«286.» Except for the one form «ipse», the intensive pronoun is declined exactly like the nine irregular adjectives (cf. §§108, 109). Learn the declension (§481).

«287.» The demonstrative «īdem», meaning _the same_, is a compound of «is». It is declined as follows:

SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ īdem e´adem idem _Gen._ eius´dem eius´dem eius´dem _Dat._ eī´dem eī´dem eī´dem _Acc._ eun´dem ean´dem idem _Abl._ eō´dem eā´dem eō´dem

PLURAL _Nom._ iī´dem eae´dem e´adem eī´dem _Gen._ eōrun´dem eārun´dem eōrun´dem _Dat._ iīs´dem iīs´dem iīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem _Acc._ eōs´dem eās´dem e´adem _Abl._ iīs´dem iīs´dem iīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem

_a._ From forms like «eundem» (eum + -dem), «eōrundem» (eōrum + -dem), we learn the rule that «m» before «d» is changed to «n».

_b._ The forms «iīdem», «iīsdem» are often spelled and pronounced with one «ī».

«288.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295.

I. 1. Ego et tū[1] in eādem urbe vīvimus. 2. Iter ipsum nōn timēmus sed ferās saevās quae in silvā dēnsā esse dīcuntur. 3. Ōlim nōs ipsī idem iter fēcimus. 4. Eō tempore multās ferās vīdimus. 5. Sed nōbīs nōn nocuērunt. 6. Caesar ipse scūtum dē manibus mīlitis ēripuit et in ipsam aciem properāvit. 7. Itaque mīlitēs summā virtūte tēla in hostium corpora iēcērunt. 8. Rōmānī quoque gravia vulnera accēpērunt. 9. Dēnique hostēs terga vertērunt et ommīs in partīs[2] fūgērunt. 10. Eādem hōrā litterae Rōmam ab imperātōre ipsō missae sunt. 11. Eōdem mēnse captīvī quoque in Italiam missī sunt. 12. Sed multī propter vulnera iter difficile trāns montīs facere recūsābant et Genāvae esse dīcēbantur.

II. 1. At Pompeii there is a wonderful mountain. 2. When I was in that place, I myself saw that mountain. 3. On the same day many cities were destroyed by fire and stones from that very mountain. 4. You have not heard the true story of that calamity, have you?[3] 5. On that day the very sun could not give light to men. 6. You yourself ought to tell (to) us that story.

[Footnote 1: Observe that in Latin we say _I and you_, not _you and I_.]

[Footnote 2: Not _parts_, but _directions_.]

[Footnote 3: Cf. §210.]

«289.» HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE[4]

Tarquinius Superbus, septimus et ultimus rēx Rōmānōrum, ubi in exsilium ab īrātīs Rōmānīs ēiectus est, ā Porsenā, rēge Etrūscōrum, auxilium petiit. Mox Porsena magnīs cum cōpiīs Rōmam vēnit, et ipsa urbs summō in perīculō erat. Omnibus in partibus exercitus Rōmānus victus erat. Iam rēx montem Iāniculum[5] occupāverat. Numquam anteā Rōmānī tantō metū tenēbantur. Ex agrīs in urbem properābant et summō studiō urbem ipsam mūniēbant.

[Footnote 4: The story of Horatius has been made familiar by Macaulay’s well-known poem “Horatius” in his _Lays of Ancient Rome_. Read the poem in connection with this selection.]

[Footnote 5: The Janiculum is a high hill across the Tiber from Rome.]

LESSON LI

THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS _HIC_, _ISTE_, _ILLE_

[Special Vocabulary]

«hic, haec, hoc», demonstrative pronoun, _this_ (of mine); _he, she, it_ «ille, illa, illud», demonstrative pronoun _that_ (yonder); _he, she, it_ «invīsus, -a, -um», _hateful, detested_, with dative Cf. §143 «iste, ista, istud», demonstrative pronoun, _that_ (of yours); _he, she, it_ «lībertās, -ātis», f., _liberty_ «modus, -ī», m., _measure; manner, way, mode_ «nōmen, nōminis», n., _name_ (nominate) «oculus, -ī», m., _eye_ (oculist) «prīstinus, -a, -um», _former, old-time_ (pristine) «pūblicus, -a, -um», _public, belonging to the state;_ «rēs pūblica, reī pūblicae», f., _the commonwealth, the state, the republic_ «vestīgium, vestī´gī», n., _footprint, track; trace, vestige_ «vōx, vōcis», f., _voice_

«290.» We have already learned the declension of the demonstrative pronoun «is» and its use. (Cf. Lesson XVII.) That pronoun refers to persons or things either far or near, and makes no definite reference to place or time. If we wish to point out an object definitely in place or time, we must use «hic», «iste», or «ille.» These demonstratives, like «is», are used both as pronouns and as adjectives, and their relation to the speaker may be represented graphically thus:

«hic» «iste» «ille» SPEAKER ------------->-------------->---------------> _this_, _he_; _that_, _he_; _that_, _he_ (near); (remote); (more remote)

_a._ In dialogue «hic» refers to a person or thing near the speaker; «iste», to a person or thing near the person addressed; «ille», to a person or thing remote from both. These distinctions are illustrated in the model sentences, §293, which should be carefully studied and imitated.

«291.» «Hic» is declined as follows:

SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ hic haec hoc _Gen._ huius huius huius _Dat._ huic huic huic _Acc._ hunc hanc hoc _Abl._ hōc hāc hōc

PLURAL _Nom._ hī hae haec _Gen._ hōrum hārum hōrum _Dat._ hīs hīs hīs _Acc._ hōs hās haec _Abl._ hīs hīs hīs

_a._ «Huius» is pronounced _ho͝o´yo͝os_, and «huic» is pronounced _ho͝oic_ (one syllable).

«292.» The demonstrative pronouns «iste», «ista», «istud», and «ille», «illa», «illud», except for the nominative and accusative singular neuter forms «istud» and «illud», are declined exactly like «ipse», «ipsa», «ipsum.» (See §481.)

«293.» «MODEL SENTENCES»

_Is this horse_ (of mine) _strong?_ «Estne hic equus validus?»

_That horse_ (of yours) _is strong, but that one_ (yonder) _is weak_ «Iste equus est validus, sed ille est īnfīrmus»

_Are these_ (men by me) _your friends?_ «Suntne hī amīcī tuī?»

