volume xiv, note 51.--ED.

[78] Most of the collections made on this expedition have arrived at Philadelphia, and are in good preservation; they comprise, among other things, more than sixty prepared skins of new or rare animals. Several thousand insects, seven or eight hundred of which are probably new; five hundred have already been ascertained to be so, and have been described. The herbarium contains between four and five hundred species of plants new to the Flora of the United States, and many of them supposed to be undescribed.

Many of the minerals collected by Mr. Jessup were left at Smithland, Kentucky. A suit of small specimens, adapted to the illustration of the geology of the country from the Alleghenies to the Rocky Mountains, has been received.

A collection of terrestrial and fluviatile shells was also made. Of these more than twenty new species have already been described and published. The organic reliquiæ collected on the voyage from Pittsburgh to St. Louis have not as yet been received in Philadelphia, but are daily expected.

The sketches, executed by Mr. Peale, amounted to one hundred and twenty-two. Of these, twenty-one only were finished; the residue being merely outlines of quadrupeds, birds, insects, &c.

The landscape-views, by Mr. Seymour, are one hundred and fifty in number; of these, sixty have been finished.--JAMES.

A GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY TRAVERSED BY THE EXPLORING EXPEDITION

BEING THE COPY OF A REPORT OF MAJOR LONG TO THE HON J. C. CALHOUN, SECRETARY OF WAR

Dated Philadelphia, Jan. 20. 1821.

SIR,

In obedience to your order of the 28th of November, I have the honour to submit the following report, embracing a concise account of the movements of the exploring expedition under my command, and a general description of the country explored by them. Although there may be no very striking incidents to embellish the narration, yet the diversity of scenery presented to the view, the changes in the character and aspect of the country, and the variety of other interesting matter in the several departments of natural science, which have been subjects of particular attention, cannot fail to awaken a lively interest in the minds of an enlightened community, inasmuch as a discussion of them must lead to a knowledge of the condition and natural resources of a large portion of the United States' territory. But as the principal object contemplated in this report is a general view of the topography of the country, the subjects of description will be such only as are thought to be illustrative of such a view.

{190} MOVEMENTS OF THE EXPEDITION

The expedition embarked on board of the United States' steam-boat, Western Engineer, at Pittsburgh, on the 4th of May, 1819. Their outfit consisted of such books, instruments, stationery, &c. (a return of which is on file in the engineer department), together with such provisions, &c. as were deemed requisite at the commencement of their voyage. They proceeded down the Ohio river, making such observations and surveys along its banks as are calculated to augment the stock of intelligence already acquired in relation to that part of the country. This part of their route having been previously traversed by gentlemen of science, who have judiciously arranged and generously promulgated the intelligence they have collected, but little matter of a novel or interesting character could be expected. Yet an investigation of the numerous organic remains, and mineral productions, discoverable on the Ohio throughout its whole extent, together with such an examination of the country as is requisite to a general description of its aspect, soil, and vegetable productions, were considered as objects meriting their attention in the discharge of their several duties.

On arriving at the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi, they proceeded up the latter to the Missouri, and thence up the river last mentioned to the Council Bluffs, improving every opportunity of extending their researches in the various branches of natural science. At the time of their arrival at the Council Bluffs, the season was so far spent, that it was deemed inexpedient to proceed further till the ensuing season; and the boat was accordingly dismantled, and moored in a safe harbour, and quarters constructed for the accommodation of the party during the then approaching winter. Being located in a situation central to a variety of Indian tribes and nations, inhabiting the neighbouring country, {191} they were enabled to acquire a pretty extensive acquaintance with the manners, customs, and character of the natives in that quarter. Surveys of the surrounding country were made; observations for determining the latitude, longitude, magnetic variation, dip, &c. were taken; the changes of the weather, and other meteorologic phenomena were recorded; and such other duties performed, as pertained to the pursuits of the expedition.

On the voyage up the Missouri, a party was detached from the steam-boat at Fort Osage, with instructions to proceed across the country by land, to the Konzas village, and thence to the villages of the Pawnees, on the river Platte, and to return on board again at the Council Bluffs. This excursion was undertaken with a view of prosecuting the business of the expedition. The party had accomplished part of the duties assigned them, when they were met near the Konzas village by a war-party of the Republican Pawnees, and robbed of their horses, baggage, &c., which compelled them to give up the further prosecution of their enterprize. This misfortune rendered it necessary for them to change their route, and shape their course for the Missouri, which they reached at Cow Island, having obtained much useful information concerning the country through which they passed, and the natives inhabiting it.

On my return to the wintering post of the expedition, to which we had given the name of Engineer Cantonment, I pursued a course north of the Missouri, from near its mouth to that place, taking sketches of the country, preparatory to a topographical delineation. The observance of courses, distances, magnetic variations, &c. were objects of our particular care and attention in all the movements of the expedition.

On my arrival at the cantonment, which I reached on the 27th of May last, preparations were made, with all convenient despatch, for reconnoitring the country {192} westward to the Rocky Mountains, in conformity to your order of the 28th of February, 1820. The steam-boat was ordered on topographical duties under the command of Lieut. Graham, who proceeded with her down the Missouri to St. Louis, thence up the Mississippi to the De Moyen rapids, and thence down the river to Cape Girardeau, taking such observations and sketches on the voyage as are requisite in constructing a chart of that part of the river and the adjacent country.

Having made the necessary arrangements, and rendered our outfit, for the western tour, as complete as circumstances would permit, we commenced our march on the 6th of June, all in good health, except Mr. Say, the zoologist for the expedition. It may not be improper here to give a list, exhibiting the names of the persons composing the party, and the several capacities in which they served.

S. H. Long, Major I. Engineers, commanding Expedition. J. R. Bell, Capt. Lieut. Artillery, Journalist. W. H. Swift, Lieut. Artillery, Assistant Topographer and Commanding Guard. T. Say, Zoologist, &c. E. James, Botanist, Mineralogist, and Surgeon. T. R. Peale, Assistant Naturalist. S. Seymour, Landscape-painter, &c. Joseph Bijeau, Guide and Interpreter. Abraam Ledoux, Farrier and Hunter. Stephen Julien, Interpreter. H. Dougherty, Hunter. Zachariah Wilson, Baggage Master. J. Duncan, J. Oakley, and D. Adams, Engagees. John Sweney, Private of the Corps of Artillery. Joseph Verplank, William Parish, Robert Foster, Mordecai Nowland, Peter Barnard, and Charles Myers, Privates of the Rifle Regiment, Pack-horsemen and Hunters.

{193} The number of horses and mules, provided for the use of the party, was thirty-four, including several that were the property of individuals; so that we were able to have all of the party mounted, and also a sufficient number of horses besides, for the transportation of baggage. In addition to arms, ammunition, a small quantity of provisions and other necessaries for the tour, our outfit embraced a small supply of Indian goods for presents, not exceeding £150 in value.

The instruments for astronomical and other observations, comprehended in our outfit, were very limited, both in number and variety. The mode of transporting them that we were compelled to adopt was by no means suited to the conveyance of delicate instruments, or such as required much space in packing. We, however, took all belonging to the expedition that were in good repair and of a portable construction. The principal were the following: one sextant of five inches radius; one snuff box sextant; one mercurial horizon with a glass frame; one patent lever watch of an excellent quality; three travelling compasses; one measuring tape; two thermometers; and some few articles of apparatus for the use of the naturalists.

Every man being accoutred with a gun, shot-pouch, and powder-horn, and most of them with pistols, the exploring party proceeded westwardly to the Pawnee villages, situated on a branch of the Platte called the Loup Fork, thence southwardly to the Platte, and thence westwardly along the valley of the Platte, to the place where it issues from the Rocky Mountains. Having examined the mountains at that place, and finding the country too hilly and broken to penetrate with horses within their range, we shaped our course southwardly along their base, taking occasion to ascend the peaks and spurs of the mountains whenever a favourable opportunity presented, for the purpose of ascertaining their geological character, and that of the vegetables growing upon them.

{194} On arriving at the Arkansa Captain Bell was detached with a small party to ascend along the river as far as it was practicable to travel with horses, and was able to ascend nearly thirty miles, when his further progress was intercepted by the proximity of the hills to the river.

Having descended the Arkansa about one hundred miles to the point whence it was judged expedient to strike upon a southwardly course in quest of the source of the Red river, the party was formed into two detachments; the one to proceed down the Arkansa, under the direction of Captain Bell, and the other to accompany me, with the view of exploring the country southwardly to Red river, and thence down its valley to the upper settlements thereon.

Captain Bell's party, with the exception of three soldiers last mentioned in the foregoing list, who deserted on the march, arrived in safety at Belle Point, their place of destination, having performed the duties assigned them.

On separating from Captain Bell, the detachment under my direction proceeded southwardly in view of the mountains about one hundred and fifty miles, and arrived at a creek, having a southwardly course, which we took to be tributary to Red river. Having travelled down its valley about two hundred miles, we fell in with a party of Indians of the nation of Kaskaias, or Bad-hearts, who gave us to understand that the stream along which we were travelling was Red river. We accordingly continued our march down the river several hundred miles further; when, to our no small disappointment, we discovered that it was the Canadian of the Arkansa, instead of Red river, that we had been exploring. Our horses being nearly worn out with the fatigue of our long journey, which they had to perform bare-footed, and the season being too far advanced to admit of retracing our steps and going again in quest of the source of Red river with the possibility of exploring it before the commencement {195} of winter, it was deemed advisable to give over the enterprize for the present, and make our way to the settlements on the Arkansa. We were led to the commission of this mistake in consequence of our not having been able to procure a guide acquainted with this part of the country. Our only dependence, in this respect, was upon Pike's map, which assigns to the head-waters of the Red river the apparent locality of those of the Canadian. We continued our march, therefore, and arrived at Belle Point on the Arkansa on the 13th September, four days after the arrival of Captain Bell and his party.

Both parties suffered occasionally for the want of food and water; but in general the game of the country yielded us an ample supply of the former, and the watercourses, along which we for the most part travelled, satisfied our demands for the latter. In regard to health we were all highly favoured, except Mr. Say, who was more or less indisposed throughout the tour. Some of the rest were occasionally affected with slight indisposition.

It is a source of much regret that we had the misfortune to lose some of our most valuable manuscripts by the desertion of three soldiers of Captain Bell's party before mentioned. They deserted on the head-waters of the Verdigrise river, within about two hundred miles of the upper settlements of the Arkansa, taking with them three horses, the best belonging to the party, four saddle-bags, containing wearing apparel and other things belonging to the gentlemen of the party, besides the following manuscripts: viz. Journal of the Tour, one number; Manners and Customs of the Indians, one number; Zoological Description and Remarks, one number; Vocabularies of Indian Languages, two numbers; all by Mr. Say; and one number, containing Topographical Notes and Sketches, by Lieutenant Swift. In addition to the above, the loss of a few horses that died {196} on the march was the only accident or misfortune worthy of notice that befell the expedition.

From Belle Point the exploring party proceeded across the country in a north-eastwardly direction to Cape Girardeau, where they arrived on the 10th October, having been occupied a little more than four months in the performance of the tour from the Council Bluff.

Throughout the whole excursion the attention of the gentlemen of the expedition was constantly occupied upon the several subjects of investigation which were deemed essential to a topographical and scientific description of the country. In the discharge of our duties, however, we laboured under many disadvantages for want of a sufficient variety of instruments to furnish all the data proper and desirable in giving an account of the geology and meteorology of the country. A barometer would have been particularly useful; but out of three belonging to the expedition two were rendered completely unfit for use, partly by accident and partly by defects in their construction, and the third was in such a condition that it was not deemed advisable to take it with us, as it was not likely to remain fit for service but for a short time only. In ascertaining the humidity of the atmosphere a hygrometer would have been particularly useful, but it has never been in my power to procure one that had any claim to being accurate. In taking the various observations, however, that could be effected by means of the few instruments we had with us, no pains were spared, and no opportunities lost; those in particular, for the calculation of latitude and longitude, were taken as often as it was thought necessary, and with the utmost care and precision that circumstances would permit.

On our arrival at Cape Girardeau we had contemplated to embark on board of the Western Engineer, which was at that port ready for our accommodation, {197} and sail for Louisville; but, learning that the water of the Ohio was at that time too low to admit even the passage of a boat drawing no more than fifteen or sixteen inches of water, we were compelled to seek another mode of conveyance. Those of the expedition who had been on duty during the two last seasons, being very anxious to visit their homes, arrangements were accordingly made for their return to Philadelphia, when they would be enabled to complete and report the intelligence they had collected. Messrs. Say, Peale, Seymour, and Lieut. Graham, being desirous to return by water, waited the opportunity of taking a passage to New Orleans, and thence to Philadelphia. Most of the curiosities collected by the expedition were placed in the charge of Mr. Say, to be shipped for this place.

Lieut. Swift was left in command of the steam-boat and crew, with instructions to proceed with them to Louisville as soon as the water would permit. He was instructed to leave the boat in the care of the pilot employed on board of her,--order her crew of United States' soldiers to Newport, Kentucky, for winter quarters and subsistence, and report in person at Philadelphia, for topographical duty.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY TRAVERSED BY THE EXPLORING EXPEDITION

Having given the foregoing brief account of the movements of the expedition, we next proceed to a consideration of the region explored by them, which embraces a very considerable portion of the immense valley situated between the Alleghany and Rocky Mountains. The portion of this valley to which their attention has been more particularly directed, and relative to which intelligence has been collected, is situated between thirty-five and forty-two degrees of north latitude, and eighty and one hundred and six degrees of west longitude, embracing an extent of {198} about five hundred miles in width from north to south, and thirteen hundred miles in length from east to west. As might be expected in a region of this extent, a great diversity of surface is presented to view, exhibiting all the varieties, from the most level and unbroken to the most rugged and mountainous aspect. The most broken parts of this region are those situated along the Ohio, from its source to its confluence with the Mississippi, and on the west of the Mississippi, between Red river and the Arkansa, and between the latter and the Missouri, extending westward about four hundred miles from the Mississippi. The whole region, in a geological point of view, is constituted of three varieties of formations, which characterize the surface throughout; viz. transition, secondary, and alluvial. A tract, however, of considerable extent, including the hot springs of the Washita, and extending northwardly to the lead mines back of St. Genevieve, has, by some, been considered as possessing a primitive character; but it is believed that the rocks discoverable therein are not sufficiently uniform to warrant such a decision. Moreover, an insulated tract of primitive country, surrounded by others exhibiting the most unequivocal marks of their being secondary, and at the same time presenting a similar conformation in their general aspect, is such an anomaly in natural science as requires more than ordinary proof to be admitted. The particular tract under consideration is probably analogous to other tracts within the region above specified, exhibiting a surface characterized by primitive formation superincumbent upon others of a secondary character.

