Part 1

KNOTS

A study of Marlinespike Seamanship which embraces Bends, Hitches, Ties, Fastenings and Splices and their Practical Application.

With chapters on Cordage, Matting, Hammock Making and Wire Steel Work

Compiled and Edited by A. F. ALDRIDGE

Dedicated to the Sailors of the United States

THE RUDDER PUBLISHING COMPANY

9 MURRAY STREET, NEW YORK CITY

U. S. A.

_COPYRIGHT 1918_

BY THE RUDDER PUBLISHING CO. NEW YORK, U. S. A.

_All Rights Reserved_

PRESS OF THOMSON & COMPANY 9 MURRAY STREET, NEW YORK

CONTENTS

Preface 7

History of Knots 9

Cordage 11

Rope and Its Care 15

Simple Knots and Loops 21

Knots for Uniting Ropes 31

Bends and Hitches 36

Knots Formed on Ropes by Their Own Strands 50

Shortenings 68

Ties 73

Purchases and Slings 79

Fastenings, Moorings and Ring Knots 88

Lashings and Seizings etc. 101

Splicing and Rope Work 112

Wire Rope Splicing 128

Matting 134

Hammock Making 146

Strength of Rope etc. 152

Index 157

PREFACE

The study of knots is always fascinating. To twist ropes so that they will hold and not break is an art that comes natural to the sailor and the amateur will watch him in wonder as he does his work. Knots are just as important in these days of steam vessels as they were in the days of the sailing vessel, and now when thousands of men are being trained to handle the fleets of vessels building tying knots is a part of their training.

At the Naval camps and the nautical schools the men are trained in squads and with a little practice they soon acquire the art. To aid those students this book has been published. It has been compiled from American and British Government records and from many other sources, so that it is as complete a collection of knots as it is possible to obtain.

It will be of great assistance to men of the U. S. Navy, U. S. Naval Reserve, U. S. Junior Naval Reserve, the U. S. Nautical Schools and the U. S. Power Squadrons who are working so loyally to aid their country in its time of need. To these men this book is dedicated in the hope that it may be of some help to them in their work.

HISTORY OF KNOTS

Knots, according to an ingenuous essayist, are probably as “old as human fingers” and their history is lost in antiquity. Doubtless when man was first placed on this earth he learned to make fastenings from the tendrils of climbing vines and trailing flowers which twist themselves into odd fastenings as they lift themselves from the earth. The first cords were probably twisted grasses and rushes. Since those early days knots, like Topsy, have “just growed” and man’s ingenuity has enabled him so to arrange ropes and cords that they will sustain weights, fasten various articles together and take up strains so that they will hold under ordinary conditions.

Seamen are credited with having devised the most knots. They have invented ties upon which depend the safety of their ships and the lives of those on board. Operatives in many trades such as building have borrowed from the seamen their knots and applied them to their work. In some instances the land operator has invented new knots or ties to suit conditions not found on shipboard.

To tie a knot properly or to be able to join ropes so that they will hold and withstand heavy strains is so important with seamen that careful attention is paid to the instruction of the men in this particular work. At the many naval training camps scattered about the country capable instructors show the recruits how to properly make knots, ties, hitches, bends and splices, and until the recruit knows how to handle ropes quickly and properly he is not much use at sea. In the nautical schools, too, and in the divisions of the U. S. Power Squadron much attention is paid to this part of the novice’s instruction.

The steamship is steadily driving the sailing vessel from the seas. Of course on a sailing ship, where every spar is stayed by rope and where all the sails, the propelling power, are handled by ropes, the ability to properly tie knots is more important than on a vessel driven by steam or oil engines, but on the powered vessel there are many occasions when it is necessary to have a knowledge of knots, particularly in handling cargoes, in making fast to piers or moorings, in towing, in handling boats, and in hundreds of other instances so that the steam engine is not making “marlinespike seamanship” a lost art.

CORDAGE

Rope is a word that is taken to mean almost every pliable material. Technically a rope is a cord one inch or more in diameter. It is generally made of hemp, manila, coir, cotton, steel, iron or copper wire. In studying the nature and uses of knots, particularly those which come under the designation of splices, some knowledge of the mode and of the principles on which ropes are made, is essentially necessary. The simplest and most effectual mode of obtaining the united strength of fibres composing the rope would be to lay them side by side and fasten them together at each end as in the selvagee, which is described on page 120. This plan, even if the fibres of hemp were of the necessary length, would be open to many objections; hence it was necessary to devise some plan which would give unlimited length to the rope and at the same time preserve its torsion and portability. This has been achieved by the compression and twisting of the fibres in different directions, until they produce a compact, hard and strong rope, neither breaking the fibres on the one hand nor leaving them so loose as to be easily drawn out from the mass on the other--either extreme would be equally fatal in its results and injurious to the stability of the rope. This is achieved by the modern processes of rope making.

