Part 2
=Landscapes.= All objects which present themselves to the eye, such as buildings, forests, fields, mountains, water, &c., whether viewed from a hill or on a level, we will call a landscape. Now as it is impossible to make an exact copy of the subject before us, by means of any transfer process, it can only be effected by a distinct apprehension of the real form of the objects themselves, and of those apparent forms under which they are presented to the eye, in their different positions in the landscape. All these objects have their outlines, composed either of straight or curve lines, which may be irregular in their relation to each other. Now if we were placed on a flat, horizontal plain, the water or ground which we would have in view before us, would appear to rise from the spot on which we stood, the limit of that rise being determined by a clear and well defined straight line, called the horizontal line. It will appear in the lake; between this and the sky no object intervenes. This horizontal or boundary line lies directly opposite to the range of the eye, and the one to which every other line is referred, and by which the accuracy of the drawing is secured. The point where it crosses the perpendicular line will be the center of our picture.
=In Placing a Landscape on Paper=, first arises the question as to how much of the landscape we will introduce into our picture. Let us suppose it to be taken from the point of view, then that position of the scene which the eye can easily take in, without moving the head, will constitute the picture. The space included between the point where we are standing and a point where our picture commences, establishes the required distance of the eye from the proposed picture. Now, if through this point a straight line be supposed drawn, perpendicular to the horizon, this line will pass through, and determine the foremost objects of the picture—touching all the leading objects directly in front of us.
=Position of the Horizontal Line= will depend upon whether or not we make the sketch from the ground, or from an elevation. If the view be made from the level with it, the horizontal line may be drawn at about one-fifth of the space of the paper we intend for our picture. If we take the sketch from an elevated point, a little above the level of the ground, then the horizontal line may be placed at about one-third the height, and so on. If the view is to be made from a high hill, or top of the house, place the horizontal line at one-half the height.
Now, in holding up the pencil or ruler horizontally with the eye, and on a level with it, you will see what objects will appear on that horizontal line. In making a photograph of a building it is always best to have the camera a little elevated, and at a considerable distance from the object, as a better picture can be secured. All horizontal planes seem to ascend if they lie below the horizontal line, and to descend if they lie above it, vanish or merge into it, as shown in figures 5 and 6.
In making a sketch from an elevation, the distant part of the view seems higher than the foreground. This occurs when the point from where the view is taken is too much elevated. A better, and much more natural perspective, can be obtained by lowering the point of view, which also changes the horizontal line.
After knowing the position of the horizon of your subject, point of sight for the point of distance, you have to extend the line of horizon from the point of sight to the limits of such distance.
For illustration, fasten a thread with a pin to the table, at a point corresponding to the line of the horizon of your picture; a thread thus adjusted will, when drawn out over the picture, fall exactly over all the lines seeking
=The Vanishing Point.= In this way you get the lines for the cornice in a building, or row of buildings, upper and lower lines of the windows and doors, base and sidewalk.
In making a sketch of a building, it is only necessary to get the general outlines, and instead of working in all the doors and windows, finishing up the cornice, etc., all that is necessary will be to get the outline of one door or window, and the style of cornice, and indicate the remainder by merely a mark showing the position, and make a memorandum of the essential points which is needed in completing the work. In figure 5, street view, make a dot on the sketch board at a point where you wish the first upper corner of the building to commence, draw a perpendicular line for the corner, do likewise at such a distance to the left as you wish the building to extend on the sketch, and you have the other corner. Holding the drawing book perpendicular between you and the building, and on a level with the eye, place the ruler on the sketch-book corresponding to the upper horizontal line of the building, and make a line for the cornice, the base line is produced in the same manner. The point _C_, where the two lines would meet, were they continued toward the left, will be the vanishing point, from which run all the other horizontal lines when you come to finish up the drawing.
THE EFFECTS OF THE DRAWING IN DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF THE HORIZONTAL LINE.