_Those_ (men by you) _are my friends, but those_ (men yonder) _are enemies_ «Istī sunt amīcī meī, sed illī sunt inimīcī»

«294.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295.

I. _A German Chieftain addresses his Followers._ Ille fortis Germānōrum dux suōs convocāvit et hōc modō animōs eōrum cōnfirmāvit. “Vōs, quī in hīs fīnibus vīvitis, in hunc locum convocāvī[1] quia mēcum dēbētis istōs agrōs et istās domōs ab iniūriīs Rōmānōrum liberāre. Hoc nōbīs nōn difficile erit, quod illī hostēs hās silvās dēnsās, ferās saevās quārum vestīgia vident, montēs altōs timent. Sī fortēs erimus, deī ipsī nōbīs viam salūtis dēmonstrābunt. Ille sōl, istī oculī calamītātēs nostrās vīdērunt.[1] Itaque nōmen illīus reī pūblicae Rōmānae nōn sōlum nōbis, sed etiam omnibus hominibus quī lībertātem amant, est invīsum. Ad arma vōs vocō. Exercēte istam prīstinam virtūtem et vincētis.”

[Footnote 1: The perfect definite. (Cf. §190.)]

II. 1. Does that bird (of yours)[2] sing? 2. This bird (of mine)[2] sings both[3] in summer and in winter and has a beautiful voice. 3. Those birds (yonder)[2] in the country don´t sing in winter. 4. Snatch a spear from the hands of that soldier (near you)[2] and come home with me. 5. With those very eyes (of yours)[2] you will see the tracks of the hateful enemy who burned my dwelling and made an attack on my brother. 6. For («propter») these deeds («rēs») we ought to inflict punishment on him without delay. 7. The enemies of the republic do not always suffer punishment.

[Footnote 2: English words in parentheses are not to be translated. They are inserted to show what demonstratives should be used. (Cf. §290.)]

[Footnote 3: _both ... and_, «et ... et».]

«295.» HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Continued_)

Altera urbis pars mūrīs, altera flūmine satis mūnīrī vidēbātur. Sed erat pōns in flūmine quī hostibus iter paene dedit. Tum Horātius Cocles, fortis vir, magnā vōce dīxit, “Rescindite pontem, Rōmānī! Brevī tempore Porsena in urbem cōpiās suās trādūcet.” Iam hostēs in ponte erant, sed Horātius cum duōbus (cf. §479) comitibus ad extrēmam pontis partem properāvit, et hi sōli aciem hostium sustinuērunt. Tum vērō cīvēs Rōmānī pontem ā tergō rescindere incipiunt, et hostēs frūstrā Horātium superāre temptant.

LESSON LII

THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

[Special Vocabulary]

«incolumis, -e», _unharmed_ «nē ... quidem», adv., _not even_. The emphatic word stands between «nē» and «quidem» «nisi», conj., _unless, if ... not_ «paene», adv., _almost_ (pen-insula) «satis», adv., _enough, sufficiently_ (satisfaction) «tantus, -a, -um», _so great_ «vērō», adv., _truly, indeed, in fact_. As a conj. _but, however_, usually stands second, never first.

«dēcidō, dēcidere, dēcidī, ----», _fall down_ (deciduous) «dēsiliō, dēsilīre, dēsiluī, dēsultus», _leap down, dismount_ «maneō, manēre, mānsī, mānsūrus», _remain_ «trādūcō, trādūcere, trādūxī, trāductus», _lead across_

«296.» The indefinite pronouns are used to refer to _some person_ or _some thing_, without indicating which particular one is meant. The pronouns «quis» and «quī», which we have learned in their interrogative and relative uses, may also be indefinite; and nearly all the other indefinite pronouns are compounds of «quis» or «quī» and declined almost like them. Review the declension of these words, §§221, 227.

«297.» Learn the declension and meaning of the following indefinites:

MASC. FEM. NEUT. «quis» «quid», _some one, any one_ (substantive) «quī» «qua» or «quae» «quod», _some, any_ (adjective), §483 «aliquis» «aliquid», _some one, any one_ (substantive), §487 «aliquī» «aliqua» «aliquod», _some, any_ (adjective), §487 «quīdam» «quaedam» «quoddam», «quiddam», _a certain, a certain one_, §485 «quisquam» «quicquam» or «quidquam» (no plural), _any one_ (at all) (substantive), §486 «quisque» «quidque», _each one, every one_ (substantive), §484 «quisque» «quaeque» «quodque», _each, every_ (adjective), §484

[Transcriber’s Note: In the original text, the combined forms (masculine/feminine) were printed in the “masculine” column.]

NOTE. The meanings of the neuters, _something_, etc., are easily inferred from the masculine and feminine.

_a._ In the masculine and neuter singular of the indefinites, «quis-»forms and «quid-»forms are mostly used as substantives, «quī-»forms and «quod-»forms as adjectives.

_b._ The indefinites «quis» and «quī» never stand first in a clause, and are rare excepting after «sī», «nisi», «nē», «num» (as, «sī quis», _if any one_; «sī quid», _if anything_; «nisi quis», _unless some one_). Generally «aliquis» and «aliquī» are used instead.

_c._ The forms «qua» and «aliqua» are both feminine nominative singular and neuter nominative plural of the indefinite adjectives «quī» and «aliquī» respectively. How do these differ from the corresponding forms of the relative «quī?»

_d._ Observe that «quīdam» (quī + -dam) is declined like «quī», except that in the accusative singular and genitive plural «m» of «quī» becomes «n» (cf. §287.a): «quendam», «quandam», «quōrundam», «quārundam;» also that the neuter has «quiddam» (substantive) and «quoddam» (adjective) in the nominative and accusative singular. «Quīdam» is the least indefinite of the indefinite pronouns, and implies that you could name the person or thing referred to if you cared to do so.

_e._ «Quisquam» and «quisque» (substantive) are declined like «quis.»

_f._ «Quisquam», _any one_ («quicquam» or «quidquam», _anything_), is always used substantively and chiefly in negative sentences. The corresponding adjective _any_ is «ūllus, -a, -um» (§108).

«298.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295.