First the fibres of hemp are loosely twisted together, right-handed, and form what is technically known as yarn. Two or three yarns twisted together form a strand; three strands form a rope and three ropes a cable. The diagram illustrates this clearly. =A= is a yarn teased out to show the original fibre; =B= shows the yarn forming the strand; the strands =C=, =H=, and =J= form the rope =D=; the ropes =D=, =F=, and =G= form the cable =E=.

A hawser rope is composed of three strands laid up generally right-handed--that is, the direction taken by the strands in forming the rope always runs from left to right.

A shroud-laid rope, also laid right-handed, consists of four strands with a heart in the center.

A cable-laid rope is composed of three right-handed hawser-laid ropes laid up together left-handed, so that it may be said to consist of nine strands, or it may be formed by three left-handed ropes laid up right-handed.

Spun yarn is a number of yarns twisted up right-handed. The number varies from two to eight.

Nettle stuff is made of two or three yarns laid together and is used for making clews of hammocks, harbor gaskets, etc.

Sennit is made of a number of yarns plaited up into square, round or flat sennit as required and used for various purposes.

Junk consists of lengths of condemned cordage 4 inches and above.

Oakum is old rope unlaid and the yarns picked into hemp for caulking the seams in ships’ decks or sides.

Boltrope is cordage tarred and white, made of Italian hemp from ½ inch to 6 inches. It is soft laid and well stretched and is used for roping sails and awnings.

Hammock lashings and lanyards are of white Italian hemp 1¼ inch.

Coir rope is three-stranded right-handed rope. The yarn is spun from the fibres of the cocoanut tree. It is one-third lighter than hemp but not nearly so durable. It soon rots after being wet, if not well dried before being stowed away. As it floats so light it is very useful for warps and is about a quarter the strength of hemp rope.

Twine is made from very fine hemp.

ROPE AND ITS CARE

Rope--and a sailor’s mind instantly pictures a ship. Ropes belong to a ship in his mind’s processes and since man launched his first boat on the water, rope has been in one form or another part of a boat’s equipment. Savages probably had ropes before they had boats, but with the development of the boat has come the development of rope into the product of today.

Did you ever stop to think why rope is so much used aboard ships? What are the qualities which make it such a necessary part of a ship’s gear? Ropes are primarily used to transmit power in a convenient way. If sailors could grasp the sail in their hands and clew it up no clew-lines would be necessary. But their arms are not long enough and the power would be spread over such a large area that it would become ineffective. A clew-line concentrates that power from that point of application to a convenient place for the sailor to apply it. An iron rod would do the same thing, you say. Yes, but an iron rod lacks two essential qualities--lightness and flexibility. Flexibility is the cardinal virtue of a rope. When not in use it can be coiled down to a very small space and it can follow the wake of the worst helmsman without fear of breaking its back. A chain is flexible, but its own weight is so great that it is only of value for certain kinds of work.

Ropes are made of organic material such as cotton, hemp, manila, grass, and of metals such as iron, steel, bronze and sometimes aluminum.

The class of organic materials is classified as to the material and the manner in which they are made up. Grass, manila and hemp are spun into rope, while cotton is spun, braided and knitted. Braided and knitted ropes have the distinctive quality of being able to transmit torsional stresses such as a flexible shaft and are used for this purpose in the patent log-line. They are also free from turns, which makes them valuable as signal halyards, though by the use of small swivels this bad feature on spun rope has been overcome for use as signal halyards. When you do use cotton, remember it has a great ability for shrinking. Therefore, do not haul your halyards taut in dry weather and wonder why they parted in the first rain-squall.

If spun rope has ruined so many dispositions by the diabolical turn which it can foul itself into--why use it? Because that very same twist--the cause of so much cursing--is the secret of its strength. Rope is subjected to a tension or pull along the line of its longest axis. The thread is made of little fibres which are twisted together. The threads are then twisted to make yarns or strands and the strands twisted or spun into rope or lines. Rope or lines are made up into hawsers.