A horizontal right line has, with respect to the plane of the picture, one of three positions. It is either parallel to it, oblique to it, or perpendicular to it. We will sit with the back against one of the walls of a rectangular room. The wall opposite is parallel to that behind us, and consequently to the plane of our picture in that position. The two remaining walls being at right angles with that opposite, are evidently perpendicular to the plane of the drawing, and all horizontal right lines on those two walls, are also perpendicular to that plane, and will appear to tend towards a point immediately opposite to the eye. H. H. is the horizontal line or level of sight; C the point opposite the eye, and that point toward which all horizontal right lines on the walls, A & B, appear to slant, though in reality they are perpendicular to the wall C. The lines 1 & 2, where the ceiling and sidewalls meet, and 3 & 4, the lower limit of the walls, as well as the horizontal lines of the door, and its panels, are in that position, all perpendicular to the plane of the opposite wall, and therefore to the plane of the drawing. The effects of the drawing in different positions of the horizontal line, should be carefully studied; if it be placed above the level of the eye, and removed to the right or left, it will appear like this:
If below the level of the eye, it will assume a direction like this:
But placed to the right or left of the eye, on a perfect level, and horizontal, it will appear thus:
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If drawn from, and directly opposite to the eye, the end may appear thus:
• A _point_ has position, but not magnitude.
If a book, or block of wood, having a square base, be represented at different distances, seen from a point in which its sides are oblique to the plane of the picture, and seen from both points, under the same circumstances in all respects, as regards surrounding objects, except that the distance of the artist from the base line is much less in one than the other, then it will appear as do figures 7 and 8.
In figure 7 the distance from us is much greater than in figure 8, and the vanishing point farther away. We will find the first the most pleasing to the eye, although both are accurate. In these figures we make the two oblique lines of the base equal in length, and our position directly opposite the center perpendicular line. If we should change our position further to the right, the left oblique line at the base would apparently shorten, and _vice versa_.
In making a sketch from nature, the artist must choose a position that will command the best view of the scene about to be placed on paper, and from a standpoint that will secure the leading objects in the landscape before you. Begin by sketching those _objects nearest you first_. The reasons will be shown hereafter.
In attempting to make a “bird’s eye” view of buildings, where an elevation cannot be obtained, it will be found somewhat difficult. We can only mark down on the sketch-book what can be seen from the position we occupy on the level with the objects before us, and imagine the remainder. At the same time three things should be kept in view, the perspective, the perpendicular lines, and proper elevation, in order to give to our picture the appearance it would have if others viewed it from the supposed point of observation as the sketcher.
The intention of the writer has been to touch upon all the points and rules in drawing, and dwell upon each separately, and sufficient for a person of ordinary ability, and a good many grains of continuity, to make a sketch artist.
“It matters not what a man’s vocation may be, if he has the taste to discern, and mind to esteem, the good and beautiful in nature and art, an expression of refinement will be manifest in all that he undertakes.”
In this work I did not expect more than to take the first step toward teaching to sketch from nature. An easy, rapid, and decided manner of sketching is to be acquired only by practice. It is an acquisition essential to excellence in all the other artistic qualities, to which it serves as a basis. Having given you the necessary instruction, I will now assist you in
=Selecting a Position.= Choose a point that will command a good view of the scene, and prevent closer and more immediate objects from concealing any portion of the remote distance; and though the height of the horizontal line in this case may sometimes be more than half the height of the paper, according to the elevation attained by the artist to command the view. In this case the horizontal line is at about one-half the height of the paper. It frequently occurs in making a sketch, that the artist cannot place himself at the desired point for the best view. In such case we will imagine a point above the highest object in the foreground of the proposed sketch. That point may be on the land, or on the water. The artist, with a knowledge of perspective and elevation in view, may make a memorandum of the whole; but should he attempt to draw it from the point he is compelled to see it, no one would recognize it as a truthful representation. We regulate the whole by our knowledge of perspective, as accurately as if we stood upon the very spot from which we desired to be understood that the view was taken.
=In Making a Bird’s Eye View= of a village or city, the first thing to be done is to get a plat, or outline, of the streets and blocks, and mark them on the sketch-book in squares, (or rather diamond shape), each line and cross line representing a street. Commence sketching _in_ the buildings from the point chosen, which should be the one nearest the business center, and where the best houses stand, or from a point where you can secure the best material for a foreground, such as a stream of water and bridge, or a forest, etc. Transfer each block to paper, showing the fronts of one side and the rear of the buildings of the other side, and so on through the entire row of blocks, when you return to the place of starting, and go down the second row, always working toward the vanishing point.
After you have gone over the entire city, and taken every building, tree, and other objects of interest, and completed the sketch, you are ready for working it up. Lay out the blocks and streets on drawing paper, with pencil, in perspective, ruling from the vanishing point, the center of the picture, toward the point of view, which enlarges the objects of the foreground, and diminishes those in the distance.