I. 1. Aliquis dē ponte in flūmen dēcidit sed sine ūllō perīculō servātus est. 2. Est vērō in vītā cuiusque hominis aliqua bona fortūna. 3. Nē mīlitum quidem[1] quisquam in castrīs mānsit. 4. Sī quem meae domī vidēs, iubē eum discēdere. 5. Sī quis pontem tenet, nē tantus quidem exercitus capere urbem potest. 6. Urbs nōn satis mūnīta erat et merīdiē rēx quīdam paene cōpiās suās trāns pontem trādūxerat. 7. Dēnique mīles quīdam armātus in fluctūs dēsiluit et incolumis ad alteram rīpam oculōs vertit. 8. Quisque illī fortī mīlitī aliquid dare dēbet. 9. Tanta vērō virtūs Rōmānīs semper placuit. 10. Ōlim Corinthus erat urbs satis magna et paene par Rōmae ipsī; nunc vērō moenia dēcidērunt et pauca vestīgia urbis illīus reperīrī possunt. 11. Quisque lībertātem amat, et aliquibus vērō nōmen rēgis est invīsum.

II. 1. If you see a certain Cornelius at Corinth, send him to me. 2. Almost all the soldiers who fell down into the waves were unharmed. 3. Not even at Pompeii did I see so great a fire. 4. I myself was eager to tell something to some one. 5. Each one was praising his own work. 6. Did you see some one in the country? I did not see any one. 7. Unless some one will remain on the bridge with Horatius, the commonwealth will be in the greatest danger.

[Footnote 1: Observe that «quīdam» and «quidem» are different words.]

«299.» HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Concluded_)

Mox, ubi parva pars pontis mānsit, Horātius iussit comitēs discēdere et sōlus mīrā cōnstantiā impetum illius tōtius exercitūs sustinēbat. Dēnique magnō fragōre pōns in flūmen dēcīdit. Tum vērō Horātius tergum vertit et armātus in aquās dēsiluit. In eum hostēs multa tēla iēcērunt; incolumis autem per fluctūs ad alteram rīpam trānāvit. Eī propter tantās rēs gestās populus Rōmānus nōn sōlum alia magna praemia dedit sed etiam statuam Horāti in locō pūblicō posuit.

* * * * *

«Sixth Review, Lessons XLV-LII, §§521-523»

* * * * *

LESSON LIII

REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

[Special Vocabulary]

«aquila, -ae», f., _eagle_ (aquiline) «audāx», gen. «audācis», adj., _bold, audacious_ «celer, celeris, celere», _swift, quick_ (celerity). Cf. «vēlōx» «explōratōr, -ōris», m., _scout, spy_ (explorer) «ingēns», gen. «ingentis», adj., _huge, vast_ «medius, -a, -um», _middle, middle part of_ (medium) «mēns, mentis (-ium)», f., _mind_ (mental). Cf. «animus» «opportūnus, -a, -um», _opportune_ «quam», adv., _than_. With the superlative «quam» gives the force of _as possible_, as «quam» audācissimī virī, _men as bold as possible_ «recens», gen. «recentis», adj., _recent_ «tam», adv., _so_. Always with an adjective or adverb, while «ita» is generally used with a verb

«quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī, quaesītus», _ask, inquire, seek_ (question). Cf. «petō»

«300.» The quality denoted by an adjective may exist in either a higher or a lower degree, and this is expressed by a form of inflection called comparison. The mere presence of the quality is expressed by the positive degree, its presence in a higher or lower degree by the comparative, and in the highest or lowest of all by the superlative. In English the usual way of comparing an adjective is by using the suffix _-er_ for the comparative and _-est_ for the superlative; as, positive _high_, comparative _higher_, superlative _highest_. Less frequently we use the adverbs _more_ and _most_; as, positive _beautiful_, comparative _more beautiful_, superlative _most beautiful._

In Latin, as in English, adjectives are compared by adding suffixes or by using adverbs.

«301.» Adjectives are compared by using suffixes as follows:

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE clārus, -a, -um clārior, clārīus clārissimus, -a, -um (_bright_) (_brighter_) (_brightest_) (BASE clār-) brevis, breve brevior, brevius brevissimus, -a, -um (_short_) (_shorter_) (_shortest_) (BASE brev-) vēlōx vēlōcior, vēlōcius vēlōcissimus, -a, -um (_swift_) (_swifter_) (_swiftest_) (BASE veloc-)

_a._ The comparative is formed from the base of the positive by adding «-ior» masc. and fem., and «-ius» neut.; the superlative by adding «-issimus, -issima, -issimum».

«302.» Less frequently adjectives are compared by using the adverbs «magis», _more_; «maximē», _most_; as, «idōneus», _suitable_; «magis idōneus», _more suitable_; «maximē idōneus», _most suitable._

«303.» «Declension of the Comparative.» Adjectives of the comparative degree are declined as follows:

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ clārior clārīus clāriōrēs clāriōra _Gen._ clāriōris clāriōris clāriōrum clāriōrum _Dat._ clāriōrī clāriōrī clāriōribus clāriōribus _Acc._ clāriōrem clārius clāriōrēs clāriōra _Abl._ clāriōre clāriōre clāriōribus clāriōribus

_a._ Observe that the endings are those of the consonant stems of the third declension.

_b._ Compare «longus», _long_; «fortis», _brave_; «recēns» (base, «recent-»), _recent_; and decline the comparative of each.

«304.» Adjectives in «-er» form the comparative regularly, but the superlative is formed by adding «-rimus», «-a», «-um» to the nominative masculine of the positive; as,

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE ācer, ācris, ācre ācrior, ācrius ācerrimus, -a, -um (BASE acr-) pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum pulchrior, pulchrius pulcherrimus, (BASE pulchr-) -a, -um līber, lībera, līberum līberior, līberius līberrimus, -a, -um (BASE līber-)

_a._ In a similar manner compare «miser», «aeger», «crēber».

«305.» The comparative is often translated by _quite, too_, or _somewhat_, and the superlative by _very_; as, «altior», _quite_ (_too, somewhat_) _high_; «altissimus», _very high._

«306.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296.

I. 1. Quid explōrātōrēs quaerēbant? Explōrātōrēs tempus opportūnissimum itinerī quaerēbant. 2. Mediā in silvā ignīs quam crēberrimōs fēcimus, quod ferās tam audācis numquam anteā vīderāmus. 3. Antīquīs temporibus Germānī erant fortiōrēs quam Gallī. 4. Caesar erat clārior quam inimīcī[1] quī eum necāvērunt. 5. Quisque scūtum ingēns et pīlum longius gerēbat. 6. Apud barbarōs Germānī erant audācissimī et fortissimī. 7. Mēns hominum est celerior quam corpus. 8. Virī aliquārum terrārum sunt miserrimī. 9. Corpora Germānōrum erant ingentiōra quam Rōmānōrum. 10. Ācerrimī Gallōrum prīncipēs sine ūllā morā trāns flūmen quoddam equōs vēlōcissimōs trādūxērunt. 11. Aestāte diēs sunt longiōrēs quam hieme. 12. Imperātor quīdam ab explōrātōribus dē recentī adventū nāvium longārum quaesīvit.