Take a coil spring and pull out the ends. If you put power enough on the wire it straightens out. This is exactly what happens when you put a strain on a rope; the twists or turns try to straighten out, and lie in a straight line along the center. But there is yarn already in the center, and the coils are pressing in on all sides, squeezing it more and more as the load increases. Now the reason why the two first fibres clung together when they were twisted was that this same pressure made the friction between the fibres so great that they could not slide by each other. This applies to the many hundreds of fibres which make up the rope as a whole. So the harder the pull the harder the squeeze and the harder it is for them to slip by each other. The fact that some pieces of fibre are first on the outside and then on the inside makes all get an equal share of the squeeze. Why does this not go on indefinitely? Because up to a certain load the tendency to cling together is greater than the reaction from the center, which has to push them apart, but when this pressure or reaction becomes greater than the friction the little fibres begin to slide and the ropes part.

The smaller sizes of spun ropes of this organic class are designated by the number of threads used to make up the rope, such as nine-thread or eighteen-thread line. The larger sizes are designated by the number of inches of circumference, such as one-inch, three-inch, etc. Hawsers are measured by the circumference in inches. Spun ropes are three-stranded or four-stranded. A three-stranded rope is more flexible than a four, but a four has greater surface area for the same strength and weight and therefore wears longer.

Hemp rope is harder and less flexible than manila and is used for standing rigging, while manila rope is used for running rigging.

Grass or coir ropes are used where the rope is submerged often, as they do not rot when damp and can be stowed wet. They are very elastic and are specially used for towing light weights, such as targets in the Navy.

Just a few hints about this general class of organic ropes:

Always dry these ropes before stowing them to prevent rotting.

Protect them from chafing by use of chafing gear or reversing end for end to bring the wear in different places.

Always coil down right-handed or with the sun.

The greater the surface the less the wear on any one strand, so use four-stranded for ropes whose particular wear is from chafing such as anchor warps, for small boats and boat-falls. A small size rope would often be strong enough but would chafe through quicker.

Metallic or wire ropes are generally either iron, steel, bronze or combinations of metal strands spun with hemp or manila strands.

Bronze rope is used for tiller ropes because it is non-magnetic and it will not rust. This is important, as tiller ropes are often in inaccessible places. If it does not pass near your compass and it is out where it can be easily examined and cared for to prevent rusting, a flexible steel tiller rope is cheaper and stronger for the same weight and also wears longer.

Galvanized iron wire is used for standing rigging, and the rusting in places where turns have broken the surface coating, such as around thimbles of an eye splice, should be carefully looked for. Most sailors think it wiser not to paint wire except for decorative purposes. If it is painted be sure to remove all grease and water from the surface.

Steel rope is used for running rigging because of its flexibility and lightness. It is not adapted, however, for small boats.

A combination of alternate strands of wire and hemp is made into rope known as durable rope, and is used particularly for cargo falls and it is more flexible and more easily handled.

SIMPLE KNOTS AND LOOPS

All knots are begun with loops or hitches. These may be single or double as required. The simple hitch is self-explanatory, as are the underhand and the overhand loops. The illustrations explain them clearly.

=The Simple Knot= begins with one of these loops by passing the loose end through the loop and then drawing it taut as shown in the diagram.

=The Figure of 8 Knot= is known as the perfect knot. It is formed by an overhand and an underhand loop overlapping each other and the loose end passed through the loop. When drawn tight it bears a close resemblance to the Arabic numeral 8, hence its name.

=The Double, Treble, Four-Fold, or Six-Fold Knots= may be called compound knots. They are used often when it is necessary to shorten a rope a few inches or to increase the size or strength of a holding knot to prevent it passing through an eye or a block. These knots are made by passing the end of a rope twice, three times, or as many times as may be necessary, through a loop as shown in the Simple Knot. The diagrams show a double knot loosely formed and when nipped or drawn taut, and a treble knot in its open formation and pulled taut.

=The Five and Six-Fold Knots= present handsome coils and are useful to travelers who do not wish to cut the precious cords of their baggage.

From Simple knots the student passes to loops, nooses and running knots. The Bight of a rope is the loop formed when a rope is bent back on itself. The Standing Part is the principal portion or longest part of the rope and the end is that part used in forming the knot or hitch.

=The Simple Running Knot= is made by passing a hitch instead of the end of a rope when making a simple knot. The variations of this knot are numerous. When the loose end is knotted with a simple perfect or double knot it forms one of the most useful and easily made loops.

=The Tomfool Knot= is a double loop through a simple knot. This knot is also known as the Single Pitcher Knot. It is said that this knot has baffled many experts who profess to be able to break any knot. It is made like the running knot. The firm end is then passed through the open, simple knot so as to form a double loop or bow. If the wrists are passed within the loops, the loops then drawn taut and the loose ends tied firmly around the central part a pair of very good handcuffs is furnished.

