CHAPTER XXV.

What political economy teaches--Skilled labour and trusted labour--Competition of unskilled labour--Competition of uncapitalled labour--Itinerant traders--The contrast of organized industry--Factory-labour and garret-labour-- Communism--Proposals for state organization of labour-- Social Publishing Establishment--Practical co-operation 398

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

1. African Hut 12 2. Robinson Crusoe (from a design by Stothard) 20 3. Dying lion 25 4. Penn's treaty with the Indians 33 5. Pine-marten 37 6. Treasure-finding 45 7. Brindley 63 8. The hock-cart 66 9. Adam Smith 71 10. "Under his own vine" 100 11. Centre of gravity 113 12. A tool made a machine 115 13. Spinning a rope 118 14. Analysis of a cable 119 15. Mill at Guy's Cliff 122 16. Oriental plough 126 17. Clod-crusher 132 18. Scarifier 133 19. Horse-hoe 134 20. Moveable steam-engine and thrashing-machine 135 21. Thrashing-machine with horse-power 136 22. Draining-tile machine 137 23. The first iron bridge, Colebrook Dale 147 24. Rolling bar-iron 149 25. File-cutters 152 26. Cupids forging arrows (from Albani) 156 27. Telford 162 28. Modern Syrian cart 165 29. Brindley's aqueduct over the Irwell 168 30. Railway locomotive 171 31. Reindeer 173 32. Beaver 174 33. Pyramid and sphinx 176 34. Boulton 179 35. Carpenters and their tools (from an old German woodcut) 181 36. Egyptian labour in the brick-field 183 37. Scotch carpet-loom 188 38. Sheet-glass making 192 39. Potter's wheel of modern Egypt 195 40. Moulds for porcelain, and casts 196 41. Wedgwood 197 42. Ancient shadoof 202 43. Conduit in Westcheap 206 44. Old water-carrier of London 208 45. Plug in a frost 209 46. London street-lights, 1760 211 47. Cotton; showing a pod bursting 214 48. Distaff 216 49. A Hindoo woman spinning cotton 217 50. Sir Richard Arkwright 219 51. Arkwright's original spinning-machine 220 52. Samuel Crompton, inventor of the spinning-mule 222 53. Hindoo weaver at work in a field 228 54. Dr. Cartwright, inventor of the power-loom 229 55. Flemish weaver (from a print of 1568) 230 56. Mechanism of power-loom 242 57. Jacquard cards 243 58. Hanks of silk 247 59. Egyptian winding-reel 247 60. Silk-winding machine 248 61. Indigo-harvest In the West Indies 252 62. Gloves for the great 260 63. Cobbler's stall, about 1760 261 64. Men'seg, or Egyptian embroidery frame 263 65. Bobbin-net meshes 264 66. Essential parts of the bobbin-net machine 265 67. Stamping the eye of a needle 269 68. Stamping, pressing, and punching buttons.--Elliott's factory 271 69. Envelope-making machine 275 70. Compositor at work 277 71. Machine for fixing tags to laces 278 72. Inclined plane for separating shot 279 73. Candle-dipping machine 281 74. Tiring a wheel 281 75. Harrison 298 76. Greenwich Observatory 299 77. Linnæus in his Lapland dress 302 78. Elæis Guineensis, and Cocoa butyracea, yielding palm-oil 306 79. Franklin medal 310 80. Newton 313 81. Ambrose Paré 314 82. Sir Walter Scott (from Sir F. Chantrey's bust) 319 83. Statue of Bacon 322 84. Old hand-gunner 330 85. Carrier-pigeon 332 86. Cowper's printing-machine 335 87. The 'Times' printing-machine 338 88. Papyrus 343 89. Medal to Locke 380 90. Vision of Henry I 381 91. Irish mud cabin 393 92. "Feed the hungry" (from Flaxman) 401 93. Costermonger 407 94. "Pots to mend" 411 95. Statue of Watt 424