II. 1. Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest. 2. Certain animals are swifter than the swiftest horse. 3. The Roman name was most hateful to the enemies of the commonwealth. 4. The Romans always inflicted the severest[2] punishment on faithless allies. 5. I was quite ill, and so I hastened from the city to the country. 6. Marcus had some friends dearer than Cæsar.[3] 7. Did you not seek a more recent report concerning the battle? 8. Not even after a victory so opportune did he seek the general’s friendship.

[Footnote 1: Why is this word used instead of «hostēs»?]

[Footnote 2: Use the superlative of «gravis».]

[Footnote 3: Accusative. In a comparison the noun after «quam» is in the same case as the one before it.]

N.B. Beginning at this point, the selections for reading will be found near the end of the volume. (See p. 197.)

LESSON LIV

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES THE ABLATIVE WITH COMPARATIVES WITHOUT _QUAM_

[Special Vocabulary]

«alacer, alacris, alacre», _eager, spirited, excited_ (alacrity) «celeritās, -ātis», f., _speed_ (celerity) «clāmor, clāmōris», m., _shout, clamor_ «lēnis, lēne», _mild, gentle_ (lenient) «mulier, muli´eris», f., _woman_ «multitūdō, multitūdinis», f., _multitude_ «nēmŏ», dat. «nēminī», acc. «nēminem» (gen. «nūllīus», abl. «nūllō», from «nūllus»), no plur., m. and f., _no one_ «nōbilis, nōbile», _well known, noble_ «noctū», adv. (an old abl.), _by night_ (nocturnal) «statim», adv., _immediately, at once_ «subitō», adv., _suddenly_ «tardus, -a, -um», _slow_ (tardy) «cupiō, cupere, cupīvī, cupītus», _desire, wish_ (cupidity)

«307.» The following six adjectives in «-lis» form the comparative regularly; but the superlative is formed by adding «-limus» to the base of the positive. Learn the meanings and comparison.

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE facilis, -e, _easy_ facilior, -ius facillimus, -a, -um difficilis, -e, _hard_ difficilior, -ius difficillimus, -a, -um similis, -e, _like_ similior, -ius simillimus, -a, -um dissimilis, -e, _unlike_ dissimilior, -ius dissimillimus, -a, -um gracilis, -e, _slender_ gracilior, -ius gracillimus, -a, -um humilis, -e, _low_ humilior, -ius humillimus, -a, -um

«308.» From the knowledge gained in the preceding lesson we should translate the sentence _Nothing is brighter than the sun_

«Nihil est clārius quam sōl»

But the Romans, especially in negative sentences, often expressed the comparison in this way,

«Nihil est clārius sōle»

which, literally translated, is _Nothing is brighter away from the sun_; that is, _starting from the sun as a standard, nothing is brighter_. This relation is expressed by the separative ablative «sōle». Hence the rule

«309.» RULE. «Ablative with Comparatives.» _The comparative degree, if «quam» is omitted, is followed by the separative ablative._

«310.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296.

I. 1. Nēmō mīlitēs alacriōrēs Rōmānīs vīdit. 2. Statim imperātor iussit nūntiōs quam celerrimōs litterās Rōmam portāre. 3. Multa flūmina sunt lēniōra Rhēnō. 4. Apud Rōmanōs quis erat clārior Caesare? 5. Nihil pulchrius urbe Rōmā vīdī. 6. Subitō multitūdo audacissima magnō clamōre proelium ācrius commīsit. 7. Num est equus tuus tardus? Nōn vērō tardus, sed celerior aquilā. 8. Ubi Romae fuī, nēmō erat mihi amicior Sextō. 9. Quaedam mulierēs cibum mīlitibus dare cupīvērunt. 10. Rēx vetuit cīvis ex urbe noctū discēdere. 11. Ille puer est gracilior hāc muliere. 12. Explōrātor duās (_two_) viās, alteram facilem, alteram difficiliōrem, dēmōnstrāvit.

II. 1. What city have you seen more beautiful than Rome? 2. The Gauls were not more eager than the Germans. 3. The eagle is not slower than the horse. 4. The spirited woman did not fear to make the journey by night. 5. The mind of the multitude was quite gentle and friendly. 6. But the king’s mind was very different. 7. The king was not like (similar to) his noble father. 8. These hills are lower than the huge mountains of our territory.

LESSON LV

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Continued_)

[Special Vocabulary]

«aedificium, aedifi´cī», n., _building, dwelling_ (edifice) «imperium, impe´rī», n., _command, chief power; empire_ «mors, mortis (-ium)», f., _death_ (mortal) «reliquus, -a, -um», _remaining, rest of_. As a noun, m. and n. plur., _the rest_ (relic) «scelus, sceleris», n., _crime_ «servitūs, -ūtis», f., _slavery_ (servitude) «vallēs, vallis (-ium)», f., _valley_

«abdō, abdere, abdidī, abditus», _hide_ «contendō, contendere, contendī, contentus», _strain, struggle; hasten_ (contend) «occīdō, occīdere, occīdī, occīsus», _cut down, kill_. Cf. «necō», «interficiō» «perterreō, perterrēre, perterruī, perterritus», _terrify, frighten_ «recipiō, recipere, recēpī, receptus», _receive, recover_; «sē recipere», _betake one’s self, withdraw, retreat_ «trādō, trādere, trādidī, trāditus», _give over, surrender, deliver_ (traitor)

«311.» Some adjectives in English have irregular comparison, as _good, better, best_; _many, more, most._ So Latin comparison presents some irregularities. Among the adjectives that are compared irregularly are

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE «bonus, -a, -um», _good_ «melior, melius» «optimus, -a, -um» «magnus, -a, -um», _great_ «maior, maius» «maximus, -a, -um» «malus, -a, -um», _bad_ «peior, peius» «pessimus, -a, -um» «multus, -a, -um», _much_ «----, plūs» «plūrimus, -a, -um» «multī, -ae, -a», _many_ «plūrēs, plūra» «plūrimī, -ae, -a» «parvus, -a, -um», _small_ «minor, minus» «minimus, -a, -um»

«312.» The following four adjectives have two superlatives. Unusual forms are placed in parentheses.