=The Loop Knot= is the ordinary useful loop of everyday life and it forms the foundation for many more elaborate knots and for shortenings. A more ornamental and even stronger loop, which is well adapted for large cordage, is made by the figure 8 knot. This loop, like the common loop knot, when once made and has been subjected to a lengthened strain, is very difficult to untie. In this case there is nothing better than a running knot with a check knot, which is a modification of the fisherman’s knot. A simple knot is tied over the running line as shown in the figure. After use it may be easily drawn apart, the loop slipped and the knot untied in very short time.

=The Bowline Knot= cannot slip and is therefore always used for slinging a man for the purpose of doing some particular piece of work; the workman sits in the sling. First take the part =Z= in the right hand with =Y= in the left hand, place =Z= on =Y=, and, turning the left hand over from you to the left, form a loop and reeve =C= as shown by the dotted line and haul taut.

=The Running Bowline= is used whenever a running noose is required. Form a loop with a long end =C= lying underneath the standing part as shown in Fig. 1. Now bring end =C= over part =Y= and with it form the bowline knot on part =Z= as in the previous case it was formed on its own part, when it will appear as in Fig. 2.

=The Bowline on the Bight= is used for lowering a man from aloft or slinging a man over the ship’s side. Using both parts of the rope together, commence as in making an ordinary bowline. To finish off, open out bight =C=, taking it in the direction indicated by the dotted line, pass the whole knot through it and haul taut when it will appear as in Fig. 2.

=A Simple Clinch= is formed by closing up the initial loop to form a small ring and securing, by a seizing, a small lashing at =D=.

=A Running= or =Inside Clinch= is formed by the end of a rope on its own standing part and is often used for securing buntlines to the foot of a sail.

=An Outside Clinch= is formed in a similar way but the end, =C=, is brought round on top; that is, away from the bight.

=The Standing Bowline Knot= is formed by passing the loose end through the lower loop of a figure 8 knot and seizing or tying the end with small cord or marline.

=Slip Clinches= are very easily made. They are really open running knots seized instead of tied.

=The Running Noose= is one of the most common and useful of running knots used in commerce but it is only applicable to small cords. A simple knot is made on the end of the cord which is then simply knotted round.

=The Crossed Running Knot= is useful in packing heavy goods as well as a useful anchor fastening.

KNOTS FOR UNITING ROPES

The most common knots, those used in everyday life, are to unite the ends of two separate pieces of cord or rope.

=The Reef Knot= is the simplest of all knots and always used when a common tie is required. The two illustrations show how this knot is made. Having constructed the knot as far as Fig. 1, be sure part =A= is kept in front of part =B= as shown, and the end led in according to the direction of the dotted line.

If the cords be of unequal thickness the knot will slip, form a loop and part company, as shown in Fig. 1 above. If the ends are not parallel to the rope it becomes the False Knot or Granny Knot. Figs. 2 and 3 show the difference.

A better way to fasten two ropes of unequal size is to tie or seize the ends (Fig. 1 below) and when this is done as shown the square knot or reef can be made as usual.

=The Open-Hand Knot= is a good one for joining two ropes of unequal diameter. It is very quickly made and has the recommendation of never slipping or untying. If, however, a great strain is put on the rope it is apt to break at the knot. The illustrations above, one showing the open formation (Fig. 2), and the other its back view when drawn taut (Fig. 3), explain the process of making.

=The Weaver’s Knot= is very useful in joining small cord or twine and is the best for thread. The ends are crossed as in Fig. 1 and both cords are held between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand. The right end, =A=, is then looped back over the left end and brought under the thumb, where it is held fast, while the right-hand end, =B=, is slipped through the loop. The knot (Fig. 3) is then formed by tightening the right-hand cord. If cord thicker than thread is used, the end, =B=, must be held between the thumb and finger of the left hand while the knot is being drawn taut, as in Fig. 4 (below).

=The Fisherman’s= or =Englishman’s Knot= is of quite another character. It is formed by two simple knots (Fig. 7) slipped over each cord as in Fig. 5, and when drawn taut its front appearance is seen in Fig. 6. It is used by anglers, as it may be separated by taking the ends =A= and =B= in Fig. 6 so as to admit a third line.

=The Ordinary Knot= or =Tie= for uniting large ropes is shown in Fig. 8. It has all the advantages of the open-hand knot, with the additional recommendations that it is easy to make, very strong and does not strain the fibres of the rope. First make the simple knot (Fig. 7) and then interlace the other cord in the manner shown in Fig. 8. When drawn taut it has the appearance of Fig. 9. If the ends are whipped it is really a neat and handsome as well as useful knot.