* * * * *

THE PRESENT EDITION IS ILLUSTRATED WITH TWENTY-FOUR ADDITIONAL CUTS, ON SEPARATE PAGES, OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES, &C., WHICH ARE TO BE PLACED AS FOLLOWS:--

Bursting of Dykes. The forces of Nature overcoming the industry of Man 99 Making ropes by machinery 119 Steam-boiler making 145 Shear and tilt-hammers--Steel Manufacture 151 Ancient lead-mine in Derbyshire 154 Coal-railway 157 Locomotive-engine factory 170 Stone quarry, Portland 177 Timber rafts of the Tyrol 178 Glass-cutting 191 Plate-glass factory 192 The English potter 194 Mill-room of a pottery 196 Cotton mule-spinning 222 Power-looms 229 Jacquard power-looms 241 Interior of Marshall's flax-mill, Leeds 250 Calico-printing by cylinder 252 Bleaching-ground at Glasgow 254 Electro-gilding 311 Pianoforte manufactory 320 Bas-relief on Gutenberg's monument 323 Paper-making by hand 341 Processes of bookbinding 342

KNOWLEDGE IS POWER.

INTRODUCTION.

It has been wisely said by a French writer who has scattered abroad sound and foolish opinions with a pretty equal hand, that "it requires a great deal of philosophy to observe once what is seen every day."[1] To no branch of human knowledge can this remark be more fitly applied than to that which relates to the commonest things of the world,--namely, the Wants of Man and the Means of satisfying them.

Man, it has been maintained, has greater natural wants and fewer natural means than any other animal. That his wants are greater, even in the rudest state of the species, than the wants of any quadruped--to say nothing of animals lower in the scale of being--there can be no doubt. But that his natural means are feebler and fewer we cannot believe; for the exercise of his understanding, in a variety of ways which no brute intelligence can reach, is the greatest of his natural means,--and that power enables him to subdue all things to his use.

It is the almost unlimited extent of the wants of man in the social state, and the consequent multiplicity and complexity of his means--both his wants and means proceeding from the range of his mental faculties--which have rendered it so difficult to observe and explain the laws which govern the production, distribution, and consumption of those articles of utility, essential to the subsistence and comfort of the human race, which we call Wealth. It is not more than a century ago that even those who had "a great deal of philosophy" first began to apply themselves to observe "what is seen every day" exercising, in the course of human industry, the greatest influence on the condition and character of individuals and nations. The properties of light were ascertained by Sir Isaac Newton long before men were agreed upon the circumstances which determined the production of a loaf of bread; and the return of a comet after an interval of seventy-six years was pretty accurately foretold by Dr. Halley, when legislators were in almost complete ignorance of the principle which regularly brought as many cabbages to Covent Garden as there were purchasers to demand them.

Since those days immense efforts have been made to determine the great circumstances of our social condition, which have such unbounded influence on the welfare of mankind. But, unhappily for themselves and for others, many of every nation still remain in comparative darkness, with regard even to the elementary truths which the labours of some of the most acute and benevolent inquirers that the world has produced have succeeded in establishing. Something of this defect may be attributed to the fact that subjects of this nature are considered difficult of comprehension. Even the best educated sometimes shrink from the examination of questions of political economy when presented in their scientific form. Charles Fox said that he could not understand Adam Smith. And yet Adam Smith's 'Wealth of Nations' is essentially an amusing book in many parts. Matters affecting the interests of every human being, and involving a variety of facts having relation to the condition of mankind in every age and country, are not necessarily, as has been supposed, dry and difficult to understand, and consequently only to be approached by systematic students. In this belief it is proposed in this volume to exhibit the natural operation of the principles by which Industry, as well as every other exchangeable property, must be governed. The writer has to apply all the universal laws which regulate the exchanges of mankind to the direction of that exchange which the great bulk of the people are most interested in carrying forward rapidly, certainly, and uninterruptedly--the exchange of Labour for Capital. But he has also to regard those laws with especial reference to that mighty Power which has become so absorbing and controlling in our own day--the Power of Science applied to the Arts, or, in other words, Knowledge. It is not too much to assert that, henceforth, Labour must take its absolute direction from that Power. It is now the great instrument of Capital. In time it will be understood universally to be the best partner of Labour. "Wherever education and an unrestricted press are allowed full scope to exercise their united influence, progress and improvement are the certain results, and among the many benefits which arise from their joint co-operation may be ranked most prominently the value which they teach men to place upon intelligent contrivance; the readiness with which they cause new improvements to be received; and the impulse which they thus unavoidably give to that inventive spirit which is gradually emancipating man from the rude forms of labour, and making what were regarded as the luxuries of one age to be looked upon in the next as the ordinary and necessary conditions of human existence."[2]