In order to give a more distinct conception of the country or region under consideration, it may be regarded as divisible into the following sections: viz. 1st, the country situated between the Ohio river and the Alleghany mountains; 2d, the country situated between the Ohio, Mississippi, and the Lakes; {199} 3d, the country situated between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers; 4th, the country situated between the Red and Missouri rivers, west of the Mississippi and east of the meridian of the Council Bluff; and 5th, the country between the proposed meridian and the Rocky Mountains.

_Of the country situated between the Ohio river and the Alleghany mountains_

The country on the south side of the Ohio, including the northerly parts of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Tennessee, together with the whole of Kentucky, abounds in hills elevated, in the vicinity of the Ohio, from four to eight hundred or a thousand feet above the water-table of the river, and rising many hundred feet higher in the neighbourhood of the Alleghany mountains. This section is watered by many streams of considerable magnitude tributary to the Ohio, the most important of which are the Monongahela, Kenhawa, Great Sandy, Licking, Kentucky, Salt, Green, Cumberland, and Tennessee. These rivers are all navigable for keel-boats, and many of them for steam-boats, some hundreds of miles, during the boating season, which generally commences about the 20th February and terminates early in June. Occasional freshets contribute to render them navigable during short portions of the other months of the year; but no reliance can be placed in periodical returns of freshets, excepting those of the spring season. Upon these rivers are extensive and valuable tracts of bottom land covered with deep and heavy forests, and possessed of a soil adapted to the cultivation of all the variety of vegetable products common to the various climates in which they are situated. The highlands, back of the bottoms, although variegated with hills and vallies alternating with each other in quick succession, are generally possessed of a surface susceptible of being tilled, and in many instances of a soil equally rich and prolific with that of the bottoms. {200} In many parts of the country, however, the hills are abrupt and stony to such a degree as renders them unfit for tillage. The average produce per acre, upon the farming lands of this section, may be estimated at the following rates: viz. Indian corn or maize, forty bushels; wheat, twenty-two; rye, twenty-six; oats, thirty-five; barley, thirty; tobacco, from twelve to fifteen cwt., and cotton from five to seven cwt. In regard to the products last mentioned, viz. cotton and tobacco, it should be observed, that they are cultivated only in the south-westerly parts of this section, and that oats and barley are seldom cultivated except in the upper or north-easterly parts.

Of the population of this section, if we except the towns and villages and their immediate vicinities, as also a large portion of country surrounding Lexington, Kentucky, and another of considerable extent, including Nashville, Tennessee, it is yet but thinly inhabited, affording room for a population far more numerous and more widely diffused. There are extensive tracts of country between the Alleghany mountains and the Ohio as yet almost entirely destitute of inhabitants, the most considerable of which are situated in the vicinity of the mountains, also the country generally between Tennessee river and the Mississippi. As this section of country is pretty generally well known, the foregoing outline of its topography will suffice.

_Of the country situated between the Ohio, Mississippi, and the Lakes_

The section of country next in the order proposed is situated north of the Ohio river, and comprehends the states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. This section may be subdivided into three orders or varieties of country, which merit a separate consideration, viz. the hilly, the plain or rolling, and the valley country.

{201} The hilly country, like that south of the Ohio, exhibits a very uneven surface, variegated with hills and dales irregularly distributed, and occupying about one third part of the section under consideration. This portion of the country is of an oblong shape, bounded on the south-east by the Ohio river, and on the north-west by an imaginary line, commencing on the Mississippi near the grand tower, and running in a direction nearly E.N.E., till it approaches the easterly part of Lake Erie. On the east it mingles with the hilly country, comprehending the back parts of Pennsylvania and New York. In short, the whole region situated between the Alleghany mountains and the imaginary line above specified, or in other words, the country through which the Ohio and its tributaries, except the Wabash, have their courses, may be arranged under this head. The hills throughout the whole are very similar in respect to their altitudes, multiplicity and conformation.

Although the hilly country north of the Ohio is in many places rugged and broken, yet a large proportion of it is susceptible of cultivation. No high mountains are to be seen; the hills usually rise from six to eight hundred feet above the common level, or about one thousand feet above the water-tables of the principal rivers, and invariably present rounded summits. Interspersed among the hills are numerous fine tracts of arable land, which may in general be alleged of the valleys of the numerous rivers and creeks by which the country is watered. The soil upon the hills is generally productive, except where the surface is rocky and the declivities abrupt, which is more particularly the case in the vicinity of rivers, where the high lands are divided into numerous knobs, being cut by deep ravines with abrupt and precipitous banks.

The hilly country, having been generally esteemed more healthy than either of the other varieties above mentioned, has acquired a more numerous population {202} than the latter. As yet, however, no part of this section has its full complement of inhabitants, if we except, as before, the numerous towns and villages and their immediate neighbourhoods. In regard to the products of agriculture, the same remarks that have been made concerning the section south of the Ohio are equally applicable to the country under consideration, with the exception that cotton is cultivated only in the south-westerly extreme of this section, and tobacco is raised for domestic uses only.

The most considerable rivers intersecting this section of country are the Muskingum, Sciota, Big Miami, and Wabash, all of which, in the spring season, are navigable two or three hundred miles from their mouths.

The valleys of these rivers give place to many extensive and fertile bottoms well adapted to cultivation, and producing the necessaries of life in great abundance and variety.

The plain, or rolling country, is separated from that last under consideration by the imaginary line above mentioned. It is not to be inferred, however, that the junction of these two regions is distinctly marked by any characters whatever by which the line can be traced with precision, but that a gradual change of aspect is observable in travelling from one variety of country to the other, and that the general direction of the line indicated by this change is that specified above. The other boundaries of this variety are the Mississippi on the west, and the Lakes Erie and Michigan, and the Fox and Wisconsan rivers on the north and east. This variety of country, although not entirely destitute of hills, is almost throughout its whole extent possessed of an undulating or rolling surface, rising into broad and gentle swells in some parts, and subsiding into extensive flats or plains in others. The valleys of numberless watercourses, bounded by abrupt bluffs or banks, afford some diversity to its aspect; and the bluffs in {203} particular of the principal streams, being cut by numerous ravines, contribute in many places to give the surface a hilly and broken appearance. Although no part of this region can with propriety be denominated hilly, especially when compared with the portions of country above considered, yet upon the Wisconsan, Fox, the head-waters of Rock and Melwakee rivers, the country is considerably diversified with hills, or rather swells, and valleys. The only hills worthy of particular notice, not only in this variety, but in the whole section under consideration, are the Ocooch and Smokey mountains, which are broad and elevated ridges rather than mountains. The former is situated about twelve miles north of the Wisconsan, one hundred miles above its mouth, and the latter about forty miles south of the portage between the river just mentioned and Fox river of Green Bay. The rivers of most note within this region are, the Wabash, above the hilly country before described, the Kaskaskias, Illinois, Rock and Wisconsan, tributary to the Mississippi; the Fox of Green Bay, the St. Joseph of Lake Michigan, and the Maumee and Sandusky, tributary to Lake Erie. These rivers are all navigable for boats of ten or fifteen tons burden when swollen by spring freshets; but, during the greater part of the summer and fall, they have not a sufficient depth of water for boats of burden, and in winter their navigation is entirely obstructed by ice. The spring freshets, consequent to the melting of the snow and ice, usually take place in the month of March, the southerly streams being open for navigation much earlier than those in the north.

The prairies, or champaigns, east of the Mississippi, are mostly situated in this particular region, occupying at least three fourths of it. These are waving or flat tracts of country, of greater or less extent, separated from each other by narrow skirts of woodland situated upon the margins of rivers and creeks. They are generally possessed of a rich soil, yielding {204} a spontaneous growth of grass and herbage of a luxuriant appearance. They are well adapted to the cultivation of corn, wheat, rye, barley, oats, &c. of which they yield plentiful crops.

The prevailing opinion in regard to this portion of the country, viz. that it is unhealthy, appears too well founded to admit of refutation. The causes that contribute to render it so are very obvious: a large proportion of the prairies are so flat that much of the water deposited upon them by showers remains stagnant upon the surface till it is carried off gradually by evaporation, which renders the atmosphere humid and unhealthy. The vegetable mould of which the immediate surface is composed, and the abundance of vegetables that spring and decay upon the ground, contribute largely to render these exhalations more deleterious. Although there are but few swamps or marshes, and very rarely pools of stagnant water, to be met with in this region, still the general water-table of the country is so little inclined, that the streams, having but a moderate descent, are uniformly sluggish, often exhibiting the appearance of a succession of stagnant pools. The consequence is, that the vegetable matter they contain, instead of being carried away by the strength of the current, is deposited upon the bottoms and sides of the channels, and, while in its putrescent state, serves to augment the quantity of noxious effluvia with which the atmosphere is charged.

The population of this region, compared with its extent, is very limited; and with the exception of a few villages the settlements are very scattering. Large portions of it, embracing the northerly parts of Indiana and Illinois, are almost entirely destitute of inhabitants. Many parts of the country must remain uninhabited for many years to come, on account of the scarcity of timber and other deficiencies, such as the want of mill-seats, springs of water, &c. which are serious blemishes in the character of a large {205} proportion of the country. There are, however, numerous and extensive tracts within this region possessed of a rich soil, and in other respects well adapted for settlements, and presenting the strongest inducements for emigrants to occupy them.

The country of the third order, agreeably to the subdivision above given, viz. the valley country, is situated upon the rivers, and is included within the hilly and plain country above described. The tracts belonging to this order, usually denominated bottoms, are altogether alluvial, being composed of alternate layers of sand and soil deposited from the water of the rivers upon which they are respectively situated. The alluvion thus deposited, having once constituted a part of the surface of the countries drained by the watercourses tributary to the rivers along which the deposit has been made, it will readily be inferred that the fecundity of the valleys will in some measure correspond with that of the countries whence their alluvion was derived. Accordingly we find the bottoms more or less productive in proportion to the fertility of the regions in which the rivers take their rise and through which they flow. In the valley of the Ohio the quality of the soil appears to improve from its source downwards. The alluvion, of which it is composed is supplied by the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, which have their origin and courses in a hilly and mountainous country, possessed in general of a sandy surface. The alluvion, supplied by other tributaries entering the Ohio at various points between its source and its mouth, is of a better quality, being composed principally of argillaceous and calcareous earth, which are prevailing ingredients in the soil of the country drained by those tributaries.

It should be remarked, however, in relation to all the varieties of alluvia, that they are partially composed of the fine particles of decayed vegetable {206} matter with which the water drained from the surface of the ground is invariably charged. This property in alluvial deposits often prevails to such a degree as to render soils, apparently sandy and sterile, remarkably productive. The alluvial bottoms throughout the United States afford innumerable examples of this fact. The fertilizing matter often exhibits itself in the slimy deposits left upon the surface of the ground after an inundation.

The most extensive tract of valley country east of the Mississippi is that situated within the bluffs of this river, usually denominated the American Bottom, extending from the mouth of the Ocoa, or Kaskaskias river, northwardly to that of the Missouri. This spacious bottom, although at present elevated much above the range of the highest freshets, is nevertheless alluvial. Its length along the Mississippi is about eighty, and its average breadth about four miles. It is generally destitute of a timber growth, except along the margin of the river, upon which there is a skirt of woodland extending almost from one end of the tract to the other. The alluvion of the American Bottom is composed of the rich mud brought down by the turbid Missouri, united with an abundance of vegetable matter yielded by the waters of the upper Mississippi, which also characterizes the bottoms of this extensive river from the Missouri downward to its mouth. Upon this bottom are situated the town of Kaskaskias, the villages of Prairie de Rocher, Harrison, Prairie de Pont, Cahokia and Illinois, together with many other settlements.

On the same side of the river another large tract of valley land, called the Mississippi Bottom, commences a few miles below the mouth of the river Kaskaskias, and extends downwards along the Mississippi, between fifty and sixty miles, having an average width of about three miles. This tract, in regard {207} to soil and aspect, is of a character similar to that of the American Bottom, except that the former is more plentifully stocked with timber.

Besides these, there are numerous other bottoms on the Mississippi, within the limits prescribed for this report, all of which are composed of a rich alluvion. Those in particular situated below the confluence of the Mississippi and Missouri are possessed of a soil exceedingly luxuriant, being composed, as before observed, of the rich and fertilizing mud deposited from the water of the Missouri. Most of them are covered with deep and heavy forests of timber, accompanied with a luxuriant undergrowth of vines, shrubs, grass and other herbage.

The bottoms of the Wabash, Kaskaskias, Illinois, and Rock rivers, are also made up of a rich alluvion of sand and loam, containing a large proportion of vegetable mould. Their surfaces, like those of the Mississippi bottoms, are generally flat, exhibiting tabular elevations or benches, formed by the washing of their rivers at different periods. Large tracts of prairie land are to be met with upon them; but for the most part the proportion of woodland is amply sufficient to supply the adjacent country with timber and fuel.

The valleys of these rivers differ from that of the Ohio, not only in having a greater width, but also in being limited on both sides by bluffs stretching along their whole length, and maintaining nearly a parallel direction; whereas the valley of the Ohio is bounded by abrupt hills irregularly disposed, in some instances protruding far into the valley like promontories, and in others retiring from the river, and affording room for bottoms of pretty large extent. The Ohio bottoms are uniformly clad in deep forests, except where they have been removed by settlers; no prairies worthy of notice making their appearance.