«exterus, -a, -um», («exterior, -ius», { «extrēmus, -a, -um» } _outward_ _outer_) {(«extimus, -a, -um») } _outermost, last_ «īnferus, -a, -um», «īnferior, -ius», { «īnfimus, -a, -um» } _low_ _lower_ { «īmus, -a, -um» } _lowest_ «posterus, -a, -um», («posterior, -ius», { «postrēmus, -a, -um» } _next_ _later_) {(«postumus, -a, -um») } _last_ «superus, -a, -um», «superior, -ius» { «suprēmus, -a, -um» } _above_ _higher_ { «summus, -a, -um» } _highest_

«313.» «Plūs», _more_ (plural _more, many, several_), is declined as follows:

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ ---- plūs plūrēs plūra _Gen._ ---- plūris plūrium plūrium _Dat._ ---- ---- plūribus plūribus _Acc._ ---- plūs plūrīs, -ēs plūra _Abl._ ---- plūre plūribus plūribus

_a._ In the singular «plūs» is used only as a neuter substantive.

«314.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296.

I. 1. Reliquī hostēs, quī ā dextrō cornū proelium commīserant, dē superiōre locō fūgērunt et sēsē in silvam maximam recēpērunt. 2. In extrēmā parte silvae castra hostium posita erant. 3. Plūrimī captīvī ab equitibus ad Caesarem ductī sunt. 4. Caesar vērō iussit eōs in servitūtem trādī. 5. Posterō diē magna multitūdō mulierum ab Rōmānīs in valle īmā reperta est. 6. Hae mulierēs maximē perterritae adventū Caesaris sēsē occīdere studēbant. 7. Eae quoque plūrīs fābulās dē exercitūs Rōmānī sceleribus audīverant. 8. Fāma illōrum mīlitum optima nōn erat. 9. In barbarōrum aedificiīs maior cōpia frūmentī reperta est. 10. Nēmō crēbrīs proeliīs contendere sine aliquō perīculō potest.

II. 1. The remaining women fled from their dwellings and hid themselves. 2. They were terrified and did not wish to be captured and given over into slavery. 3. Nothing can be worse than slavery. 4. Slavery is worse than death. 5. In the Roman empire a great many were killed because they refused to be slaves. 6. To surrender the fatherland is the worst crime.

LESSON LVI

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Concluded_) ABLATIVE OF THE MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE

[Special Vocabulary]

«aditus, -ūs», m., _approach, access; entrance_ «cīvitās, cīvitātis», f., _citizenship; body of citizens, state_ (city) «inter», prep, with acc., _between, among_ (interstate commerce) «nam», conj., _for_ «obses, obsidis», m. and f., _hostage_ «paulō», adv. (abl. n. of «paulus»), _by a little, somewhat_

«incolō, incolere, incoluī, ----», transitive, _inhabit_; intransitive, _dwell_. Cf. «habitō», «vīvō» «relinquō, relinquere, relīquī, relictus», _leave, abandon_ (relinquish) «statuō, statuere, statuī, statūtus», _fix, decide_ (statute), usually with infin.

«315.» The following adjectives are irregular in the formation of the superlative and have no positive. Forms rarely used are in parentheses.

COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE «citerior», _hither_ («citimus», _hithermost_) «interior», _inner_ («intimus», _inmost_) «prior», _former_ «prīmus», _first_ «propior», _nearer_ «proximus», _next, nearest_ «ulterior», _further_ «ultimus», _furthest_

«316.» In the sentence _Galba is a head taller than Sextus_, the phrase _a head taller_ expresses the «measure of difference» in height between Galba and Sextus. The Latin form of expression would be _Galba is taller than Sextus «by a head»_. This is clearly an ablative relation, and the construction is called the «ablative of the measure of difference».

EXAMPLES

«Galba est altior capite quam Sextus» _Galba is a head taller_ (taller by a head) _than Sextus_. «Illud iter ad Italiam est multō brevius» _That route to Italy is much shorter_ (shorter by much)

«317.» RULE. «Ablative of the Measure of Difference.» _With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the measure of difference._

_a._ Especially common in this construction are the neuter ablatives

«eō», _by this, by that_ «nihilō»,[1] _by nothing_ «hōc», _by this_ «paulō», _by a little_ «multō», _by much_

[Footnote 1: «nihil» was originally «nihilum» and declined like «pīlum». There is no plural.]

«318.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297.

I. 1. Barbarī proelium committere statuērunt eō magis quod Rōmānī īnfīrmī esse vidēbantur. 2. Meum cōnsilium est multō melius quam tuum quia multō facilius est. 3. Haec via est multō lātior quam illa. 4. Barbarī erant nihilō tardiōrēs quam Rōmānī. 5. Tuus equus est paulō celerior quam meus. 6. Iī quī paulō fortiōrēs erant prohibuērunt reliquōs aditum relinquere. 7. Inter illās cīvitātēs Germānia mīlitēs habet optimōs. 8. Propior via quae per hanc vallem dūcit est inter portum et lacum. 9. Servī, quī agrōs citeriōrēs incolēbant, priōrēs dominōs relinquere nōn cupīvērunt, quod eōs amābant. 10. Ultimae Germāniae partēs numquam in fidem Rōmānōrum vēnērunt. 11. Nam trāns Rhēnum aditus erat multō difficilior exercituī Rōmānō.

II. 1. Another way much more difficult (more difficult by much) was left through hither Gaul. 2. In ancient times no state was stronger than the Roman empire. 3. The states of further Gaul did not wish to give hostages to Cæsar. 4. Slavery is no better (better by nothing) than death. 5. The best citizens are not loved by the worst. 6. The active enemy immediately withdrew into the nearest forest, for they were terrified by Cæsar’s recent victories.