In drawing _in_ the buildings, begin with the first house in the foreground, drawing the roof lines, which should be parallel with the lines of the street; next the gables, after which the corner lines, which should be perpendicular to the drawing paper.
The drawing should be made first with pencil, and then in ink, with fine pointed steel pen; for shading, use small camel hair brush and India ink.
=Lights and Shades.= In a sketch it is found that mere outline is insufficient to the representation of an object in relief; it cannot give substance, nor define relative distances so as to maintain the objects in their proper places. The matter of fact representation of the breadth of a meridian light, and the same passage of landscape viewed under the shades of evening, affects the feeling very differently. In the latter, there is a charm which operates even upon minds least susceptible of impressions from the beauties of nature. The general principle acted upon by artists, is to dispose the lights and shades in the manner best suited to the treatment they propose for their work.
There are two extremes of light and shade, and between these lie all those half tints and reflected lights, and exquisite gradations of shade, which must be so carefully placed in the drawing as to clearly indicate the graceful curve of each individual petal, without in any way destroying the roundness and breadth of a flower. The gradations of shade are sometimes perplexing to the learner; but in this respect the eye is a very safe guide. It requires no cultivated taste—not even any great amount of critical observation—to see when an object which should look perfectly round, appears flattened on the one side, or swell too much on the other. The theory of foreground and middle distances and background, has much to do with the principles of light and shade. It is not the line of perspective alone which makes one portion of a picture retreat, and another come forward.
In the drawing of a round object, apple or ball, the shades fall on the concave part, and incline toward the side opposite to light. All shades of objects in the same picture must fall the same way, or farthest from the light. That part lying nearest to the light must receive the least shade. This rule will be noticed in the face, folds of the drapery, etc. Landscapes show the heaviest shades nearest us, the greater the distance the lighter grows the picture. In clouds, the shades are the lightest that are nearest the horizon, it being the greatest distance from us, and those nearest the center of the picture the strongest.
COLORS in NATURE.
Colors are merely sensations produced by the action of light on the nervous tissue of the retina, which covers the back of the eye.
There are Three Primary Colors in Nature, Blue, Red, and Yellow. From these are formed, all the other beautiful tints which well up from the bosom of the deep, glows in every flower, blossoms in the trees, and sparkles in the dew drop; softly stealing from the moon and stars, and written upon the blue arc of night. Red indicates anger, and sometimes guilt. Blue is said to be true, but denotes melancholy and gloom. Yellow indicates cautiousness and prudence, and reflects the most light of any, after white.
Yellow-green is the color nature assumes at the falling of the leaf, and this was worn in the days of chivalry, the emblem of despair. Green denotes tranquility. In heraldry it is used to express liberty, love, youth and beauty, and at one time all letters of grace were signed with green.
The color of all objects depend on the action of those bodies on the light which fall upon them, the different rays of which they reflect, either entirely, or only partially. The light of the sun, and the lights used for illumination, gas, etc., seem to consist of an infinite number of rays, of different color, and however widely they may be spread out by the prism in the spectrum, can never be entirely separated, but always form an even gradation of color, from red at one end of the spectrum, through orange, yellow, green, etc., to purple at the other end. Sir Isaac Newton divided the spectrum into seven parts, thinking he could distinguish seven different colors, red, yellow, blue, orange, green, indigo, and violet, which he called primary colors. Sir D. Brewster showed that those colors which Newton considered simple were, in reality, compound, and mixed up with a considerable proportion of white light. He concludes from his experiments that there were but three simple colors, red, yellow, and blue—by the mixing of which the other colors were produced.
The principal advantages attending the choice of red, blue, and yellow, as primary colors, are: That the choice seems to agree with the fact that whenever a ray of white light has one of these three colors removed by absorption, the remaining colors of the ray is that which would be found by an equal mixture of the other two colors. And when a ray has two of its primary colors removed, the remaining color of the ray is that of the third primary color. The color which opposes the strongest contrast to any primary color, is that secondary color, which is formed of a mixture of the remaining two primaries, in such proportion as would form with the first white light. This color is called its complimentary color—colors being called complimentary to each other when they together form white light. For instance, blue has for its complimentary color the neutral secondary orange, formed of a mixture of red and yellow, and this color gives the most vivid contrast that can be opposed to blue. Green is the complimentary, and strongest contrasting color to red, and red to green; and yellow the strongest contrast, and complimentary to purple, and purple to yellow.
