Part 7

The winter rye, sown but this day se'n-night, had already sprung up, and made the fields quite green.

I returned back to Tornea in the evening.

_August 13._

This being a fast day, I heard a sermon in the Finnish tongue, preached at the church of Tornea. A lawful wife was churched, after her lying-in; which ceremony was performed in the choir, near the elevated part. The women in general had either naturally white hair, or hair that had once been brown, now turned grey. Very few had it red. They wear their hair rather straight.

The physiognomy of both men and women is phlegmatic and stupid; the body clumsy, the complexion bad, and the features destitute of all delicacy of form or expression.

The boundary between West Bothnia and East Bothnia is not formed by the river of Kimi, but by another smaller stream, not far distant, on the left.

They catch _Sijk_ (_Salmo Lavaretus_) in a curious manner at this place. These fish, like the common salmon, swim against the stream, and for that reason are to be caught only near large falls of the river, which they are unable to ascend. The fisherman, being furnished with a net fixed at the end of a long pole, strips himself naked up to the waist, and walks into the middle of the strongest cascade. To prevent accidents from the force of the water, a rope is often tied round his waist, the other end of which is held fast by a friend on shore. Thus they catch the fish below the fall.

Seals are taken by various means, being either shot with fire-arms, or caught in a net. The latter, three or four fathoms high, is made of hempen cord, as thick as a goose-quill, each mesh being two spans wide. This net is kept upright in the water by means of oblong floats of wood, and has no stones at the bottom. Four or five such nets are frequently tied to the ends of each other, and a large stone is attached to the last, bound about with willow or osier, which serves to keep the nets steady. These are set in places where the seals are known to hide themselves, for those animals do the fishermen great damage, not only by devouring fish, but by tearing the fishing nets, from the destruction of which the haunts of the seals are discovered. When a seal comes in the way of the above-described nets, he either thrusts his head between the meshes, getting more and more entangled the more he pushes forward, or, as often happens, he is caught by the foot.

On a sand-hill near the church at Tornea, grew, in great abundance, _Gramen spicâ triticeâ maritimum_, (_Triticum radice repente_, _foliis rigidis_; _Fl. Lapp. n._ 34, which, in the second edition of that work, p. 23, I have, by the persuasion of my intelligent friend Dr. Afzelius, referred to _Elymus arenarius_, and what Linnæus here says, confirms this determination.) Its blue leaves looked quite different from all others, and very handsome. I picked some seeds from the spikes, which were as large as grains of rye. Hence I was induced to consider whether this plant might not serve as a kind of corn, to be cultivated on such dry and blowing sands, provided the proper method of managing it could be discovered, which surely would not be a very difficult task. The advantage of this would be that, by such means, many sandy tracts, where nothing else will grow, might be turned to advantage; and the perennial roots, which no other corn has, would of course save the trouble of sowing it annually. Perhaps even these roots themselves might, in hard times, serve for food.

The tall Finlander Daniel Cajanus, at Stockholm, born in this part of East Bothland, was the son of a clergyman. At his birth he was no bigger than the generality of children, and his health was very indifferent, particularly with regard to his chest, till the age of twelve or fifteen years.

I was informed that the inhabitants of this neighbourhood often hear thunder in the alps during winter.

In the alps of Tornea cold is brought by a south wind, and mild weather comes from the north, because of the sea.

The Laplanders consult several natural objects by way of compass as they travel.

1. Large Pine-trees, which bear more copious branches on their southern side than towards the north.

2. Ant-hills, the south sides of which bear grass, the northern whortle-berries.

3. Aspen trees, whose bark is rough on the north side, smooth on the opposite part.

4. Old withered Pines are clothed, on the north side, with the black _Usnea_, or filamentous _Lichen_ (_L. jubatus_).

By such marks as these they are able to find their way through pathless forests. Have we any guides so certain?

When these people kill any wild reindeer with fire-arms in summer, they lodge the carcase in a cold cellar, and cut it up as they want it for provision.

I observed a curious kind of lime-stone burnt at Kimi, Tornea, and other places round the neighbouring sea-coast.