{208} The valley country, from the circumstances already detailed in allusion to the country constituting the second variety, is almost without exception unhealthy. But at the same time it appears evident, that this evil gradually decreases in proportion to the increase of population, and the consequent advancement of agriculture; for the products of the soil, which the bottoms yield in the greatest profusion, instead of being left to wither and decay upon the surface, are necessarily consumed in the subsistence of man and beast; in consequence of which, one of the most fruitful causes of pestilential effluvia, viz. vegetable putrefaction, is in a very considerable degree removed.

The prevailing timber growth of the region comprehending the two sections of country already described, is exhibited in the following list of trees: viz. cotton-wood, willow, sycamore, black walnut, pecan, coffee-tree, sweet and sour or black gum, red and water elm, hackberry, blue and white ash, linden, yellow and white poplar, catalpa, black and honey locust, buck-eye, bur oak, white and black oak, mulberry, box, elder, white dogwood, sugar-tree, white maple, wild cherry, red oak, hickory, iron-wood, and hop hornbeam. The foregoing constitute the principal timber growth of the valley country, and are to be met with more or less frequently throughout the whole of it. Red beech is abundant in some parts of the valley of the Ohio, and in those of many of its tributaries; it abounds also in the northerly parts of the States of Ohio and Indiana. Post oak, black jack, and several other varieties of the oak, also chesnut, white and shell bark, hickory, persimmon, &c. are sometimes found in the bottoms, but are more prevalent upon the hills and highlands. Pitch pine abounds in many parts of Ohio and Indiana, and generally in the neighbourhood of the Alleghany mountains. White pine occasionally {209} makes its appearance in the northerly parts of Ohio. Red cedar is found in a great variety of places throughout the country, but no where in great abundance.

The undergrowth of the several tracts of country above considered includes a great variety of shrubs, vines, brambles, grass and other herbage, to be enumerated in a botanical catalogue daily expected from Dr. James.

The most valuable timber trees are the white, post, and bur oaks, the white and blue ash, the shell bark hickory, the black walnut, the cherry, the locust, chesnut, poplar, mulberry, beach, cotton-wood and linden. The two last mentioned are seldom used where other kinds of timber are to be had. The cotton-wood is not only the most abundant timber-growth upon the bottoms, but is more widely diffused than any other, and in many places is the only variety of forest trees that make their appearance; which, however, is more particularly the case westward of the Mississippi.

_Of the country situated between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers_

We next proceed to a consideration of the country west of the Mississippi, and shall begin with that situated between this river and the Missouri. This section contains no mountains, or indeed hills, of any considerable magnitude. The term _rolling_ appears to be peculiarly applicable in conveying an idea of the surface of this region, although it is not entirely destitute of abrupt hills and precipices. The aspect of the whole is variegated with the broad valleys of rivers and creeks, and intervening tracts of undulating upland, united to the valleys by gentle slopes. Its surface is chequered with stripes of woodland situated upon the margins of the watercourses, and dividing the whole into extensive parterres. If we {210} except those parts of the section that are contiguous to the Mississippi and Missouri, at least nineteen-twentieths of the country are completely destitute of a timber-growth.

Within the valleys of these two rivers are extensive tracts of alluvial bottom possessed of a rich soil. The bottoms of the Missouri in particular are probably inferior to none within the limits of the United States in point of fertility. Those of the Mississippi are very rich, but do not exhibit symptoms of so great fecundity as the former. The bottoms of both, on ascending the rivers, become more sandy, and apparently less productive.

The bottoms of the Missouri are for the most part clad in a deep and heavy growth of timber and under-brush, to the distance of about three hundred and fifty miles above its mouth. There are, however, prairies of considerable extent occasionally to be met with on this part of the river. Higher up, the prairies within the river valley become more numerous and extensive, till at length no woodlands appear, except tracts of small size, situated at the points formed by the meanders of the river.

The bottoms on the Upper Mississippi (that part of the Mississippi situated above its confluence with the Missouri being distinguished by this appellation) contain less woodland, in proportion to their extent, than those of the Missouri. The prairies upon this river also become more numerous and extensive as we proceed upward.

The interior of the country, situated between the valleys of these rivers, presents, as before remarked, a rolling aspect, inclining to hilly, and broken in some parts, but generally variegated with gentle swells and broad valleys. Within this section are numerous small rivers and creeks, with valleys of a character similar to those of the Mississippi or Missouri, but not so fertile. These valleys expand to a great width, compared with the magnitude of the streams upon which they are situated, {211} but are not bounded by abrupt bluffs, like those of the two rivers just mentioned. They are generally covered with a luxuriant growth of grass and other herbage, and occasionally present copses of woodland of moderate extent. The timber-growth of the bottoms is similar to that of the Mississippi bottoms; cotton-wood, blue and white ash, hackberry, black walnut, cherry, mulberry, hickory, and several varieties of the oak, being the prevailing timber trees. The hills or high lands are in some instances covered with a scrubby growth of timber and furze, consisting of post oak, black jack, hazel, green brier, &c. The soil of this section is probably equal, if not superior, to that of any other tract of upland of equal extent within our territory. But the scarcity of timber, mill-seats, and springs of water,--defects that are almost uniformly prevalent,--must for a long time prove serious impediments in the way of settling the country.

The population of this section of country is located almost exclusively within the valleys of the Mississippi and Missouri, and in their immediate neighbourhood, extending upwards along the former about one hundred and sixty, and along the latter about three hundred and twenty miles above their confluence. The most populous parts of the country are the county of St. Charles, situated near the junction of these two rivers; Cote Sans Dessein and its vicinity; that part usually denominated the Boon's Lick country, extending from the mouth of Osage river upward along the Miami to the river Chariton; and the country on the Mississippi, including the Salt river settlements, which have become numerous and pretty widely diffused.

Along the valleys, both of the Mississippi and Missouri, there are still innumerable vacancies for settlement, holding forth inducements for emigrants to occupy them, equally as strong as any of the positions already occupied. The inhabitants of this {212} section have frequently been visited by the prevailing epidemics of the western country, which may be attributed, in all probability, to the same causes that have been herein assigned in relation to the country east of the Mississippi, which operate with equal force and effect upon the inhabitants of this section.

_Of the country situated between the Missouri and Red rivers, west of the Mississippi and east of the meridian of the Council Bluff._

Although no precise limits can be assigned as the western boundary of this section, yet the meridian above proposed may be regarded as a line of division between two regions differing in their general character and aspect. It is not pretended that the immediate course of the line is marked by any distinct features of the country, but that a gradual change is observable in the general aspect of the two regions, which takes place in the vicinity of the proposed line. The assumed meridian is in longitude ninety-six degrees west nearly, and crosses the Platte a few miles above its mouth, the Konzas near the junction of the principal forks, the Arkansa about one hundred miles above the Verdigrise, or seven hundred miles from its mouth, the Canadian about one hundred and fifty miles from its mouth, and the Red river about one hundred and fifty miles above the Kiamesha river.

The section of country under consideration exhibits a great variety of aspect, the surface being diversified by mountains, hills, valleys, and occasional tracts of rolling country; within the section, is an extensive tract of bottom land deserving of a particular consideration. It is situated on the Mississippi, commencing a few miles below the Ohio, and extending downward to Red river, uninterrupted by hills or high lands, and subject in many places to inundation from the freshets of the Mississippi. The bottoms contain many large swamps, rendered almost {213} impenetrable by a dense growth of cypress and cypress-knees (the latter of which are conical excrescences springing from the roots of the cypress, and shooting up in profusion to the height of from one to eight or ten feet). The most extensive of these swamps commences near the head of the bottom, and passes south-westwardly back of New Madrid, the Little Prairie, St. Francisville, &c., and terminates near the village of the Port of Arkansa. The Great Swamp, the name by which this extensive morass is designated, is about two hundred miles in length, and is of a variable width, from five to twenty or thirty miles. The timber-growth of this and of the other swamps, which are of a similar character, but inferior in magnitude, consist principally of cypress of a superior quality. But the difficulty of removing it renders it of little value to the country. Within the bottom are also numerous lakes, lagoons, and marshes, once, no doubt, parts of the bed of the Mississippi, or of some of its tributaries that have their courses through the bottom. Notwithstanding the general depression of this bottom, it contains many insulated tracts of considerable extent, elevated above the range of the highest floods. The bottom, almost throughout its whole extent, supports a dense and heavy growth of timber, of an excellent quality, together with a luxuriant undergrowth of cane brake, vines, &c.

It may not be improper to remark in this place, that great havoc is annually made amongst the timber of this tract, by lumber and fuel mongers, who furnish the New Orleans market with large supplies of these articles, particularly of the former.

The bottom is bounded on the west by a chain of heights, corresponding to the river bluffs on other parts of the Mississippi, but not arranged in so regular a manner. These are the commencement of a part of the hilly country hereafter to be considered. The most considerable rivers that flow through the bottoms, and pour their tribute into the Mississippi, {214} are the St. Francis, the Big Black and White rivers, which are confluent, the Washita and Red river.

There are also a few other bottoms on the west side of the Mississippi of moderate size. The largest of these are Tywapata and Bois Broulè, situated a little above the mouth of the Ohio.

The hilly and mountainous country commences immediately west of the Mississippi bottoms, and extends westwardly about four hundred miles. Although the terms _hilly_ and _mountainous_ are expressive of the general character of the country, yet the following portions of this section may be enumerated as exceptions, viz. a tract of country comprehending St. Louis, Belle Fontain, Florissant, and extending south-westwardly so as to include the lead mine tract, Belle View, &c. This tract (which embraces the most populous part of the Missouri territory) may be denominated rolling, or moderately hilly. Considerable portions of the country situated between the Arkansa and Red rivers, particularly in the vicinity of the latter, are also of this character. On the Arkansa, above Belle Point, is an extensive tract of a similar description; as also many tracts of inferior size, on the north side of the Arkansa, between the villages of the Port and the Cadron settlements. On the south side of the Missouri is also an extensive tract of rolling country, commencing at the river Le Mine, six miles above Franklin, and extending upward along the Missouri, with occasional interruptions, to the Council Bluff. Such is the extent of this tract, that it comprises almost the whole of the country situated between the assumed meridian line and the Missouri, from Fort Osage upward. On the head waters of the Osage river, and on those of its principal tributaries, the country is said to be of a similar character also. To these may be added large portions of country situated on the Verdigrise river, upon the Arkansa, above Grand river, and upon the {215} Canadian, from its mouth upwards to the distance of about two hundred miles. The tracts here designated, exhibit broad and elevated swells of land, separated from each other by deep and spacious valleys.

These portions of country are chequered with woodlands and prairies, in many instances alternating with each other in due proportion, for the accommodation of settlers with farming and woodlands. On the Missouri above Fort Osage, and on the Osage river, however, the proportion of woodland is very inconsiderable, and the timber it affords of a scrubby character. The prairies here, as on the north of the Missouri, occupy at least nineteen-twentieths of the whole surface. Some portions of the Red river country are also deficient in the quantum of woodlands allotted to them; but in general it may be observed, that the more southerly regions are better supplied with timber than those farther north. The growth of the woodlands interspersed amongst the prairies is mostly post oak, hickory, black jack, and white oak upon the high lands; and cotton-wood, sycamore, black and white walnut, maple, bur oak, and several other trees common to the western bottoms, in the valleys. The bow wood, or, as it is sometimes called, the Osage orange, is found upon the southerly tributaries of the Arkansa, and upon the Red river and its tributaries. This tree is deserving of particular notice, inasmuch as it affords a timber extremely compact and elastic; its trunk and roots may prove very useful in dying yellow, and its fruit of importance in medicine.

The residue of this section, with the exception of the river bottoms, and tracts of valley land scattered in various directions throughout the whole, is extremely hilly, broken, and mountainous, the hills and mountains rising from five to fifteen hundred feet above the water-table of the country in which they are situated. They are exceedingly numerous, and are divided into a multiplicity of knobs and peaks, {216} having rounded summits, and presenting perpendicular cliffs and abrupt precipices of sandstone. Their surfaces generally are covered with rocks of this description, or flinty fragments strewed in profusion upon them. The growth upon them is, almost exclusively, pitch pine, cedar, scrubby oaks, hickory, haw and bramble; the poverty of the soil in some instances, and the scarcity of it in others, excluding the more luxuriant vegetable productions common to the more level country in their vicinity.

The range of mountains situated between the Arkansa and Red rivers gives rise to the following streams, all of which are sufficiently copious for mill-seats, and abound in cascades and falls, well adapted to such purposes; viz. the Blue Water, Kiamesha and Little rivers; the Mountain, Rolling, Cossetot and Saline forks of Little river, all of which are tributary to Red river; the Little Missouri, Cadeau, Washita, and the Saline, all confluent; the Mamelle, Le Fevre, Petit Jean and Poteau, tributary to the Arkansa, besides numerous creeks of less note.

The hills and mountains between the Arkansa and Missouri are equally prolific in watercourses. The most considerable of these are the Verdigrise, Neosho or Grand river, Illinois; together with the Frogs, Mulberry, White Oak, Spadra, Pine, Illinois, Point Remove and Cadron creeks, tributary to the Arkansa; the Little Red and White rivers, confluent streams; the Strawberry, Spring, Eleven Point, Currant, Little and Big Black, all confluent, and tributary to White river, which enters the Mississippi about thirty miles above the mouth of the Arkansa. The St. Francis and the Merameg have their sources in this broken region also, and discharge themselves into the Mississippi. Of the valleys of the rivers last enumerated, viz. those north of the Arkansa and tributary to the Mississippi, it is observable that they are uniformly possessed of a rich soil, but owing to the excessive floods occasionally brought down through them from {217} the hills and mountains, their cultivation is very precarious. The valley of White river, and those of some few others, are in many places elevated above the reach of the highest freshets, and are not altogether subject to this inconvenience. But for the most part they are liable to being swept by overwhelming freshets, which prostrate fences, buildings, and every artificial structure that opposes their march. Even a fall freshet has been known to inundate plantations situated within the valleys, to the depth of eight or ten feet. These floods are generally very sudden, as well as excessive, to such a degree, that on some occasions the water has risen, in the course of one night, more than twenty feet. By these sudden rises of the water, the planter that in the evening thought his family and possessions secure from harm, has been compelled the next morning to embark with his family in a canoe, to save themselves from impending destruction, while his habitation, fields, cattle, and all his effects, are abandoned to the fury of the torrent.