LESSON LVII

FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

[Special Vocabulary]

«aequus, -a, -um», _even, level; equal_ «cohors, cohortis (-ium)», f., _cohort_, a tenth part of a legion, about 360 men «currō, currere, cucurrī, cursus», _run_ (course) «difficultās, -ātis», f., _difficulty_ «fossa, -ae», f., _ditch_ (fosse) «gēns, gentis (-ium)», f., _race, tribe, nation_ (Gentile) «negōtium, negōtī», n., _business, affair, matter_ (negotiate) «regiō, -ōnis», f., _region, district_ «rūmor, rūmōris», m., _rumor, report_. Cf. fāma «simul atque», conj., _as soon as_

«suscipiō, suscipere, suscēpī, susceptus», _undertake_ «trahō, trahere, trāxī, trāctus», _drag, draw_ (ex-tract) «valeō, valēre, valuī, valitūrus», _be strong_; plūrimum valēre, _to be most powerful, have great influence_ (value). Cf. validus

«319.» Adverbs are generally derived from adjectives, as in English (e.g. adj. _sweet_, adv. _sweetly_). Like adjectives, they can be compared; but they have no declension.

«320.» Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions are formed and compared as follows:

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE _Adj._ cārus, _dear_ cārior cārissimus _Adv._ cārē, _dearly_ cārius cārissimē

_Adj._ pulcher, _beautiful_ pulchrior pulcherrimus _Adv._ pulchrē, _beautifully_ pulchrius pulcherrimē

_Adj._ līber, _free_ līberior līberrimus _Adv._ līberē, _freely_ līberius līberrimē

_a._ The positive of the adverb is formed by adding «-ē» to the base of the positive of the adjective. The superlative of the adverb is formed from the superlative of the adjective in the same way.

_b._ The comparative of any adverb is the neuter accusative singular of the comparative of the adjective.

«321.» Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension are formed like those described above in the comparative and superlative. The positive is usually formed by adding «-iter» to the base of adjectives of three endings or of two endings, and «-ter» to the base of those of one ending;[1] as,

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE _Adj._ fortis, _brave_ fortior fortissimus _Adv._ fortiter, _bravely_ fortius fortissimē

_Adj._ audāx, _bold_ audācior audācissimus _Adv._ audācter, _boldly_ audācius audācissimē

[Footnote 1: This is a good working rule, though there are some exceptions to it.]

«322.» «Case Forms as Adverbs.» As we learned above, the neuter accusative of comparatives is used adverbially. So in the positive or superlative some adjectives, instead of following the usual formation, use the accusative or the ablative singular neuter adverbially; as,

_Adj._ facilis, _easy_ prīmus, _first_ _Adv._ facile (acc.), _easily_ prīmum (acc.), _first_ prīmō (abl.), _at first_ _Adj._ multus, _many_ plūrimus, _most_ _Adv._ multum (acc.), _much_ plūrimum (acc.), _most_ multō (abl.), _by much_

«323.» Learn the following irregular comparisons:

bene, _well_ melius, _better_ optimē, _best_ diū, _long_ (time) diūtius, _longer_ diūtissimē, _longest_ magnopere, _greatly_ magis, _more_ maximē, _most_ parum, _little_ minus, _less_ minimē, _least_ prope, _nearly, near_ propius, _nearer_ proximē, _nearest_ saepe, _often_ saepius, _oftener_ saepissimē, _oftenest_

«324.» Form adverbs from the following adjectives, using the regular rules, and compare them: «laetus», «superbus», «molestus», «amīcus», «ācer», «brevis», «gravis», «recēns.»

«325.» RULE. «Adverbs.» _Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs._

«326.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297.

I. 1. Nūlla rēs melius gesta est quam proelium illud[2] ubi Marius multō minōre exercitū multō maiōrēs cōpiās Germānōrum in fugam dedit. 2. Audācter in Rōmānōrum cohortīs hostēs impetūs fēcērunt 3. Marius autem omnēs hōs fortissimē sustinuit. 4. Barbarī nihilō fortiōrēs erant quam Rōmānī. 5. Prīmō barbarī esse superiōrēs vidēbantur, tum Rōmānī ācrius contendērunt. 6. Dēnique, ubi iam diūtissimē paene aequō proeliō pugnātum est, barbarī fugam petiērunt. 7. Quaedam Germānōrum gentēs, simul atque rūmōrem illīus calamitātis audīvērunt, sēsē in ultimīs regiōnibus fīnium suōrum abdidērunt. 8. Rōmānī saepius quam hostēs vīcērunt, quod meliōra arma habēbant. 9. Inter omnīs gentīs Rōmānī plūrimum valēbant. 10. Hae cohortēs simul atque in aequiōrem regiōnem sē recēpērunt, castra sine ūllā difficultāte posuērunt.

II. 1. Some nations are easily overcome by their enemies. 2. Germany is much larger than Gaul. 3. Were not the Romans the most powerful among the tribes of Italy? 4. On account of (his) wounds the soldier dragged his body from the ditch with the greatest difficulty. 5. He was able neither to run nor to fight. 6. Who saved him? A certain horseman boldly undertook the matter. 7. The rumors concerning the soldier’s death were not true.

[Footnote 2: «ille» standing after its noun means _that well-known, that famous_.]

LESSON LVIII

NUMERALS · THE PARTITIVE GENITIVE

[Special Vocabulary]

«commeātus, -ūs», m.. _provisions_ «lātitūdō, -inis», f., _width_ (latitude) «longitūdō, -inis», f., _length_ (longitude) «magnitūdō, -inis», f., _size, magnitude_ «mercātor, mercātōris», m., _trader, merchant_ «mūnītiō, -ōnis», f., _fortification_ (munition) «spatium, spatī», n., _room, space, distance; time_

«cognōscō, cognōscere, cognōvī, cognitus», _learn_; in the perfect tenses, _know_ (re-cognize) «cōgō, cōgere, coēgī, coāctus», _collect; compel_ (cogent) «dēfendō, dēfendere, dēfendī, dēfēnsus», _defend_ «incendō, incendere, incendī, incēnsus», _set fire to, burn_ (incendiary). Cf. «cremō» «obtineō, obtinēre, obtinuī, obtentus», _possess, occupy, hold_ (obtain) «perveniō, pervenīre, pervēnī, perventus», _come through, arrive_

«327.» The Latin numeral adjectives may be classified as follows:

1. «Cardinal Numerals», answering the question _how many?_ as, «ūnus», _one_; «duo», _two_; etc.

2. «Ordinal Numerals», derived in most cases from the cardinals and answering the question _in what order?_ as, «prīmus», _first_; «secundus», _second_; etc.

3. «Distributive Numerals», answering the question _how many at a time?_ as, «singulī», _one at a time_.