_August 14._

A very rainy day. A silver ore from Hjortot has been assayed by the Mineral Board, and found to contain forty _per cent._ lead, but only three or four of silver.

_August 15._

Near the ferry at Tornea I picked up the Fresh-water Sponge, _Spongia lacustris_ of Newton, (_S. lacustris_; _Syst. Nat. v._ 1. 1299. Linnæus here refers to Mr. Newton, the friend of Ray, who found the Sponge in question in the Norwich river, where it still exists. It is however denominated in Ray's _Synopsis_, _S. ramosa fluviatilis_, not _lacustris_. Linnæus quoted from memory.)

_August 16._

In dissecting the flower of _Artemisia_ (_vulgaris_), I was struck with its very curious conformation. (This alludes to the want of a limb to the corolla of the female or marginal florets. See _Fl. Lapp. ed._ 2. 244.)

_August 17._

I went by sea from Tornea to Calix. The wind proved contrary. The islands abounded with Whortle-berries, and with the fruit of _Rubus saxatilis_. On one called Korsholm I met with a sort of _Behen_. Can it be the same with that which grows in cornfields? Their different parts are tolerably alike. This grew among the pebbles of the beach. Its calyx is oblong. Leaves narrow. Stem erect. Fruit of one cell. In other respects it resembles _Behen_. (This was _Cucubalus_ (_Behen_) variety the third, or [gamma], _Fl. Lapp. n._ 180. _ed._ 2. 149. _Silene maritima_, _Fl. Brit._ 468. _Engl. Bot. t._ 957. We have found it remain for many years unchanged in a garden, propagating itself by seed, though Linnæus reports that the third year he could not distinguish his from our common _Silene inflata_, his _Cucubalus Behen_.)

[OE]CONOMICAL REMARKS CONCERNING THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF TORNEA.

The soil is various, sometimes clay, sometimes sand. The corn-fields are sown every other year, and lie fallow the intermediate seasons, half of each field lying fallow, while the other half is cultivated. The former is ploughed during the whole summer, to prevent the growth of grass or weeds, which might exhaust it. Barley is sown in these open fields only. Rye is cultivated on land that has recently been cleared of its wood by burning, but not in any great quantities. Turnips and Rye are sown together in one crop, and not, as usual in other places, Turnips one year and Rye the other. Rye bread is reserved to treat visitors. Barley bread is of three different qualities; 1. made of the unmixed barley; 2. of a mixture of barley and chaff; 3. of chaff without any addition, except now and then a handfull or two of barley. This last is their _Spis-bröd_, or household-bread.

The plough is of the same construction as that used in Westbothland.

Almost every person, except such as are very poor, catches as many of the small kind of Herrings, called _Str[oe]mming_ (_Clupea Harengus_ [beta], _Membras_ of old authors,) as are necessary for the support of his family. Those who are not otherwise employed in spring and autumn, catch them for sale afterwards to such as have not time to take any for themselves. These fish begin to spawn about the 18th of May, and continue till about the 16th of June. After the latter period they go into the small inlets among the rocks, and are taken by means of large nets till St. Peter's day, June 29th. This is called the large Str[oe]mming fishery. From St. Peter's day till St. Bartholomew's (Aug. 24th), or even later, they are taken likewise with nets in their usual haunts. These fish are found with milt as well as roe throughout the summer.

One barrel of sour Str[oe]mming is as valuable as two of the salted sort, the former being greatly preferred. A peasant whose family consists of a dozen people, takes half a barrel of salt Str[oe]mming for his whole supply, and this is used to make a kind of soup when boiled with turnips; but he takes a barrel and three quarters of sour Str[oe]mming, which is eaten without any preparation, like smoked and salted meat. If the director of the family is a good [oe]conomist, he will never allow it to be boiled or roasted. They let the fish which is to make sour Str[oe]mming lie for three or four hours only before they take out the entrails, after which it is washed in a small coarse sieve, till most of the blood is removed. It is then salted, in the proportion of thirty pounds of ordinary salt to each barrel of fish. The fish destined to make salt Str[oe]mming must be much more carefully washed, for if the least drop of blood remains it will turn sour. Every barrel of this requires a quarter of a barrel of salt which is disposed in layers, alternately with layers of fish. Each layer of fish and salt are rubbed together with the hands, till a sort of scum rises on the top.