The streams rising in the same hilly country, and tributary to the Missouri, are the following, viz. the Bon Homme creek, the Gasconade, the Osage and its tributaries, the Le Mine, the Blue Water, and several streams tributary to the Konzas river. Upon some of these, as the Bon Homme, Gasconade, and some few creeks besides, mills have been constructed, at which much of the timber of the St. Louis market is sawed.

This section, as yet, is but very partially populated, although the inhabitants in some portions of it are considerably numerous. The most populous part of the section is the country situated immediately below the mouth of the Missouri, including the town of St. Louis and the villages of Florissant and Carondelet, Herculaneum, St. Genevieve, Bainbridge, Cape Girardeau, Jackson, St. Michael's, and the country in their vicinity; the lead mine tract, including Mima {218} Berton, Potosi, and Belle View, are considerably populous. The settlements in these places, however, if we except the sites occupied by the towns and villages just enumerated, are still very scattering, and but a small proportion of the land susceptible of agriculture is yet under cultivation. Besides these, there are numerous other settlements and several small villages within this part of the Missouri territory, distributed in various directions, and constituting but a very scanty population. They are scattered along the Missouri from its mouth to Fort Osage, a distance of more than three hundred miles, on the Gasconade, Merameg, St. Francis, Big Black, and several of its tributaries.

Within the Arkansa territory, there are but few villages, and the settlements are as yet very scattering. The principal villages are the Port of Arkansa, situated about sixty miles above the mouth of the river; Davidsonville, on Big Black river; a small village at the commencement of the high lands on the Arkansa, at a place called the Little Rock, about two hundred miles from the mouth of the river, selected as the seat of government for the territory. Besides these, there are a few other inconsiderable villages on the Arkansa river, as also several of small size, situated in the country between the river just mentioned and the Red river, the most considerable of which are at Pecan Point, Mount Prairie, Prairie de Inde, &c. These villages contain but very few houses, and those generally of a rude structure, a circumstance attributable only to the infancy of the territory. The settlements of the territory are scattered along the Arkansa, from the White river cut off (a channel uniting these two rivers at the distance of thirty miles above the mouth of the former, and three miles above that of the latter) to Belle Point, a distance of about four hundred miles. On Little Red, White, and Strawberry rivers, are many scattering settlements, as also on the Washita, Cadeau, Little Missouri, {219} and the several forks of Little river. The settlements upon Red river extend upward to the Kiamesha, a distance of about nine hundred miles from its mouth, following the meanders of the river.

The settlements of the section under consideration are most numerous in those parts represented, in the foregoing description, as being variegated with prairies and woodlands alternating with each other. In the valley of the Arkansa, however, which is generally clad in rich forests and luxuriant cane brakes, prairies are seldom to be met with, and settlers have had recourse to clearing the land necessary for their plantations.

In addition to the white settlements above pointed out, there are numerous villages and settlements of the Cherokee Indians extending along the Arkansa, from the mouth of Point Remove creek upward to Mulberry river, a distance of about one hundred miles. These settlements, in respect to the comforts and conveniences of life they afford, appear to vie with, and in many instances even surpass, those of the Americans in that part of the country.

There are a few villages of the Quapaws or Arkansas, and Choctaws, situated on the south side of the Arkansa river, below the high lands. They are not numerous, subsist principally upon game and Indian corn of their own raising, and have ever been friendly to the whites. Upon the river St. Francis are a few settlements of the Delawares and Shawnees, dispersed remnants of those unfortunate nations. The several bands of the Osage nation resident upon the Verdigrise, and upon the head waters of Osage river, also the Konzas Indians living upon the river bearing their name, are included within this section of the country.

In regard to climate, this region, as it expands through more than eight degrees of latitude, may be expected to afford a considerable variety; and the position is sufficiently verified by the commencement {220} and progress of annual vegetation. The change of climate is also indicated by certain peculiarities observable in the vegetable products of different parts of the country. For example, vegetation begins at least a month earlier in the southern than in the northern extreme of the region. The Spanish moss disappears northwardly of the 33d degree of north latitude; cotton and indigo cannot be cultivated to advantage in a latitude higher than 36 or 37 degrees; and the cane brake is seldom found north of 37½ degrees.

In regard to the salubrity of the climate, there is also a diversity, depending upon local circumstances rather than upon the temperature of the weather. A luxuriant soil yielding its products to decay and putrefy upon the ground, also stagnant waters, flat lands and marshes in which the river valleys of this region abound, cannot fail to load the atmosphere with pestilential miasmata, and render the country unhealthy, wherever these occurrences are to be met with. But it is presumed that the causes of disease will gradually be exterminated as the population of the country increases.

Of the rivers of this region there are many that are navigable for keel-boats of several tons burden, but all of them have more or less obstructions from shoals and frosts at different periods. The Arkansa, which, in point of magnitude and extent, deservedly ranks second amongst the tributaries of the Mississippi (the Missouri being the first), is navigable to the mouth of the Neosho, or Grand river, a distance of about six hundred miles. In this part of the river, however, the navigation is liable to obstructions, for want of a sufficient depth of water, during a period of two and a half or three months, commencing in July. Occasional obstructions are also imposed by ice forming in the river during the winter season, but these are seldom of long continuance, the winters being usually short and mild. As the freshets {221} of the river seldom prevail more than a few days at a time, and are usually attended by sudden rises and falls of the water, boats of moderate draft and burden only are suited to its navigation. The Arkansa is navigable at all seasons for boats of this description about two hundred miles, which comprehends the distance by the meanders of the river from the Mississippi to the commencement of the high lands. Above the mouth of the Neosho it spreads to a much greater width than below, and the water is more extensively diffused over its bed, which renders the shoals more numerous and the navigation more precarious. This part of the Arkansa cannot indeed be considered navigable, even for pirogues of a large size, except during the short period of a freshet, which is seldom long enough to complete a voyage of one hundred miles ascending and descending.

The Red river is navigable, during most of the year, to the Great Raft, about five hundred miles from its mouth. At this place its navigation is effectually obstructed, except in a high stage of water, when keel-boats of ten or fifteen tons burden may pass around it and ascend several hundred miles above. That part of the river situated above the Raft, however, like the upper part of the Arkansa, is rendered impassable for boats of burden, by shoals and sand-bars.

The Washita, tributary to Red river, is navigable many miles. That part of it particularly situated within the valley of the Mississippi, and denominated Black river, admits of constant navigation for boats of considerable burden. The Little river, which is also tributary to Red river, together with its forks, heretofore enumerated, is navigable in high water. White river is navigable in a moderate stage of water between three and four hundred miles. Also the Big Black, its principal tributary, and several branches of the river last mentioned, viz. the Strawberry, Currant, {222} Eleven Point, and Spring rivers. The navigation of the St. Francis is blocked up near its mouth, and rendered impassable for boats of every description, by rafts of logs and drift-wood, completely choking the channel of the river, and in many places occupying the whole of its bed for the distance of several miles together. The Merameg is also navigable in a moderate stage of water for many miles.

The Gasconade, Osage, and Konzas rivers are navigable in the spring season, but their navigation seldom extends far inland from their mouths, being obstructed by shoals or rapids.

Of the rivers tributary to the Missouri, it is remarkable that their mouths are generally blocked up with mud, consequent to the subsidence of the summer freshet of that river, which usually takes place in the month of July. The reason is obvious; the freshets of the more southerly tributaries are discharged early in the season, and wash from their mouths the sand and mud previously deposited therein, leaving them free from obstructions. These freshets having subsided, the more northerly branches discharge their floods, formed by the melting of the snow at a later period. The Missouri being swollen thereby, backs its waters, charged with mud, considerable distances up the mouths of the tributaries before alluded to. The water here becoming stagnant, deposits its mud; and the tributaries, having no more freshets to expel it, remain with their mouths thus obstructed till the ensuing spring.

The lower part of the Canadian river, although it is included within the section under consideration, will be described in the sequel of the report, in connexion with the rest of that river.

Of the animals found in the several sections of country above described, there are a great variety in almost every department of zoology. But as most of them are common in other parts of the United States, they need not to be enumerated here.

{223} _Of the country situated between the meridian of the Council Bluff and the Rocky Mountains_

We next proceed to a description of the country westward of the assumed meridian, and extending to the Rocky Mountains, which are its western boundary. This section embraces an extent of about four hundred miles square, lying between 96 and 105 degrees of west longitude, and between 35 and 42 degrees of north latitude.

Proceeding westwardly across the meridian above specified, the hilly country gradually subsides, giving place to a region of vast extent, spreading towards the north and south, and presenting an undulating surface, with nothing to limit the view or variegate the prospect, but here and there a hill, knob, or insulated tract of table-land. At length the Rocky Mountains break upon the view, towering abruptly from the plains, and mingling their snow-capped summits with the clouds.

On approaching the mountains, no other change is observable in the general aspect of the country, except that the isolated knobs and table-lands above alluded to become more frequent and more distinctly marked, the bluffs by which the valleys of watercourses are bounded present a greater abundance of rocks, stones lie in greater profusion upon the surface, and the soil becomes more sandy and sterile. If, to the characteristics above intimated, we add that of an almost complete destitution of woodland (for not more than one thousandth part of the section can be said to possess a timber-growth) we shall have a pretty correct idea of the general aspect of the whole country.

The insulated tracts herein alluded to as table-lands, are scattered throughout the section, and give to the country a very remarkable appearance. They rise from six to eight hundred feet above the common {224} level, and are surrounded in many instances by rugged slopes and perpendicular precipices, rendering their summits almost inaccessible. Many of them are in this manner completely insulated, while others are connected with the plains below by gentle acclivities, leading from their basis to their summits, upon one side or other of each eminence. These tracts, as before intimated, are more numerous, but less extensive in the vicinity of the Rocky Mountains than they are farther eastward; and in the former situations, they are more strikingly characterized by the marks above specified than in the latter.

The geological formations that present themselves along the declivities of those heights are principally horizontal strata of secondary sandstones, and breccia or puddingstone, alternating with each other. Clinkstone prevails upon the surface of them in many places, but in general the superior strata are rocks of the description just before mentioned. These tracts are denominated tabular, not from any flatness of surface by which they are characterized, but from their appearance at a distant view, and from the horizontal disposition of the stratifications imbedded in them. Their surfaces are usually waving, and in some instances rise into knobs and ridges of several hundred feet high; many of them are clad in a scanty growth of pitch pine, red cedar, scrubby oaks, &c., while others exhibit a bald or prairie surface.

By far the greater proportion of this section of country is characterized by a rolling and plain surface, which may be alleged not only of the space included within the limits above assigned, but of extensive portions of country north and south of it. Although the elevated table-lands, a description of which has just been given, are situated within this region, they occupy but a small proportion of it. In addition to these inequalities in the surface of the country, there are numerous mounds or knobs of different magnitude, and occasionally swells of greater {225} or less extent, which contribute to give a pleasing variety to the prospect. The country is also divided into extensive parterres by the valleys of rivers and creeks, which are usually sunk 150 or 200 feet below the common level, and bounded in some places by perpendicular precipices, and in others by bluffs, or banks of gentle slopes.

Immediately at the base of the mountains, and also at those of some of the insular table-lands, are situated many remarkable ridges, rising in the form of parapets, to the height of between fifty and one hundred and fifty feet. These appear to have been attached to the neighbouring heights, of which they once constituted a part, but have, at some remote period, been cleft asunder from them by some extraordinary convulsion of nature, which has prostrated them in their present condition.

The rocky stratifications, of which these ridges are principally composed, and which are exactly similar to those of the insulated table-lands, are variously inclined, having various dips, from forty-five to eighty degrees.

Throughout this section of country the surface is occasionally characterized by water-worn pebbles, and gravel of granite, gneiss, and quartz, but the predominant characteristic is sand, which in many instances prevails almost to the entire exclusion of vegetable mould. Large tracts are often to be met with, exhibiting scarcely a trace of vegetation. The whole region, as before hinted, is almost entirely destitute of a timber-growth of any description. In some few instances, however, sandy knobs and ridges make their appearance, thickly covered with red cedars of a dwarfish growth. There are also some few tracts clad in a growth of pitch pine and scrubby oaks; but, in general, nothing of vegetation appears upon the uplands but withered grass of a stinted growth, no more than two or three inches high, prickly pears profusely covering extensive {226} tracts, and weeds of a few varieties, which, like the prickly pear, seem to thrive best in the most arid and sterile soil.

In the vicinity of the Rocky Mountains, southwardly of the Arkansa river, the surface of the country, in many places, is profusely covered with loose fragments of volcanic rocks. On some occasions, stones of this description are so numerous as almost to exclude vegetation. A multiplicity of ridges and knobs of various sizes, containing rocks of this character, also make their appearance. All these formations seem to be superincumbent upon horizontal strata of secondary sandstone. But the volcanoes whence they originated have left no vestiges by which their exact locality can be determined. In all probability, they were extinguished previously to the recession of the waters that once inundated the vast region between the Alleghany and Rocky Mountains.