«328.» «The Cardinal Numerals.» The first twenty of the cardinals are as follows:

1, «ūnus» 6, «sex» 11, «ūndecim» 16, «sēdecim» 2, «duo» 7, «septem» 12, «duodecim» 17, «septendecim» 3, «trēs» 8, «octō» 13, «tredecim» 18, «duodēvīgintī» 4, «quattuor» 9, «novem» 14, «quattuordecim» 19, «ūndēvīgintī» 5, «quīnque» 10, «decem» 15, «quīndecim» 20, «vīgintī»

_a._ Learn also «centum» = 100, «ducentī» = 200, «mīlle» = 1000.

«329.» «Declension of the Cardinals.» Of the cardinals only «ūnus», «duo», «trēs», the hundreds above one hundred, and «mīlle» used as a noun, are declinable.

_a._ «ūnus» is one of the nine irregular adjectives, and is declined like «nūllus» (cf. §§109, 470). The plural of «ūnus» is used to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning, as, «ūna castra», _one camp_; and with other nouns in the sense of _only_, as, «Gallī ūnī», _only the Gauls_.

_b._ Learn the declension of «duo», _two_; «trēs», _three_; and «mīlle», _a thousand_. (§479.)

_c._ The hundreds above one hundred are declined like the plural of «bonus»; as,

ducentī, -ae, -a ducentōrum, -ārum, -ōrum etc. etc. etc.

«330.» We have already become familiar with sentences like the following:

«Omnium avium aquila est vēlōcissima» _Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest_ «Hoc ōrāculum erat omnium clārissimum» _This oracle was the most famous of all_

In such sentences the genitive denotes the whole, and the word it modifies denotes a part of that whole. Such a genitive, denoting the whole of which a part is taken, is called a «partitive genitive».

«331.» RULE. «Partitive Genitive.» _Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the whole, known as the «partitive genitive»._

_a._ Words denoting a part are especially pronouns, numerals, and other adjectives. But cardinal numbers excepting «mīlle» regularly take the ablative with «ex» or «dē» instead of the partitive genitive.

_b._ «Mīlle», _a thousand_, in the singular is usually an indeclinable adjective (as, «mīlle mīlitēs», _a thousand soldiers_), but in the plural it is a declinable noun and takes the partitive genitive (as, «decem mīlia mīlitum», _ten thousand soldiers_).

EXAMPLES:

«Fortissimī hōrum sunt Germānī» _The bravest of these are the Germans_ «Decem mīlia hostium interfecta sunt» _Ten thousand_ (lit. _thousands_) _of the enemy were slain_ «Ūna ex captīvīs erat soror rēgis» _One of the captives was the king’s sister_

«332.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297.

I. 1. Caesar maximam partem aedificiōrum incendit. 2. Magna pars mūnītiōnis aquā flūminis dēlēta est. 3. Gallī huius regiōnis quīnque mīlia hominum coēgerant. 4. Duo ex meīs frātribus eundem rūmōrem audīvērunt. 5. Quis Rōmānōrum erat clarior Caesare? 6. Quīnque cohortēs ex illā legiōne castra quam fortissimē dēfendēbant. 7. Hic locus aberat aequō spatiō[1] ab castrīs Caesaris et castrīs Germānōrum. 8. Caesar simul atque pervēnit, plūs commeātūs ab sociīs postulāvit. 9. Nōnne mercātōrēs magnitūdinem īnsulae cognōverant? Longitūdinem sed nōn lātitūdinem cognōverant. 10. Paucī hostium obtinēbant collem quem explōrātōrēs nostrī vīdērunt.

II. 1. I have two brothers, and one of them lives at Rome. 2. Cæsar stormed that very town with three legions. 3. In one hour he destroyed a great part of the fortification. 4. When the enemy could no longer[2] defend the gates, they retreated to a hill which was not far distant.[3] 5. There three thousand of them bravely resisted the Romans.[4]

[Footnote 1: Ablative of the measure of difference.]

[Footnote 2: Not «longius». Why?]

[Footnote 3: Latin, _was distant by a small space._]

[Footnote 4: Not the accusative.]

LESSON LIX

NUMERALS (_Continued_) · THE ACCUSATIVE OF EXTENT

[Special Vocabulary]

«agmen, agminis», n., _line of march, column_; «prīmum agmen», _the van_; «novissimum agmen», _the rear_ «atque», «ac», conj., _and_; «atque» is used before vowels and consonants, «ac» before consonants only. Cf. «et» and «-que» «concilium, conci´lī», n., _council, assembly_ «Helvētiī, -ōrum», m., _the Helvetii_, a Gallic tribe «passus, passūs», m., _a pace_, five Roman feet; «mīlle passuum», _a thousand (of) paces_, a Roman mile «quā dē causā», _for this reason, for what reason_ «vāllum, -ī», n., _earth-works, rampart_

«cadō, cadere, cecidī, cāsūrus», _fall_ (decadence) «dēdō, dēdere, dēdidī, dēditus», _surrender, give up_; with a reflexive pronoun, _surrender one’s self, submit_, with the dative of the indirect object «premō, premere, pressī, pressus», _press hard, harass_ «vexō, vexāre, vexāvī, vexātus», _annoy, ravage_ (vex)

«333.» Learn the first twenty of the ordinal numerals (§478). The ordinals are all declined like «bonus».

«334.» The distributive numerals are declined like the plural of «bonus». The first three are

«singulī, -ae, -a», _one each, one by one_ «bīnī, -ae, -a», _two each, two by two_ «ternī, -ae, -a», _three each, three by three_

«335.» We have learned that, besides its use as object, the accusative is used to express space relations not covered by the ablative. We have had such expressions as «per plūrimōs annōs», _for a great many years_; «per tōtum diem», _for a whole day_. Here the space relation is one of _extent of time_. We could also say «per decem pedēs», _for ten feet_, where the space relation is one of _extent of space_. While this is correct Latin, the usual form is to use the accusative with no preposition, as,

«Vir tōtum diem cucurrit», _the man ran for a whole day_ «Caesar mūrum decem pedēs mōvit», _Cæsar moved the wall ten feet_

«336.» RULE. «Accusative of Extent.» _Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusative._

_a._ This accusative answers the questions _how long? how far?_

_b._ Distinguish carefully between the accusative of time _how long_ and the ablative of time _when_, or _within which._

Select the accusatives of time and space and the ablatives of time in the following:

When did the general arrive? He arrived at two o’clock. How long had he been marching? For four days. How far did he march? He marched sixty-five miles. Where has he pitched his camp? Three miles from the river, and he will remain there several days. The wall around the camp is ten feet high. When did the war begin? In the first year after the king’s death.