The present volume is founded upon two little works which the author wrote more than twenty years ago, and which were widely circulated. One of these books, 'The Results of Machinery,' was published, in connexion with the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, at a period of great national alarm, when a blind rage against a power supposed to interfere with the claims of labour was generally prevalent, and led, in the southern agricultural districts especially, to many acts of daring violence. Happily that spirit is passed away. The spirit of knowledge has arisen; and we are told now, by an unquestionable authority, that labourers themselves begin to regard the tedious work of the flail as too irksome[3]--the same class that in 1830 broke the thrashing machines. In remodelling that portion of the present volume it is unnecessary to deprecate the evils of hostility to machinery; but rather to look forward to its more complete union with skilled labour as the triumph of the productive forces of modern society. In the other little book upon which this volume is founded, 'Capital and Labour,' the general subject of the _Production_ of wealth was popularly treated, and the argument is here carried forward. But in the present work it will be the further endeavour of the writer not to overlook the general relations of Capital and Labour in the _Distribution_ of wealth. As the mistakes about Production have yielded, in a great degree, to improved education, so may those which belong to Distribution also yield to the progress of Knowledge. These are not mistakes which are confined to one class, and that the most numerous. The freedom of Industry has as much claim to be regarded as the security of Capital. We have distinct evidence that in another country these principles are better understood.

"The results which have been obtained in the United States, by the application of machinery wherever it has been practicable to manufactures, are rendered still more remarkable by the fact that combinations to resist its introduction there are unheard of. The workmen hail with satisfaction all mechanical improvements, the importance and value of which, as releasing them from the drudgery of unskilled labour, they are enabled by education to understand and appreciate. With the comparatively superabundant supply of hands in this country, and therefore a proportionate difficulty in obtaining remunerative employment, the working classes have less sympathy with the progress of invention. Their condition is a less favourable one than that of their American brethren for forming a just and unprejudiced estimate of the influence which the introduction of machinery is calculated to exercise on their state and prospects. I cannot resist the conclusion, however, that the different views taken by our operatives and those of the United States upon this subject are determined by other and powerful causes, besides those dependent on the supply of labour in the two countries. The principles which ought to regulate the relations between the employer and the employed seem to be thoroughly understood and appreciated in the United States; and while the law of limited liability affords the most ample facilities for the investment of capital in business, the intelligent and educated artisan is left equally free to earn all that he can, by making the best use of his hands, without let or hindrance by his fellows."[4]

Without attempting to give this volume the formal shape of a treatise on Political Economy, it is the wish of the author to convey the broad parts of his subject in a somewhat desultory manner, but one which is not altogether devoid of logical arrangement. He desires especially to be understood by _the young_; for upon their right appreciation of the principles which govern society will depend much of the security and happiness of our own and the coming time. The danger of our present period of transition is, that theory should expect too much, and that practice should do too little, in the amelioration of the condition of the people.

A great number of woodcuts have been for the first time introduced into this volume, which illustrate mechanical inventions. But the author begs distinctly to be understood that his object here is not to _describe_ processes. His notices of them, more or less extended, are simply to illustrate the course of his argument; and in that way to make the book more useful, because more attractive, for purposes of education.

[1] J. J. Rousseau.

[2] Special Report of Mr. Joseph Whitworth on the New York Industrial Exhibition.

[3] Mr. Pusey's Report on Agricultural Implements.

[4] Mr. Whitworth's Special Report.