Of the rivers that have their courses through this section, those of most note are the Platte, the Konzas and its forks, the Arkansa, and the Canadian tributary to the Arkansa. The Platte rises in the Rocky Mountains, and after an easterly course of about eight hundred miles, falls into the Missouri, at the distance of about seven hundred miles from the Mississippi. It derives its name from the circumstance of its being broad and shoal; its average width being about twelve hundred yards, exclusive of the islands it embosoms; and its depth, in a moderate stage of water, so inconsiderable, that the river is fordable in almost every place. The main Platte is formed of two confluent tributaries of nearly equal size, called the North and South forks, both of which have their sources considerably within the range of the Rocky Mountains. They unite about four hundred miles westward from the mouth of the Platte, having meandered about the same distance eastwardly from the mountains. Besides these, {227} the Platte has two considerable tributaries, the one called the Elk Horn, entering a few miles above its mouth, and the other the Loup Fork, entering about ninety miles above the same place. The valleys of the Platte and its several tributaries are extremely broad, and in many places considerably fertile. They gradually become less fertile on ascending from the mouths of the rivers on which they are situated, till at length they exhibit an arid and sterile appearance. The alluvion of which the bottoms are composed contains a large proportion of sand, which, added to the nitrous and saline matter blended with it, occasions frequent appearances of complete barrenness. Magnesia also appears to be a component part of the soil, a quality invariably derogatory to the fertility of any soil. The valley of the Platte, from its mouths to its constituent forks, spreads to the width of ten or twelve miles, and forms a most beautiful expanse of level country. It is bounded on both sides by high lands, elevated twenty-five or thirty feet above the valley, and connected therewith by gentle slopes.

The river in several places expands to the width of many miles, embosoming numerous islands, some of which are broad and considerably extensive, and all of them covered with a growth of cotton-wood and willows. These are the only woodlands that make their appearance along the river, and in travelling westward these become less numerous and extensive, till at length they entirely disappear. Copses and skirts of woodland again present themselves in the neighbourhood of the mountains, but they are of small magnitude, and the trees they furnish are of a dwarfish growth. For a distance of nearly two hundred miles, commencing at the confluence of the North and South forks, and extending westwardly towards the mountains, the country is almost entirely destitute of woodland, scarcely a tree, bush, or even a shrub, making its appearance.

{228} The Platte is seldom navigable, except for skin canoes, requiring but a moderate depth of water, and for these only when a freshet prevails in the river. No attempts have ever been made to ascend the river in canoes for any great distance; the prevalence of shoals, and the rapidity of the current, discouraging such an undertaking. The bed of the Platte is seldom depressed more than six or eight feet below the surface of the bottoms, and in many places even less; and spreads to such a width, that the highest freshets pass off without inundating the bottoms, except in their lowest parts; the rise of the water, on such occasions, being no more than five or six feet.

In order to account in some measure for the diversity of soil observable in the vallies of most of our western rivers, it may not be improper in this place to assign one of the principal causes that operate in producing this effect. The alluvial deposits of which the river bottoms are formed, consist of particles of mud and sand, more or less minute. The coarser and more ponderous particles are of course soonest deposited, while the finer are transported by the current to a greater distance, and deposited near the mouths of the rivers. Thus it happens, that the bottoms situated nearest to the sources of the western rivers, are sandy, and contain but a small proportion of vegetable mould, while those nearer their mouths are generally furnished with a rich and fertile loam.

The Konzas, or Konzays, as it is pronounced by the Indians, is made up of two considerable streams, heading in the plains between the Platte and Arkansa rivers, called the Republican and Smoky-hill forks; tributary to the former of these, are the Solomon's and Salim forks, of less magnitude, rising also in the same plains. The Konzas is navigable only in high freshets for boats of burden, and on such occasions not more than one hundred and fifty or two hundred miles, the navigation being obstructed by shoals. {229} The character of this river and its several branches is similar to that of the Platte and its tributaries. Woodlands are seldom to be met with, except in narrow skirts and small copses along the watercourses. Much of the country situated upon its forks is said to be possessed of a good soil, but is rendered uninhabitable for want of timber and water. The bottoms are possessed of a light sandy soil, and the uplands are in many places characterized by aridity and barrenness. The surface for the most part is rolling, but in some instances inclines to hilly.

That portion of the Arkansa included within the section under consideration has a bed or channel varying in width from four hundred yards to more than a mile, exclusively of islands. In the neighbourhood of the mountains, its width does not exceed fifty or sixty yards, gradually growing wider in its progress downward. Its valley, for a distance of more than one hundred miles from the place where it issues from the mountains, contains a considerable timber-growth, principally of cotton-wood, in skirts bordering upon the river, which occasionally embosoms islands clad in the same kind of growth. Every appearance of timber, however, is lost on a further progress eastward, and nothing is presented to variegate or adorn the prospect inland, but a broad expanse of waving prairies.

Proceeding eastward along the river, its valley gradually widens, and the bluffs or banks by which it is bounded become less elevated and abrupt. The bottoms rise but a few feet above the water-level of the river, but the freshets, having a broad bed like that of the Platte to expand upon, seldom rise so high as to inundate the bottoms. This part of the Arkansa, as before hinted, cannot be considered as navigable, except for boats of light burden during the prevalence of a freshet. In a very low stage, the river is said to disappear in many places, the {230} whole of its water passing off through the immense body of sand of which its bed is composed.

The Arkansa, having a direction nearly east and west, has no great variety of climate to traverse in its course from the mountains to the Mississippi; consequently there is no succession of thaws taking place upon the river, calculated to maintain a freshet for any considerable length of time. The freshets are occasioned by a simultaneous melting of the snow throughout the whole extent of the river, and by showers of rain, which, falling upon a rolling surface, is quickly drained off, and causes sudden, but seldom excessive rises in the river. I have witnessed, in the Arkansa, no less than three considerable rises and falls of the water in the course of two weeks.

The most considerable streams tributary to this part of the Arkansa are the Negracka or Red Fork, and the Newsewketongu, or Grand Saline, on the south, and the Little Arkansa and Stinking Fork on the north side. The Negracka rises within fifty or sixty miles of the mountains, and after meandering eastwardly between four and five hundred miles, unites with the Arkansa at the distance of about nine hundred miles from the mouth of the latter. The Newsewketongu has its source in the plains between the Arkansa and Canadian rivers, and unites with the former about one hundred and fifty miles below the Negracka. The head waters of the Little Arkansa interlock with those of the Smoky-hill Fork of the Konzas, and are discharged into the Arkansa, about fifteen hundred miles above its mouth. The Stinking Fork rises amongst the head-waters of the Neosho, and enters the Arkansa about eight hundred miles from its mouth. Besides these, there are many other streams of smaller size entering on both sides of the river.

The Canadian rises at the base of the Rocky Mountains, and after a meandering course of about {231} one thousand miles, enters the Arkansa at the distance of about five hundred and fifty miles from the mouth of the latter. This river has generally been represented, upon the maps of the country, as having a north-easterly course; whereas its source is nearly in the same latitude as its confluence with the Arkansa, consequently its general course is nearly east. In its course, it forms an extensive curve to the southward, leaving a broad space between it and the Arkansa, in which several streams, many hundred miles in length, tributary to both of these rivers, have their origin and course.

This river has a broad valley, bounded by bluffs from two to five hundred feet high, faced with rocky precipices near its source, and presenting abrupt declivities, intersected by numerous ravines lower down. It has a spacious bed, depressed but a few feet below the bottoms, and exhibiting one continued stratum of sand through the greater part of its length. It is the channel through which the water of a vast extent of country is carried off, yet, during most of the summer season, it is entirely destitute of running water throughout a large proportion of its extent, a circumstance in proof of the aridity of region drained by it. Fifty miles above its mouth, it receives at least two-thirds of its water from its principal tributary, denominated the North Fork. This fork rises between the Arkansa and Canadian, and has a meandering course of about seven hundred miles. Six miles above the fork just mentioned, another tributary enters the Canadian called the South Fork, about half as large as the other. Notwithstanding the supplies afforded by these two tributaries, the Canadian has not a sufficiency of water in summer to render it navigable even to their mouths. At the distance of twenty miles above its mouth, a chain of rocks (slaty sandstone) extends across the bed of the river, but occasions no considerable fall. A little above the entrance of the South Fork, is another of the same {232} description, forming rapids of moderate descent, not more than four hundred yards in length. With these exceptions, the bed of the river presents no rocky formations in place, for more than four hundred miles from its confluence with the Arkansa. About three hundred and fifty miles from that point, beds of gypsum, or plaster of Paris, begin to make their appearance in the bluffs fronting upon the river, and upon the declivities of the highland knobs. A great abundance of this article is to be met with, not only upon the Canadian, but also upon the upper part of the Arkansa. The hills, in which it is imbedded, are composed of ferruginous clay and fine sand of a deep red complexion. Hence the Arkansa derives the colouring matter that gives to its waters their reddish hue.

The bottoms of the Canadian, in the neighbourhood of its mouth, are possessed of a soil exceedingly prolific; but, like those of the other rivers of this region, the more remote their situation from the mouth of the river, the more sandy and sterile is their appearance. Its valley is plentifully supplied with timber of an excellent quality, for a distance of about two hundred miles on the lower part of the river; and the high lands, for nearly the same distance, are agreeably diversified with prairies and woodlands. This portion of the river is situated eastward of the assumed meridian, and the country upon it has already been partially described in a former part of this report.

The woodland growth, upon the lower part of the Canadian, consists of cotton-wood, sycamore, white, blue, and black ash, swamp cedar, red elm, coffee tree, yellow wood, sugar tree, box elder, white and black walnut, wild cherry, mulberry, &c. in the river valley; and hickory, white and post oak, black jack, black oak, &c. upon the adjacent uplands. On a progress westward, the most valuable of the timber trees above enumerated disappear, till at length occasional groves of cotton-wood, mingled with mulberry, {233} red elm, and stunted shrubbery of various kinds, constitute the only woodlands of the country. On this occasion, it may be observed, that the cane or reed, the pea-vine, pawpaw, spice-wood, hop-vine, and several other varieties of shrubs and vines common only to rich soils, are no where to be found within this section, or westward of the proposed meridian.

The country of the Canadian above that last considered, or that portion of it west of the assumed meridian, appears to be possessed of a soil somewhat richer than the more northerly parts of the section, but exhibits no indications of extraordinary fecundity in any part of it. Proceeding westward, a very gradual change is observable in the apparent fertility of the soil, the surface becoming more sandy and sterile, and the vegetation less vigorous and luxuriant. The bottoms appear to be composed, in many places, almost exclusively of loose sand, exhibiting but few signs of vegetation. Knobs and drifts of sand, driven from the bed of the river by the violence of the wind, are piled in profusion along the margin of the river throughout the greater part of its length. It is remarkable, that these drifts are in many instances covered with grape vines of a scrubby appearance, bearing fruit in the greatest abundance and perfection. The vines grow to various heights, from eighteen inches to four feet, unaccompanied, in some instances, by any other vegetable, and bear a grape of a dark purple or black colour, of a delicious flavour, and of the size of a large pea or common gooseberry.

The waters of this section, almost in every part of it, appear to hold in solution a greater or less proportion of common salt and sulphate of magnesia, which, in many instances, render them too brackish or bitter for use. Saline and nitrous efflorescences frequently occur upon the surface, in various parts of the country, and incrustations of salt, of considerable {234} thickness, are to be found in some few places south of the Arkansa river. As to the existence of rock salt in a mineral state some doubts are to be entertained, if the decision is to rest upon the character of the specimens exhibited as proofs of the fact. The several examples of this formation that we have witnessed, are evidently crystalline salt deposited by a regular process of evaporation and crystallization, and formed into concrete masses or crusts upon the surface of the ground.

Indications of coal are occasionally to be seen, but this mineral does not probably occur in large quantities. The geological character of this section is not such as to encourage the search for valuable minerals. A deep crust of secondary sandstone, occasionally alternating with breccia, with here and there a superstratum of rocks of a primitive type, are the principal formations that present themselves.

Of the animals of this region, the buffaloe or bison ranks first in importance, inasmuch as it supplies multitudes of savages not only with the principal part of their necessary food, but also contributes to furnish them with warm clothing. The flesh of this animal is equal, if not superior, to beef, and affords not only a savoury but a wholesome diet. A large proportion of this section, commencing at the assumed meridian, and extending westward to within one hundred miles of the Rocky Mountains, constitutes a part only of their pasture ground, over which they roam in numbers to an incredible amount. Their range extends northwardly and southwardly of the section, as far as we have any particular account of the country. The animal next in importance is the wild horse, a descendant, no doubt, of the Spanish breed of horses, to which its size, form and variety of colours, show that it is nearly allied. In regard to their contour, symmetry, &c. they afford all the varieties common to that breed of horses. They are {235} considerably numerous in some parts of the country, but not abundant. They are generally collected in gangs, but are sometimes solitary.

Grizzly or white bears are frequently to be seen in the vicinity of the mountains. They are much larger than the common bear, endowed with great strength, and are said to be exceedingly ferocious. The black or common bears are numerous in some parts of the country, but none of these animals are found remote from woodlands, upon the products of which they in a great measure depend for their subsistence.

The common deer are to be met with in every part of this section, but are most numerous in the vicinity of woodlands. The black-tailed or mule deer is found only in the neighbourhood of the mountains; hilly and broken lands seem to afford them their favourite pasture ground. The elk is also an inhabitant of this section, but is not to be found remote from woodlands. The cabric wild goat, or, as it is more frequently called, the antelope, is common. They are numerous, and with the buffaloe are the common occupants of the plains, from which they retire only in quest of water.

Wolves are exceedingly numerous, particularly within the immediate range of the buffaloe. Of these there are many varieties, distinguishable by their shape, size and colour.

The marmot, commonly called the prairie dog, is more abundant throughout this section than any other quadruped. They live in villages scattered in every direction, and thickly inhabited; a single village in some instances occupying a tract of ground three or four miles in extent. Their habitations are burrows three or four inches in diameter, situated at the distance of fifteen or twenty paces asunder. Their habits and manners in other respects are peculiarly interesting. They subsist on vegetables; their {236} flesh is similar to that of the ground hog, and their hair equally as coarse.

The beaver, otter, mink, and muskrat, are numerous upon the rivers, creeks, and rivulets issuing from the mountains, and generally upon those whose valleys are supplied with woodland.