«337.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298.

I. _Cæsar in Gaul_. Caesar bellum in Gallia septem annōs gessit. Prīmō annō Helvētiōs vīcit, et eōdem annō multae Germanōrum gentēs eī sēsē dēdidērunt. Multōs iam annōs Germānī Gallōs vexabant[1] et ducēs Germānī cōpiās suās trāns Rhēnum saepe trādūcēbant.[1] Nōn singulī veniēbant, sed multa milia hominum in Galliam contendēbant. Quā dē causā prīncipēs Galliae concilium convocāvērunt atque statuērunt legates ad Caesarem mittere. Caesar, simul atque hunc rūmōrem audīvit, cōpiās suās sine morā coēgit. Primā lūce fortiter cum Germanīs proelium commīsit. Tōtum diem ācriter pugnātum est. Caesar ipse ā dextrō cornū acicm dūxit. Magna pars exercitūs Germānī cecidit. Post magnam caedem paucī multa milia passuum ad flūmen fūgērunt.

II. 1. Cæsar pitched camp two miles from the river. 2. He fortified the camp with a ditch fifteen feet wide and a rampart nine feet high. 3. The camp of the enemy was a great way off (was distant by a great space). 4. On the next day he hastened ten miles in three hours. 5. Suddenly the enemy with all their forces made an attack upon («in» _with acc._) the rear. 6. For two hours the Romans were hard pressed by the barbarians. 7. In three hours the barbarians were fleeing.

[Footnote 1: Translate as if pluperfect.]

LESSON LX

DEPONENT VERBS

[Special Vocabulary]

«aut», conj., _or_; «aut ... aut», _either ... or_ «causā», abl. of «causa», _for the sake of, because of_. Always stands _after_ the gen. which modifies it «ferē», adv., _nearly, almost_ «opīniō, -ōnis», f., _opinion, supposition, expectation_ «rēs frūmentāria, reī frūmentāriae», f. (lit. _the grain affair_), _grain supply_ «timor, -ōris», m., _fear_. Cf. «timeō» «undique», adv., _from all sides_

«cōnor, cōnārī, cōnātus sum», _attempt, try_ «ēgredior, ēgredī, ēgressus sum», _move out, disembark_; «prōgredior», _move forward, advance_ (egress, progress) «moror, morārī, morātus sum», _delay_ «orior, orirī, ortus sum», _arise, spring; begin; be born_ (_from_) (origin) «proficīscor, proficīscī, profectus sum», _set out_ «revertor, revertī, reversus sum», _return_ (revert). The forms of this verb are usually active, and not deponent, in the perfect system. Perf. act., «revertī» «sequor, sequī, secūtus sum», _follow_ (sequence). Note the following compounds of «sequor» and the force of the different prefixes: «cōnsequor» (_follow with_), _overtake_; «īnsequor» (_follow against_), _pursue_; «subsequor» (_follow under_), _follow close after_

«338.» A number of verbs are passive in form but active in meaning; as, «hortor», _I encourage_; «vereor», _I fear_. Such verbs are called «deponent» because they have laid aside («dē-pōnere», _to lay aside_) the active forms.

_a._ Besides having all the forms of the passive, deponent verbs have also the future active infinitive and a few other active forms which will be noted later. (Sec§§375, 403.b.)

«339.» The principal parts of deponents are of course passive in form, as,

Conj. I «hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum», _encourage_ Conj. II «vereor, verērī, veritus sum», _fear_ Conj. III (_a_) «sequor, sequī, secūtus sum», _follow_ (_b_) «patior, patī, passus sum», _suffer, allow_ Conj. IV «partior, partīrī, partītus sum», _share, divide_

Learn the synopses of these verbs. (See §493.) «Patior» is conjugated like the passive of «capiō» (§492).

«340.» PREPOSITIONS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE

The prepositions with the accusative that occur most frequently are

«ante», _before_ «apud», _among_ «circum», _around_ «contrā», _against, contrary to_ «extrā», _outside of_ «in», _into, in, against, upon_ «inter», _between, among_ «intrā», _within_ «ob», _on account of_ («quam ob rem», _wherefore, therefore_) «per», _through, by means of_ «post», _after, behind_ «propter», _on account of, because of_ «trāns», _across, over_

_a._ Most of these you have had before. Review the old ones and learn the new ones. Review the list of prepositions governing the ablative, §209.

«341.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298.

I. 1. Trēs ex lēgātīs, contrā Caesaris opīniōnem, iter facere per hostium fīnīs verēbantur. 2. Quis eōs hortātus est? Imperātor eōs hortātus est et iīs persuādēre cōnātus est, sed nōn potuit. 3. Quid lēgātōs perterruit? Aut timor hostium, quī undique premēbant, aut longitūdō viae eōs perterruit. 4. Tamen omnēs ferē Caesarem multō magis quam hostīs veritī sunt. 5. Fortissimae gentēs Galliae ex Germānīs oriēbantur. 6. Quam ob rem tam fortēs erant? Quia nec vīnum nec alia quae virtūtem dēlent ad sē portārī patiēbantur. 7. Caesar ex mercātōribus dē īnsulā Britanniā quaesīvit, sed nihil cognōscere potuit. 8. Itaque ipse statuit hanc terram petere, et mediā ferē aestāte cum multīs nāvibus longīs profectus est. 9. Magnā celeritāte iter confēcit et in opportūnissimō locō ēgressus est. 10. Barbarī summīs vīribus eum ab īnsulā prohibēre cōnātī sunt. 11. Ille autem barbarōs multa mīlia passuum īnsecūtus est; tamen sine equitātū eōs cōnsequī nōn potuit.

II. 1. Contrary to our expectation, the enemy fled and the cavalry followed close after them. 2. From all parts of the multitude the shouts arose of those who were being wounded. 3. Cæsar did not allow the cavalry to pursue too far.[1] 4. The cavalry set out at the first hour and was returning[2] to camp at the fourth hour. 5. Around the Roman camp was a rampart twelve feet high. 6. Cæsar will delay three days because of the grain supply. 7. Nearly all the lieutenants feared the enemy and attempted to delay the march.

[Footnote 1: Comparative of «longē».]

[Footnote 2: Will this be a deponent or an active form?]

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«Seventh Review, Lessons LIII-LX, §§524-526»

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