Another way of preparing salt Str[oe]mming is to make so strong a brine that the entire fish, thrown into the tub, will not sink. They put in only so many of the fish as can readily be stirred about in the brine. If the tub be so full that the brine does not entirely cover the Str[oe]mming, more is added, and the whole is suffered to remain for some days. The fish is afterwards gutted in the following manner. A person puts ten or twelve of them on the thumb of his left hand, in such a manner that the back of each fish is turned towards the palm. He then very dexterously loosens the gills with his right hand, pinching out the gills and intestines at once; which is performed with great quickness. The fish are then put into a rope basket, and salted as before. When they have remained thus for a couple of days, they are put into other baskets, in order that the brine may drain away, and finally are packed up in new kegs for keeping, without any further salting. A hole is bored in each tub, just above the lowermost hoop, to draw off the brine, which is always collecting from the fish, and if permitted to remain, will cause the whole to turn sour; but the same method is not practised for the sour Str[oe]mming. This last is in its greatest perfection about St. James's day (July 25th).

These people have three meals a day in summer, besides breakfast, and the sour Str[oe]mming always makes a part of their dinner, as well as of the preceding refreshment. The fish, after being repeatedly squeezed, is laid between two slices of bread, and so eaten. After it they take some sour preparation of milk, without cream. Sometimes indeed they eat a bit of cheese, or bread and butter; but they never eat meat after the sour Str[oe]mming. Their vegetable food consists of cabbage, pease, or turnips, the first being generally eaten on Sundays. Pease are eaten once a week, except when the cabbage is deficient, and then they supply its place. Turnips and salt Str[oe]mming are generally eaten in a morning, in the following manner. When the turnips are boiled nearly enough, the fish is put to them, but not before, lest it should be broken to pieces. To this some flour is added; and they drink sour milk after it. Their supper always consists of flummery, made of barley-meal. Before they first go out in a morning they eat either bread and butter, or bread and cheese, but they prefer the former. The mixed bread (made of corn and chaff) is their ordinary portion; good bread, made entirely of corn, they seldom or ever taste. It is reserved for visitors, or for very extraordinary occasions. Their mixed or household bread, being baked in cakes as thin as paper, is eaten by laying four or five such cakes together upon each other. They are never unprovided with ale in their cellars, to treat visitors, though their ordinary drink is table beer. In summer time they always drink _Syra_, (see vol. i. p. 243.)

The peasants themselves eat but very little of their own mutton, and chiefly the shoulder and brisket. The rest they sell; scarcely any is kept in the house but the above parts, with the marrow-bones, which they break to get at the marrow. The heads and feet of sheep, goats, and hogs, are salted and dried, being, when wanted, boiled with pease, and not ill-tasted. The legs of sheep, cut off at the knee, are often boiled fresh; the fat which floats on the top being collected and preserved in a horn or pot, as very useful to grease small ropes, and wheels. The legs and feet thus boiled are afterwards thrown away, not eaten. The head and feet of a calf are usually pickled.

For fire-wood these people use birch-wood. They burn no candles in their houses. They go to smoke themselves with the Finlanders in their huts.

The hay is mown here in the same manner as in Upland, and the corn is managed in the same way as in Smoland. When the season is dry, they prefer drying the corn in heaps in the open air, as before described; but in wet weather they have recourse to sheds. The hay is spread out till dry, and afterwards carried, without being made into cocks.

They raise as many hops as are wanted for each family, and have perhaps a few pounds over, for sale.

Their pales are high, made of pine-wood, and placed sloping.