When the colors of the spectrum in a circle, in a perfect gradation all around the circumference, and so that the three primaries, red, yellow and blue, are at points in the circumference equal distance from each other, the strongest contrast to any color will be found at a point on the other side of the circle diametrically opposite to it. Thus, blue will be found exactly opposite to orange, which will be intermediate between red and yellow; and, in the same way, yellow-green will be found exactly opposite purple-red, etc. Now, as red, blue and yellow are the three primaries, and that all other colors are composed of mixtures of these, let us decide which of the many different colors called reds, yellows, and blues we are to consider as pure, and true primaries. A pure _yellow_ has been decided upon; _chrome-yellow_ (No. 1), chromate of zinc (citron yellow), or light cadmium. A mixture of any two bright primaries will produce a bright secondary, and any admixture of the third primary will make the secondary color produced much duller or blacker. We consider that would be the purest blue which gave the brightest green with yellow, at the same time that it gave the brightest purple with a red, and it was decided that _cobalt blue_ was the pure primary, which was blue with regard to the yellow chosen. It is obvious that if the blue were a greenish blue, although it might give a very bright green with yellow, it would give but a dull purple with the red. The yellow contained in the blue, and which made it greenish, would blacken or dirty the purple produced, but would not interfere with the brightness of the green. We choose _carmine_ for the primary red as the color which gives the brightest purple with cobalt blue, at the same time that it gave the brightest orange with chrome yellow. Thus we have chrome (No. 1), for yellow, cobalt for blue, and madder carmine for red. These are the primaries.
Colored objects appear colored owing to their action on light. This action consists in absorbing one or more of the different colored rays which fall upon it, and reflecting the rest; and it is these reflected rays that give the color to the object. Bodies which emit light are called _luminous_, as the sun. Bodies which transmit light, and through which objects can be distinguished, are called _transparent_, as water, glass, etc. Bodies which transmit light, and not so as to permit objects to be seen through them, are called _translucent_, as ground glass, etc. Bodies which absorb or reflect all the rays of light, or transmit so few rays that the eye does not perceive them, are called _opaque_, as wood, metal, etc.
What we call a pure white object, such as chalk or white paper, appears white by reflecting all the light which falls upon it, and is therefore precisely the same color as the light which falls upon it. A pure black object is one which _absorbs_ all the light which falls upon it, and reflects _none_. Such an object will always appear black, whatever may be the color of the light which falls upon it. Gray objects, (pale black), absorb the three primary rays equally, or in equivalent proportions, but not _entirely_, so that there is a certain portion of the white light reflected unchanged. A pure green absorbs _all_ the red, and reflects _all_ the yellow and blue. A pale but pure green absorbs only _part_ of the red, and reflects the remainder of the red, together with all the yellow and blue. A dull and blackish green is formed by the absorption of all the red, and also part of the blue and yellow, and the reflection of the remainder of the blue and yellow. The same rule will apply in all cases of all other colored objects, except transparent ones. Silks and satins of either color reflect light.
When three colored rays are mixed together in neutralizing proportions, white light is produced. The easiest way of finding what are the equivalent proportions of the primary colors is this: divide a circle of paper into three equal parts, by lines drawn from the center to the circumference. Paint one of these spaces with pure yellow, such as lemon yellow, or the palest chrome yellow, and paint one of the remaining spaces pure but weak blue, with cobalt, and the other space pure but weak red, with madder carmine. Then try, by spinning the card rapidly on a pivot, whether these colors neutralize each other, and if not, darken that color that is deficient until the gray produced is neutral—that is, of the color of lampblack mixed with white; and when this is the case, the colors on the three spaces will be of the proper neutralizing strength for equal spaces.
PEN AND PENCIL DRAWING,
BY AID OF THE TRANSFER PROCESS.
The art of transferring pictures from one paper to another is what few understand. Many have drawings or engravings which they hold as valuable keepsakes, and wish to preserve copies. The plan of duplicating almost exactly a picture by the method given here, is original with the author of this book, who has many a time found it valuable in getting perfect the outlines of engravings, prints, and pictures of various kinds for pen or crayon drawings. Penmen produce very fine specimens of pen drawing, aided by the above process of copying; and although many a novice in the art of pen drawing exhibits equally as good designs as older professionals, they are, nevertheless, borrowed.
The paper used for transferring purposes is light tea paper, generally found in a tea store, or on sale at paper stores.