Badgers, raccoons, hares, polecats, porcupines, many varieties of squirrels, panthers, wild cats, lynxes and foxes of several species, are also inhabitants of this section. Besides these, the country affords a great variety and abundance of reptiles and insects, both venomous and harmless.

Of the feathered tribes, no very considerable variety is observable. The turtle-dove, the jay, the barn swallow, the quail (partridge of the Middle States), the owl, whip-poor-will, and lark, which seem more widely distributed over the territory of the United States than any other birds, are found here. Several varieties of the hawk, containing some new species, the bald and gray eagle, the buzzard, raven, crow, jackdaw, magpie, turkey, two or three varieties of the grouse, pheasant, pigeon, many varieties of the sparrow and fly-catcher, the whooping or sandhill crane, curlew, sandpiper, together with a variety of other land and water fowls, are more or less numerous in this region. It is remarkable that birds of various kinds common to the sea-coast, and seldom found far in the interior, pervade the valley of the Mississippi to a great distance from the gulf of Mexico, and frequent the regions adjacent to the Rocky Mountains.

In regard to this extensive section of country, I do not hesitate in giving the opinion, that it is almost wholly unfit for cultivation, and of course uninhabitable by a people depending upon agriculture for their subsistence. Although tracts of fertile land considerably extensive are occasionally to be met with, yet the scarcity of wood and water, almost {237} uniformly prevalent, will prove an insuperable obstacle in the way of settling the country. This objection rests not only against the section immediately under consideration, but applies with equal propriety to a much larger portion of the country. Agreeably to the best intelligence that can be had, concerning the country both northward and southward of the section, and especially to the inferences deducible from the account given by Lewis and Clarke of the country situated between the Missouri and the Rocky Mountains above the river Platte, the vast region commencing near the sources of the Sabine, Trinity, Brases, and Colorado, and extending northwardly to the forty-ninth degree of north latitude, by which the United States' territory is limited in that direction, is throughout of a similar character. The whole of this region seems peculiarly adapted as a range for buffaloes, wild goats, and other wild game; incalculable multitudes of which find ample pasturage and subsistence upon it.

This region, however, viewed as a frontier, may prove of infinite importance to the United States, inasmuch as it is calculated to serve as a barrier to prevent too great an extension of our population westward, and secure us against the machinations or incursions of an enemy that might otherwise be disposed to annoy us in that part of our frontier.

The Indians of the section last described, whose numbers are very limited compared with the extent of country they inhabit, will be considered in the sequel of this report.

_Of the Rocky Mountains_

This range of mountains has been distinguished by a variety of appellations, amongst which the following are the most common, viz. Rocky, Shining, Mexican, Chippewyan, Andes, &c. The general {238} course of the range is about N.N.W. or S.S.E. Its breadth varies from fifty to one hundred miles. They rise abruptly out of the plains, which lie extended at their base on the east side, towering into peaks of great height, which renders them visible at the distance of more than one hundred miles eastward from their base. They consist of ranges, knobs, and peaks, variously disposed, among which are interspersed many broad and fertile valleys. The more elevated parts of the mountains are covered with perpetual snows, which contribute to give them a luminous and at a great distance even a brilliant appearance, whence they have derived the name of Shining Mountains.

Between the Arkansa and Platte, on a small creek tributary to the former, is situated a high part of the mountains, denominated the "Highest Peak" on many maps of the country, and said to be more elevated than any other part within the distance of one hundred and fifty or two hundred miles. This peak, whose summit has been accounted inaccessible, was ascended by a detachment of the expedition conducted by Dr. James, from which circumstance it has been called James's Peak. Its elevation above the common level, ascertained by a trigonometrical measurement, is about eight thousand five hundred feet. But the correctness of the statement, that it is higher than any other parts of the mountains within the distance above mentioned, is questionable. Judging from the position of the snow near the summits of other peaks and ridges at no great distance from it, a much greater elevation is apparent.

The mountains are clad in a scattering growth of scrubby pines, oak, cedar, and furze, and exhibit a very rugged and broken aspect. The rocky formations embodied in them, contrary to the opinion generally received, are of a primitive character, consisting of granite, gneiss, quartz rocks, &c. It {239} should be remarked, however, that a deep crust of secondary rocks, the same as the stratifications of the plains before mentioned, appears to recline against the east side of the mountains, extending upward from their base many hundred feet.

At the base of James's Peak above designated, are two remarkable springs of water, considerably copious, and strongly impregnated with fixed air. At the place also where the Arkansa issues from the mountains, are several medicinal springs on the north side of the river, rising in a small area at the base of the mountain. These springs were discovered by Captain Bell, and, in consequence, I have taken the liberty to call them Bell's Springs. They are six in number, one of which is strongly impregnated with fixed air, another with sulphurated hydrogen, and the rest with salt and sulphur; the water of all being more or less chalybeate.

_Of the Indians inhabiting the section of country last described_

This country is exclusively inhabited by savages, no other beings of the human family having fixed their abode within it. They consist of the following tribes and nations, whose numbers, places of residence, and mode of life, will be subjects of consideration as far as our knowledge of them extends.

The Otoes, or as they are called in their own language, the Wahtooh-tah-tah, reside in a permanent village of dirt or earthen lodges, on the south bank of the river Platte, about fifty miles from its confluence with the Missouri, and thirty miles south-westwardly from the Council Bluff. The principal remnant of the old Missouries, who have become extinct as a nation, have their residence with the Otoes. In the course of the last winter, whilst these Indians were absent from their village on their winter-hunt, their town was partly burnt by the {240} Sauks, which misfortune induced them to take up a temporary abode upon Salt river, a few miles from their former residence. But it was generally supposed that they would return again, and rebuild their town. The name of their principal chief is Shongotongo, or Big Horse. Probable number of lodges 100, of persons 1400. The Otoes and Missouries are esteemed a brave people, and are friendly towards the Americans. They are at war with the Sauks, Foxes, Sioux, Osages, Ietans, and other Indians west of the Missouri. A small band of the Ioways resided for some time with these Indians, but not being able to harmonize with them, lately returned to their old village on the river De Moyen of the Mississippi. Their principal chief, usually called Hard Heart, being dissatisfied with the conduct of his tribe, remains with the Otoes.

The Omawhaw, or as it is commonly written the Maha nation, exultingly boast that they have never killed an American. On the contrary, they have ever been friendly, and still hold the Americans in the highest estimation. Under the influence of their present principal chief, Ongpatonga, or the Big Elk, they never go to war except in the pursuit of a predatory war-party, in consequence of which the traders have given them the reputation of being cowardly. But the history of this people shows that they have been as ambitious of martial renown, and have acquired as large a share of it, as any of their neighbours. They formerly resided in a village of dirt lodges upon Omawhaw creek, a small stream entering the Missouri about two hundred miles above the Council Bluff; but they have recently abandoned it, and are about building a town on Elk Horn river. Their number of souls is about 1500.

The Puncahs have their residence in a small village of dirt lodges, about one hundred and eighty miles above Omawhaw creek. This tribe have a common origin with the Omawhaws, and speak the same language. {241} Their principal chief is called Smoke Maker. Their number is about 200 souls.

The tribes above enumerated evidently sprung from the same common stock, the language of all being radically the same. They have a tradition that their fathers came from beyond the Lakes.

The Pawnees are a race of Indians distinct from the preceding, their language differing radically from that of the Indians alluded to. The Pawnees consist of three distinct bands, that have their residence at present on a branch of the river Platte called the Loup Fork, about sixty miles from the mouth of the latter, and between 100 and 115 miles westward from the Council Bluff. The three bands are distinguished by the appellation of the Grand, the Republican, and the Loup Pawnees. The two former acknowledge a common origin, but the latter deny having any natural affinity with them, though their habits, language, &c. indicate the same ancestry. They live in three villages, included within an extent of about seven miles on the north bank of the Loup Fork, all compactly built.

The village of the Grand Pawnees is situated immediately on the bank of the river, and contains about 180 earthen lodges, 900 families, or 3500 souls. The name of the principal chief of this village is Tarrarecawaho, or Long Hair.

The village of the Republican Pawnees is situated about three miles above that of the Grand Pawnees, contains about 50 lodges, 250 families, or 1000 souls. The name of their principal chief is Fool Robe, who is very much under the influence of Long Hair. This band separated many years since from the Grand Pawnees, and established themselves upon the Republican fork of Konzas river, where they were visited by Pike on his tour westward. They seem to be gradually amalgamating with the present stock, and their village wears a declining aspect.

The village of the Loup Pawnees, or Skeree, as they call themselves, is situated four miles above {242} that last mentioned, immediately on the bank of the river; it contains about 100 dirt lodges, 500 families, or 2000 souls, making an aggregate of 6500 souls belonging to the three villages. The name of their principal chief is the Knife Chief. A few years since the Loup Pawnees had a custom of annually sacrificing a human victim to the Great Star, but this was abolished by their present chief, aided by the noble daring of his gallant son. They appear unwilling to acknowledge their affinity with the other Pawnees; but their language being very nearly the same, proves them to be of the same origin.

Although these bands are independent of each other in all their domestic concerns, government, &c., yet in their military operations they generally unite, and warfare becomes a common cause with them. Their arms are principally bows and arrows, lances, war-clubs, and shields, with some few firearms. They are expert horsemen, but generally fight on foot. They are more numerous, and accounted more formidable in warfare, than any other combination of savages on the Missouri. Their confidence in their own strength gives them a disposition to domineer over their weaker neighbours. They are at war with the Osages, Konzas, Sioux, Ietans, Kaskaias, Kiaways, Shiennes, Crows, &c.

The several tribes above described cultivate maize or Indian corn, pumpkins, beans, watermelons, and squashes. They hunt the bison or buffaloe, elk, deer, beaver, otter; the skins of which they exchange with the traders for fusees, powder, and lead, kettles, knives, strouding, blankets, beads, vermilion, silver ornaments, and other trinkets. They prefer the Mackinaw guns, blankets, &c., and will give a higher price for them, knowing that they are greatly superior to those furnished by American traders.

The Konzas and Osages, both of which reside in the vicinity of the meridian assumed as the eastern boundary of this section, may here be admitted to a more particular consideration than that already {243} allowed them in this report. The Konzas Indians reside in a village of earthen lodges, situated on the north side of the river bearing their name, about one hundred miles from its mouth. Their village consists of about 130 lodges, and contains about 1500 souls. This tribe was formerly very troublesome to our traders, frequently robbing them of their goods, but since the establishment of the upper posts on the Missouri they have become very friendly. They are at war with most of the other tribes and nations herein enumerated, except the Osages and Otoes, with the last of whom they have lately made peace, through the agency of Major O'Fallon, Indian agent for the Missouri. Several Indians of the Missouri tribe reside with them.

The Osages are divided into three bands or tribes, called the Grand Osage, the Little Osage, and Clermont's band; the two former of which reside in permanent villages, situated on the head-waters of Osage river, and the last upon the Verdigrise, about sixty miles from its confluence with the Arkansa. According to Pike, whose estimate of their numbers is probably near the truth, the Grand Osage band amounts to 1695, the Little Osage to 824, and Clermont's to 1500 souls, making an aggregate of about 4000. These Indians are not accounted brave by those inhabiting the country to the north and east of them, but are the dread of those west and south of them. Although they have occasionally been chargeable with depredations committed against the whites, they have been provoked to the perpetration of them by aggressions or trespasses on the part of the latter, or else the depredations have been committed by malcontents of the nation, who will not be governed by the counsel of their chiefs. These Indians hold the people and government of the United States in the highest estimation, and have repeatedly signified their strong desire to be instructed by them in the arts of civilization. The United States have purchased from them large and valuable tracts of country {244} for mere trifles, which the Osages have been the more willing to relinquish, under the prospect and encouragement given them, that the Americans would become their neighbours and instructors. They are in a state of warfare with all the surrounding tribes and nations of Indians, except the Konzas. It is said, that they are about forming an alliance with the Sauks and Fox Indians of the Mississippi, and that the latter are preparing to remove to their country. They have recently driven the Pawnees of Red river from their place of residence, and compelled them to seek an abode upon the head waters either of the Brases or Colorado.

The Konzas and Osages are descendants from the same common origin with the Otoes, Missouries, Ioways, Omawhaws, and Puncahs, to which may be added the Quapaws, and several other tribes, not mentioned in this report. The languages of all of them are radically the same, but are now distinguished by a variety of dialects.

_Of the Arrapahoes, Kaskaias, Kiaways, Ietans, and Shiennes_

These nations have no permanent residences or villages, but roam, sometimes in society and sometimes separately, over the tract of country constituting the section last described. They hunt the bison principally, and migrate from place to place in the pursuit of the herds of that animal, upon the flesh of which they chiefly subsist. Being thus accustomed to a roving life, they neglect the cultivation of the soil, and are compelled to subsist almost exclusively upon animal food. They formerly carried on a limited trade with the Spaniards of Mexico, with whom they exchanged dressed bison-skins for blankets, wheat, flour, maize, &c.; but their supplies of these articles are now cut off by a war, which they at present are waging against that people. They also, at distant periods, held a kind of fair on a tributary of the {245} Platte, near the mountains (hence called Grand Camp creek), at which they obtained British merchandize from the Shiennes of Shienne river, who obtained the same at the Mandan village from the British traders that frequent that part of our territory. Last winter they traded a great number of horses and mules with a party of white men, who had ascended Red river, but whence the party came from could not be ascertained; it however appeared probable that they were citizens of the United States, or possibly freebooters from Barataria.

The Shiennes associated with these wandering tribes are a small band of seceders from the nation of the same name residing upon Shienne river. They are said to be daring and ferocious. They are however kept under restraint by the energy and firmness of their chief. The Bear Tooth, who is the principal chief of the Arrapahoes, and the head chief of all these nations, possesses great influence over the whole. His mandates, which are uniformly characterized by discretion and propriety, are regarded by his subjects as inviolable laws.