The milk is set in the cellar, in deep tubs made of alder wood, by which they obtain a great proportion of cream, even two fingers' thick. This cream is stirred up with the milk, warmed, and then coagulated, for making cheese. Another mode is with butter-milk, to which they add a sixth part of fresh milk, that has stood one day and been skimmed. This mixture, being first warmed, is then coagulated. The cheese thus made is preferred to the former, and often eaten in preference to butter.

Between Midsummer and St. James's day (July 25th), the whey is collected, after the cheese is made; which, after boiling for some hours, is set by to cool. When cold, it is barrelled up for winter use. Poor people and old women beg or buy it, a small bottle-full at a time. To one pot of sour milk they add a fourth part of _Syra_; and these together have the taste of what they term _Filbunke_, which is sour milk with the cream on, just beginning to ferment, and of which they make _Servet-mjölk_; (see p. 150.)

Thick milk (perhaps _Mesosmör_, see vol. i. p. 243,) is often kept in barrels till winter, as is the meal made of fir-bark, when both serve for winter provision.

_Syra_ is so very sour as not to be eatable by itself. When they have no milk to dilute it with, they add an equal quantity of water to the _Syra_, and mix the whole with flummery, which mixture they prefer to small beer.

Butter is now and then made of goat's milk; but it is very strong, and quite as white as that made of the milk of the rein-deer.

_August 18._

On islands near the shore I saw a _Salix_ with leaves like the cultivated olive. It is a shrub three feet high, but growing in a spreading manner. Stem grey, with roundish dusky solitary buds, of a very large size, in proportion to the plant. Leaves gradually larger (upwards?), oblong-lanceolate, bluntish, on scarcely perceptible footstalks, furnished with an obtuse longitudinal rib beneath, but no veins. Their upper surface is green, sprinkled all over with minute white dots; very slightly channelled, and paler, along the nerve. (This appears to have been _S. rosmarinifolia_.)

_August 19._

At the fair of Calix I obtained some information concerning the commerce of this country, which is very different from that of almost every place in the world besides, insomuch that I am unable to determine which party makes his market of the other. The townsman thinks it is himself who cheats the peasant, but I verily believe he is the party who is cheated.

1. The general plan of traffic here is bartering one article for another.

2. The merchant generally carries his goods home to the peasant's residence in the country, at whatever distance it may be, or else conveys them to the fair, from whence the purchaser is to fetch them.

3. When a townsman sets up trade as a merchant, his principal aim is to get as many country-people to connect themselves with him as possible, who are to supply him with their produce. These are termed _Gield-bonder_, or creditors.

4. The advantage the peasants have in thus confiding to the merchant the whole of their goods, is, that the latter pays their taxes for them to the collector, which must be done either in ready money, or bills of exchange.

5. When the merchant receives the goods from the countryman, no price is fixed upon them between the parties; but when the former returns from Stockholm, he sets down in his accompt-book nearly the sum for which he has disposed of the articles there. In this the peasant trusts to the honour of the merchant, and is paid accordingly.

6. These prices are not communicated to the countryman immediately, nor does he know the price of the salt, tobacco, corn, and other articles, with which the merchant supplies him in return, till they settle accompts; which does not take place till the end of every year, or perhaps not so frequently.

7. As long as a peasant keeps to one merchant, he is allowed credit, and obtains advances of any money for which he may have occasion, even although the goods delivered do not amount to the interest of the sum lent, which is sometimes equal to 1000 dollars. But if he carries any of his goods to another merchant, he must immediately pay what he owes to his original correspondent, or suffer a sequestration of his property.

8. The countryman never brings his own goods to market, unless he happens to be going that way, in which case he usually takes them with him, but otherwise it is expected the merchant should fetch them.

9. When the towns of this part of the country were first built, each had certain parishes appropriated to it, and these were called the trading district of each town, in which no person who did not belong to the town had a right to trade. These exclusive privileges were subsequently annulled by royal authority, and free markets were established, where strangers as well as the neighbouring inhabitants were equally permitted to trade. This open trade has not however taken place at Calix, partly because the peasants are situated at so great a distance from one another, and partly because the merchants in the town conceive that such a plan would ruin them, they being in that case obliged to buy and sell for ready money.