The Kaskaia and Kiaway languages are very difficult to acquire a knowledge of. Our interpreter, who had lived several years with them, could only make himself understood by the language of signs, with the aid of a very few words of the Crow language, which many of them appeared to understand. Indeed many of the individuals of these different nations seemed to be ignorant of each other's language; for when they met, they would communicate by means of signs, with now and then an oral interjection, and would thus maintain a conversation, apparently without the least difficulty or misapprehension.

These nations are at war with all the Missouri Indians, as far down as the Osages, who are also included amongst their enemies; and it was rumoured that hostilities had recently commenced between them and the Shiennes, upon the river of the same name. {246} Their implements of war consist of the bow and arrow, the lance, war-club, and shield. They usually fight on horseback, and as horsemen display great skill and activity. Their habitations are leather lodges, which serve them as tents on the march, and dwellings at the places of their encampment.

Widely diffused as these Indians are, and never embodied, it is impracticable even to conjecture their numbers with any degree of probable accuracy. They rove not only throughout the section above specified, but extensively within the range of the Rocky Mountains.

The foregoing remarks concerning the Indians of this part of the country have been made for the most part agreeably to the suggestions of Mr. Say, whose attention was particularly directed to researches of this nature. But having been robbed of his notes upon the customs, manners, traditions, &c. of the western Indians, by the men who deserted from Captain Bell's party, he could give no farther account of them than what his recollection could supply. Of the Konzas, Otoes, Pawnees, and other Indians near the Council Bluff, his notes are considerably extensive; but the vessel on board of which they, with other articles, were shipped from New Orleans, having been obstructed in her passage up the Delaware by ice, we have not yet received them.

_Observations embracing several traits of character common to the Indians of the western country_

An accurate and extensive knowledge of the numerous tribes and nations of Indians living within the United States' territory can only be attained by a long residence with them. They are seldom communicative, except upon subjects intimately connected with their personal experience or present interests and welfare. In regard to matters of an abstract or metaphysical nature their ideas {247} appear to be very limited; at any rate very little is known of their sentiments upon subjects of this kind, owing, in a great measure, to the inability of the persons usually employed as interpreters to converse intelligently concerning them. The delicate trains of thought and reflection attributed to them by writers who have attempted to enlarge our acquaintance with the Indian character, usually have their origin in the ingenuity of the writers themselves. The exploits of their war-parties, and particularly those of individuals, are often recounted, but are seldom transmitted to succeeding generations, unless they are characterized by some signal advantage to the tribe or nation to which the party or individual belongs. Hence their history is very defective, affording but few incidents, and characterized by no regular series of events. In regard to the number of persons, and strength of the several tribes and nations, also the ages of individuals, no precise statements can be made; all the information given under these heads is almost without exception conjectural. In relation to subjects of this kind the Indians are either ignorant or wilfully silent; and deem it an impertinent curiosity that prompts a stranger to the investigation of them.

Notwithstanding these obstacles in the way of acquiring authentic and credible information concerning the savages, yet there are certain traits in their general character that are observable on a partial acquaintance with a variety of tribes and nations, and upon these the following remarks are grounded.

They are, almost without exception, addicted to habits of extreme indolence; self-preservation, self-defence, and recreation being their usual incitements to action. The laborious occupations of the men consist almost exclusively in hunting, warfare, and tending their horses. Their amusements are principally horse-racing, gambling, and sports of various kinds. The cultivation of corn and other vegetables, {248} the gathering of fuel, cooking, and all other kinds of domestic drudgery, is the business of the women, the men deeming it degrading to their dignity to be occupied in employments of this kind. Their religion consists in the observance of a variety of rites and ceremonies, which they practise with much zeal and ardour. Their devotional exercises consist in singing, dancing, and the performance of various mystical ceremonies, which they believe efficacious in healing the sick, frustrating the designs of their enemies, and in giving success to any enterprize in which they may be embarked.

Amongst all these tribes and nations secret associations or councils are common, the proceedings of which are held sacred, and not to be divulged, except when the interests of the people are thought to require a disclosure. To these councils, which they denominate medicine, or rather magic feasts, none are admitted but the principal men of the nation, or such as have signalized themselves by their exploits in battle, hunting, stealing horses, or in any of the pursuits accounted laudable by the Indians.

In these assemblies the policy of making war or peace, and the manner in which it is to be effected, also all matters involving the interests of the nation, are first discussed. Having thus been the subject of deliberation in solemn council (for the proceedings at these feasts are conducted with the greatest solemnity,) the decision, of whatever nature it may be, is published to the people at large by certain members of the council performing the office of criers. On such occasions, the criers not only proclaim the measures that have been recommended, but explain the reasons of them, and urge the people zealously to support them. It is also the business of the criers, who are generally men of known valour and approved habits, and are able to enforce their precepts by the examples they have set, to harangue the people of their village daily, and exhort them to such a course {249} of life as is deemed praiseworthy. On such occasions, which are usually selected in the stillness of the morning or evening, the crier marches through the village, uttering his exhortation in a loud voice, and endeavouring to inculcate correct principles and sentiments. The young men and children of the village are directed how to demean themselves, in order to become useful and enjoy the esteem of good men, and the favour of the good spirit. In this way they are incited to wage war or sue for peace; and to practise according to their ideas of morality and virtue; and may be swayed to almost any purpose that their elders, for such are their men of _medicine_ (or as the term imports, magic wisdom), think proper to execute. They appear to have no laws, except such as grow out of habitual usages, or such as are sanctioned by common consent. The executive of their government seems to be vested in the chiefs and warriors; while the grand council of the nation is composed of the medicine council above mentioned, at which the principal chief presides. In all their acts of devotion, as also on all occasions where their confidence is to be won, or their friendship to be plighted, the smoking of tobacco seems to be invariably regarded as an inviolable token of sincerity. They believe in the existence of a Supreme Being, whom they denominate "Master of Life" or "Good Spirit," but of his attributes their ideas are vague and confused. They are generally in the habit of offering in sacrifice a portion of the game first taken on a hunting expedition, a part of the first products of the field, and often a small portion of the food provided for their refreshment. In smoking, they generally direct the first puff upward, and the second downward to the earth, or the first to the rising and the second to the setting sun; after which they inhale the smoke into their lungs, and puff it out through the nostrils for their own refreshment.

{250} They have some indistinct notions of the immortality of the soul, but appear to know no distinction of Heaven or Hell, Elysium or Tartarus, as the abode of departed spirits.

The arts of civilized life, instead of exciting their emulation, are generally viewed by the Indians as objects unworthy of their attention. This results, as a natural consequence, from their habits of indolence. They are aware that much labour is requisite in the prosecution of them, and being accustomed from their infancy to look upon manual labour of every description as a drudgery that pertains exclusively to the female part of their community, they think it degrading to the character of men to be employed in them. Hunting, horsemanship, and warfare are the only avocations in which their ambition or sense of honour prompts them to engage.

Their reluctance to forgive an injury is proverbial. "Injuries are revenged by the injured; and blood for blood is always demanded, if the deceased has friends who dare to retaliate upon the destroyer." Instances have occurred where their revenge has become hereditary, and quarrels have been settled long after the parties immediately concerned have become extinct.

Much has been published in relation to the high antiquity of Indian tradition, of those particularly which relate to their origin and their religion. But from the examples afforded by the several nations of Indians resident upon the Mississippi and its waters, but little proof is to be had in favour of the position. It is not doubted that the immediate objects of their worship have been held in reverence by their predecessors for a long succession of ages; but in respect to any miraculous dispensations of providence, of which they have a traditional knowledge, their ideas are at best exceedingly vague and confused; and of occurrences recorded in sacred history they appear to be entirely ignorant. The knowledge they {251} have of their ancestry is also very limited; so much so, that they can seldom trace back their pedigree more than a few generations; and then know so little of the place whence their fathers came, that they can only express their ideas upon the subject, in general terms, stating, that they came "from beyond the lakes,"--"from the rising or setting sun"--"from the north or south," &c. In some instances, where their term of residence in a place has evidently been of limited duration, they have either lost or conceal their knowledge of the country whence their ancestors came, and assert that the Master of Life created and planted their fathers on the spot where they, their posterity, now live. They have no division of time, except by years, seasons, moons, and days. Particular periods are distinguished by the growth and changes of vegetables, the migrations, incubations, &c. of birds and other animals.

Their language is of two kinds, viz. verbal and signal, or the language of signs. The former presents a few varieties, marked by radical differences, and a multiplicity of dialects peculiar to individual tribes or nations descended from the same original. The latter is a language common to most, if not all, of the western Indians, the motions or signs used to express ideas being, with some slight variations, the same amongst all of them. Nearly allied to the language of signs is a species of written language which they make use of, consisting of a few symbolical representations, and of course very limited and defective. The figures they make use of have but a faint resemblance to the object described, and are rudely imprinted upon trees, cliffs, &c. by means of paints, charcoal, and sometimes by carving with a knife or other edged tool, and are significant of some movement, achievements, or design of the Indians. A variety of figures of this description are to be seen upon the cliffs, rocks, and trees in places held sacred and frequently resorted to by the Indians, {252} but of their import little is known. Many of these symbols are made by the magicians, or men of medicine, and are probably of sacred or devotional import.

Much intrigue, cunning, and artifice are blended with the policy of the Indians, and judging from their usual practice, it is a favourite and well approved maxim with them, that "the end sanctifies the means." In an interview with strangers it appears to be their first object to ascertain their motives and the objects of their visits; and after regarding them for some time without a show of curiosity, a variety of interrogatories are proposed, in order to satisfy themselves upon these points. This they appear to do with the view also of scrutinizing into the character and disposition of their guests. In the course of the conversation they become more and more familiar and impertinent, till at length their familiarity is succeeded by contempt and insult. Thus, from the coldest reserve, they are in a short time impelled by curiosity and a propensity to abuse, where they are not in some measure compelled to respect, to the commission of outrages, even without the slightest provocation. This kind of treatment, however, is easily obviated at the commencement of an interview, by resisting every advance made by the Indians towards familiarity, and by uniformly opposing firmness and reserve to the liberties they are disposed to take.

These attributes of the Indian character manifest themselves not only in the well-known stratagems they adopt in warfare, but in the management of their domestic concerns, in which rivalships of one kind or other are created; parties are formed and pretenders arise, claiming privileges that have been withheld from them, and placing themselves at the head of factions, occasionally withdraw from the mother tribe. Thus new tribes are formed and distributed in various directions over the country, with nothing to {253} mark their genealogy, but the resemblance of their language to that of the parent stock, or of other Indians that sprung from the same origin.

The chiefs, or governors of tribes, have their rank and title by inheritance; yet in order to maintain them, and secure themselves in their pre-eminence, they are under the necessity of winning over to their interests the principal warriors and most influential men of their tribe, whose countenance and support are often essential to their continuance in authority. In conciliating the friendship of these, the chief is often compelled to admit them to participate in the authority with which he is invested, and to bestow upon them any effects of which he may be possessed. Thus it often happens that the chiefs are amongst the poorest of the Indians, having parted with their horses, clothes, trinkets, &c. to ensure the farther patronage of their adherents, or to purchase the friendship of those that are disaffected.

The situation of principal chief is very frequently usurped during the minority of the rightful successor, or wrested from an imbecile incumbent by some ambitious chief or warrior. In this case the ascendancy obtained over the nation by the usurper is gradual, and depends upon the resources of his own mind, aided by his reputation for generosity and valour.

The condition of the savages is a state of constant alarm and apprehension. Their security from their enemies, and their means of subsistence, are precarious and uncertain, the former requiring the utmost vigilance to prevent its infraction, and the latter being attended with no regular supplies of the necessaries of life. In times of the most profound peace, whether at their villages or on a hunting expedition, they are continually on the alert lest they should be surprised by their enemies. By day scouts are constantly kept patrolling for a considerable distance around them, and by night sentinels are posted to give notice of the approach of strangers.

{254} When they engage in a hunt, they generally abandon their villages, old men, women, and children joining in the enterprize, through fear of being left at home without the strength of their nation to protect them. On their march they endeavour to make as great a display of force as practicable, in order to intimidate any of their enemies that may be lurking to spy out their condition. With this view they are careful to pitch their lodges or tents at the places of their encampment in such a manner, and in such numbers, as to give the impression, at a distance, that they are numerous and formidable. We have witnessed a hunting party on their march, consisting of not more than one hundred persons, including men, women, and children, yet at their encampment more than thirty lodges were pitched, each of which would accommodate at least twelve adult persons.

It is an opinion generally credited, that the Indians are possessed of strong natural appetites for ardent spirits, but there is at least room to doubt of its being well-founded. That the appetites for them are often strong and ungovernable is very certain; but they may be considered as factitious rather than natural, having been created by occasional indulgencies in the use of intoxicating liquors. Instances are not rare in which Indians have refused to accept liquor when offered them. After a long abstinence from food, any thing calculated to allay the cravings of the appetite is eagerly swallowed, and on such occasions nothing perhaps produces such an effect more speedily than spirituous liquors. Indians, while lounging about a trading establishment, are often destitute of food for a considerable time, and can obtain no other kind of refreshment from the trader but liquor, which is bestowed partly in exchange for commodities they may have to dispose of, and partly by way of encouraging them to return to him with the products of their next hunt. A small draught, on such occasions, produces intoxication, and the sudden {255} transition from a state of gnawing hunger to that of unconcerned inebriety cannot fail to make them passionately fond of a beverage that can thus change their condition so much to their immediate satisfaction. In their use of ardent spirits, the Indians appear to be less captivated with their taste than with their exhilarating effects. The quality of liquor is not a subject of discrimination with them; provided it has sufficient strength to inebriate they are satisfied, let its character in other respects be what it may. Having contracted the habit of intoxication, they seldom appear thankful for liquor, unless it has been bestowed in such quantities as are sufficient to produce that effect.