10. Here are no free markets, properly speaking, but only _Upbördsmoten_ (periodical meetings of the collectors of the revenues with the peasants). At these times the townsmen and the peasants meet together at the place of rendezvous, as at Calix every year on the 19th of August, and at Tornea in the depth of winter.

The inconveniences of the above plan of trade are,

1. The merchant lays considerable sums fast, with which he might otherwise extend his commerce.

2. He has the trouble of carrying his goods to the house of the peasant, where-ever it may be, up the country, and of bringing what he takes in exchange from the place of rendezvous to his own house in town.

3. The consequence of such a plan is, that many a merchant has outstanding debts to the amount of 100,000 dollars, the greater part of which he may never get paid.

The inconveniences to the countryman are,

1. He runs in debt more than he can ever pay.

2. The merchant has the advantage of fixing what price he chooses on his goods.

3. He is not allowed to take any measures for his own profit.

* * * * *

The collar of the shirts, worn by the inhabitants of Finland and East Bothland in this neighbourhood, resembles ours, their sleeves being more like those of a woman's shift.

Young women here commonly wear the bosom open, and have nothing over their shift, which is gathered round the waist like a petticoat.

The country of East Bothland is chiefly inhabited about the sea-coast, and on the banks of rivers.

An Aurora borealis was seen in the night of the 18th of August, and had been visible for a week past, so early does it begin here.

The rowers of the boat in which I pursued my progress had blisters on their hands caused by pulling at the oars. Their specific was the ladle with which they had just been stirring the pot where fish was boiling. This they applied, hot as it was, to the part affected, and the blisters disappeared.

What is here called _Taim_ is a sort of salmon, two spans in length at most, the tail scarcely cloven, the mouth not hooked, but otherwise like the common kind. (This is probably the _Salmo salar_ in a young state; and may perhaps be the _Laxunge_, or _Salmo minor_, _vulgari similis_, Artedi Spec. 50, not 80, mentioned in _Fauna Suecica_, ed. 2. 122, though Linnæus has no allusion there to the _Taim_.)

As soon as the corn is carried from the field, it is usual to thrash it slightly, that whatever is loose may come away, and not be lost in the barn, as also that the coarser part may be separated from the finer.

The flail is about a yard long, and rather thick.

The roofs in this part of the country are made of the bark of birch-trees, not covered over with any turf, but held fast by round poles, as thick as one's arm, whose upper extremities, alternately longer and shorter, reach to the ridge, and being bored through, are fastened to it, in such a manner that their ends project about a span each way beyond the ridge, crossing each other. Being thicker at their lower ends, they lie almost close together. Within this there is often a false roof, like a cieling, covered over with birch-bark and earth; but this is only when the house is wished to be very warm.

At the residence of the Governor of the Province at Calix, I saw three swans, which, having been taken when young, were as tame as domestic geese, to which these birds are so much alike in every respect, that I can have no doubt of their belonging to one genus. Their bill is flat, and black at the extremity, as well as the margins, convex and somewhat angular in the middle, so far at least that the swelling part terminates in an angle. The middle is fleshy, where the oblong nostrils are situated; the base flat or quadrangular, with two sinuses pointing upwards, and pale-coloured. The margin is toothed just like the _Concha Veneris_ (_Cypræa_).

A carriage called _Stotting_ is used here, for bringing home wood for fuel in winter, over the ice and snow. It is made of birch-wood, and resembles a sledge.

The length of this machine from a to b is three feet and a half, the breadth of each beam four inches and a half; their thickness two inches, except in the middle, at d, where it is three inches and a half, though in all the other parts of equal dimensions. The transverse bar, c, is one foot and a half long, three inches and a half broad, and is elevated four inches above the longitudinal pieces. e, e, are two slender triangular pieces, two feet in length, and two inches in thickness. f, f, are about one palm and a half each in length and breadth. h is curved upwards about two palms and a half out of the straight line. g is two feet long between the main beams, three inches and a half broad, but scarcely one in thickness.