In the indulgence of their appetites they display but few or no traits of epicurism, choosing those kinds of food that are most nutritive, without regarding their taste or flavour. In the preservation of their food, no pains are taken to render it savoury or palatable; their object is solely to reduce it to a state of security against putrefaction. They make no use of spices or other aromatics, either in preserving or cooking their food. Even salt is not considered as an essential, and is seldom used as an appendage in their cookery. This article is only prized by them on account of its usefulness for their horses. In regard to their choice of food, however, and manner of cooking it, the small variety within their reach, and the impracticability of obtaining condiments of different kinds, perhaps renders them less particular in these respects, than they would be under different circumstances. It cannot be supposed that they are entirely insensible to dainties of every description; on the contrary, they appear remarkably fond of sugar and saccharine fruits.

They appear to have a natural propensity for the fumes of tobacco, which they invariably inhale into the lungs, and eject through the nostrils. They make no use of this article except in smoking, which is an {256} indulgence of which they are exceedingly reluctant to be deprived. When they cannot obtain tobacco, they use as a substitute the dried leaves of the sumac, the inner bark of the red willow dried, and the leaves and bark of a few other shrubs, the fumes of which are less stimulating, but equally as palatable as those of tobacco.

The Indians under consideration know not the use or value of the precious metals, except as trinkets or ornaments for their dress. They use wampum, and in some few instances shells of a small size and of a particular character, as a substitute for money. But in general furs, peltries, horses, and various articles of dress at standing or fixed rates of barter, are the immediate objects, both of internal and external trade. They do not hold their property in common, but each individual enjoys the fruit of his own toil and industry. They are accounted more or less wealthy according to the number of horses they are possessed of, and the style in which they are able to dress.

Polygamy is common amongst them, every man being allowed to have as many wives as he can maintain. Marriages are binding upon the parties only as long as they think proper to live together, and are often contracted for a limited term particularly specified. Females, during the periods of their catamenia, are excluded from society, and compelled even to sleep apart from their families, in small tents or lodges constructed for their use.

Dancing is common amongst them, both as a devotional exercise and an amusement. Their gestures on both occasions are similar, except that on the former they are accompanied by solemnity, and on the latter by cheerfulness; and are characterized by extraordinary uncouthness, rather than by gracefulness. No ribaldry, however, or tricks of buffoonery are practised on these occasions; on the contrary, their deportment is uniformly accordant with their {257} ideas of decorum. This exercise is invariably accompanied by singing, or a kind of chanting, in which the women, who are usually excluded from a participation in the former, perform their part. Their music consists in a succession of tones of equal intervals, accompanied by occasional elevations and depressions of the voice. The modulations with which it is variegated are by no means melodious; the voices of all the chanters move in unison, and all appear to utter the same aspirations. The same series of sounds appears to be common to the chanting of all the tribes.

The foregoing are among the most common features in the general character of the western Indians. Although in a region so extensive as that inhabited by them, and amongst so great a variety of tribes and nations, a considerable diversity of character is to be expected and admitted, yet it is believed that the traits above considered are common to the whole, as a race of barbarians. And although the shades of barbarism in which they are enveloped uniformly exclude the light of civilization, yet it is not to be presumed that they are equally dark and malignant in all cases.

OF THE MISSISSIPPI, MISSOURI, AND OHIO RIVERS

I trust it will not be deemed improper on this occasion, to offer a few remarks upon the character of these rivers, embracing more particularly the condition of their navigation.

The causes heretofore alleged as giving occasion to a diversity of soil within the valleys of the western rivers, have an effect also in giving character to their channels or beds. For example: the banks near the mouths of the rivers, being composed of a fine unctuous and adhesive alluvion, are less liable to crumble and wash away, and constitute a more permanent barrier to resist the force of the current, than those {258} higher up, that are composed of coarser materials. In consequence, the beds of the rivers are rendered narrower and deeper towards their mouths than at greater distances above them. This is more particularly the case with the Mississippi, Red, Arkansa, and some others, whose beds or channels gradually dilate, and become more shoal on ascending from their mouths. Thus it happens also, that the navigation of the Mississippi has fewer obstructions between Natches and its mouth than above this part of the river, having so great a depth of water, that mags, bars, &c. are sunk below the reach of any kind of water-craft employed in its navigation. From Natches upward to its confluence with the Missouri, the river presents impediments that become more and more numerous and difficult to pass. Still, however, the main channel, though intricate in many places, affords a sufficient depth of water in all stages for boats of five or six feet draft to ascend to the mouth of the Ohio. From this point to the Missouri, a distance of more than two hundred and twenty miles, the navigation is partially obstructed, during a very low stage of the water, by shoals, so that it is navigable only for boats of moderate burthen, requiring but about three feet of water. At the distance of about thirty miles above the mouth of the Ohio there are two rocky bars extending across the Mississippi, called the Big and Little Chains, which in the deepest channel across them afford no more than five or six feet of water in a low stage, and occasion a great rapidity of current. The Mississippi is usually at its lowest stage about the middle of August, the summer freshet of the Missouri having subsided previously to that time. It usually continues in this stage till it is swollen by the fall freshet of the Ohio, after which it subsides again, and remains low during the winter. The distance from New Orleans to the mouth of the Missouri is estimated at about twelve hundred miles; its current in the main channel of {259} the river is supposed to have an average velocity of three miles and three quarters per hour, in a moderate stage of the water; but when the river is high its velocity is considerably accelerated. Its water is turbid, being charged with a fine argillaceous mud, of a light colour, derived exclusively from the Missouri.

The Missouri is a very wild and turbulent river, possessing the ruder features of the Mississippi, but destitute of the gentleness characteristic of the latter in many places. The obstructions to the navigation of the Missouri, although they are of the same character with those of the Mississippi, are far more numerous and formidable than those of the latter. The channel is rendered exceedingly intricate by means of sand-bars and islands, and the navigation in many places is very hazardous, on account of the multiplicity of rafts, mags, sand-bars, &c. with which the channel is beset. No part of the river is exempt from these obstructions for any considerable distance, particularly when the water is low.

As this river in connexion with some of its principal tributaries traverses a considerable variety of climates, embracing more than ten degrees of latitude, a succession of spring freshets invariably takes place, and maintains an elevated stage of water from the breaking up of winter early in March, to the middle, and sometimes the last of July, when the summer freshet, yielded by the most northerly of its tributaries, takes place. During this period there is a sufficient depth to admit boats of almost any burthen; but during the residue of the year it can hardly be called navigable, except for boats drawing no more than twenty-five or thirty inches. The river is usually blocked up with ice during the winter season. The average velocity of its current, in a middling stage of water, may be estimated at four miles and one third. In time of a high freshet it moves with an {260} accelerated velocity, equal to five or five and half miles per hour.

The Ohio river, as before hinted, differs from those just described, in the rapidity of its current, the width of its bed, the character of its channel, and in several other respects; but as its general character is well known, a few remarks in relation to it will here suffice. The obstructions to its navigation are sand-bars, some few rafts and mags, and rapids, to which the intricacy of its channel in several places may be added. During a middle and high stage of water, the obstructions entirely disappear, and an accelerated current is the only difficulty to be encountered. The average velocity of the current, in a moderate stage of water, may be estimated at two miles and a half, and in a high stage, at three miles per hour. The season in which the navigation of the Ohio can be relied on, commences between the middle of February and first of March, and continues to the latter part of June. A fall freshet usually takes place in October or November, and the river is again navigable for a few weeks. During the rest of the year, boats of inconsiderable burthen meet with numerous obstructions in their progress from the lowness of the water, and in many places no channel can be found of sufficient depth to admit their passage. At the distance of about seventeen miles from its mouth is the first serious obstruction to its navigation, consisting of a limestone bar extending across the river, denominated the Big Chain. Three miles above is another of a similar description. The range of rocks, of which these appear to be a portion, seems to extend across the point of land situated between the Ohio and Mississippi, presenting itself again on the latter, at the Big and Little Chains before mentioned. The falls of the Ohio at Louisville are impassable for boats of burthen, except in the higher stages of the water. Le Turt's Falls, and {261} numerous other rapids, denominated ripples, are also impassable for boats of heavy burthen when the river is at its lowest stages. In this state the river is fordable in numberless places.

OF THE GREAT VALLEY OR BASIN OF THE MISSISSIPPI

This vast region, embracing more than twenty degrees of latitude and about thirty of longitude, although it has been explored in various directions by men of intelligence, is yet but imperfectly known; and probably no country in the world affords a more ample or interesting field for philosophic investigation. A thorough acquaintance with its geological character would in all probability lead to the most important conclusions in forming a correct theory of the earth, while a knowledge of its vegetable and mineral productions may be conducive to the comforts and enjoyments of a large portion of the human family. All we shall presume to offer under this copious head, will be a few general remarks relative to the position and conformation of the valley, grounded almost exclusively upon the hydrography of the country, so far as it has come under our observation.

The valley is bounded on the west by the Rocky Mountains, on the east and south-east by the Alleghanies, and on the south by the Gulf of Mexico. To the northward, no precise limits can be assigned as its boundary. Although many have supposed that the waters of the Mississippi are separated from those running north-westwardly into the Pacific Ocean, and north-eastwardly into the Atlantic, by a mountainous range of country, yet, from the best information that can be had on the subject, the fact is quite otherwise. The old and almost forgotten statement of savage origin, viz. that "four of the largest rivers on the continent have their sources in the same plain," is entitled to far more {262} credit. The rivers alluded to are the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, the Saskashawin, and the Oregon or M'Kenzie's river. Agreeably to the accounts of Colonel Dixon and others who have traversed the country situated between the Missouri and the Assinaboin, a branch of Red river of Hudson's Bay, no elevated ridge is to be met with; but, on the contrary, tributaries to both these streams take their rise in the same champaign, and wind their way in various directions to their far distant estuaries. Judging from the maps that have been given of the country near the sources of the Mississippi, and of the region generally situated northwardly of the great lakes, as also from the accounts of various travellers who have penetrated many parts of those countries, the same remarks appear equally applicable to a large portion of the whole. The watercourses are represented as chains of lakes of various magnitudes, while lakes and stagnant pools are scattered in almost every direction, without ridges or perceptible declivities to show the direction in which they are drained. But we forbear to enlarge on this subject, and beg leave that reference may be had to Bouchette's map of the region of which we have just been treating, as a document containing ample illustrations of our opinion. Hence it will be inferred that the valley of the Mississippi is merely a portion of an immense region of valley or flat country, extending from the Gulf of Mexico north-eastwardly to the Atlantic, and north-westwardly to the Pacific Ocean.

Within the valley or region drained by the Mississippi, are situated no less than three distinct ranges of mountainous country, the localities of which we will attempt to point out. The first and most considerable is a range of mountains commencing within the Spanish province of Texas, and stretching in a north-eastward direction, till it is terminated by the high lands on the lower part of the Missouri river. To this range we have given the name of the Ozark {263} Mountains, an appellation by which the Arkansa river was formerly distinguished, as also the tribe of Indians, since denominated the Quapaws, inhabiting near that river. Its direction is nearly parallel to that of the Alleghanies. Its peaks and ridges are less elevated than those of the latter, and do not present the same regularity in their arrangement. The second is denominated the Black Hills, commencing on the South or Padouca fork of the river Platte, at the distance of about one hundred miles eastward of the Rocky Mountains, and stretching north-eastwardly towards the great northerly bend of the Missouri. Of this range very little is yet known; and the fact that there is such a range is partially substantiated by the concurrent testimony of the traders and hunters of the Missouri, with whom it is a noted landmark, but it is more fully corroborated by the hydrography of the country, as may be shown by the map.

The third is a range of hilly and broken country, commencing on the Wisconsan near the Portage, and extending northwardly to Lake Superior. To this range we have taken the liberty to give the name of the Wisconsan Hills. The Ocooch and Smokey Mountains before mentioned, are connected with this range. In its geological character, and more especially in its metallic productions, so far as our inquiry will enable us to decide, it appears nearly allied to the Ozark Mountains, and circumstances are not wanting to induce the opinion, that they were once the same continuous range. Dr. James is decidedly of opinion, that the metalliferous region of the Mississippi, which extends from Red river to Lake Superior in the direction of these two ranges, strongly indicates that a continuous range, as just hinted, once had an existence.

The Mississippi river may be regarded as occupying the lowest part of the valley, from its great estuary, the Gulf of Mexico, to its confluence with the Missouri and Illinois. Thence to Lake Michigan, {264} the immediate valley of the Illinois is to be viewed as the lowest part of the great valley under consideration. This conclusion necessarily results from an attentive consideration of the characters of the three rivers just mentioned. If the inclinations of the plains down which these rivers respectively flow, be in any degree proportionate to the velocities of their currents, the plain of the Illinois will be found to have far the least inclination, inasmuch as the velocity of its current is not more than one-fourth of that of either of the others. But in order to have a more distinct view of the matter, let us assume the parallel of latitude intersecting the Illinois at its head, or point of confluence of the Kankakee and Des Plaines rivers, and suppose a vertical section cut in the direction of the parallel. Such a section would intersect the Missouri at the distance of nearly seven hundred miles from its mouth, the Mississippi at about two hundred and sixty, and the Illinois at two hundred and fifty from the same point. Hence, allowing that the plains of each have the same inclination, the point of intersection on the Missouri would be at a greater elevation than that on the Mississippi, and that on the Illinois would be less elevated than either. But the difference of inclination in these plains is manifest, not only from the comparative velocities of the several streams alluded to, but from the circumstance, that the Illinois is destitute of any considerable rapids throughout its whole course, whereas the Mississippi, in addition to a current uniformly more rapid, is hurried down the De Moyen rapids, eleven miles in length; and the Missouri, without a perversion of terms, may be denominated a rapid throughout the distance above specified. By a similar course of reasoning it may also be made to appear, that the assumed point of intersection on the Illinois is less elevated than any other point in the same parallel of latitude between that river and Lake Erie, and even that it is somewhat lower than the surface of {265} the lake itself; for the aggregate descent, from the surface of Lake Michigan to the point under consideration, is evidently greater than from the surface of the same lake to that of Lake Erie; or, in other words, the descent of the Des Plaines, from Chicago to its confluence with the Kankakee, is greater by a few feet than that of the stream uniting Lakes Huron and Erie.

This view of the subject affords us a clue whereby to ascertain, with some degree of precision, the aggregate fall of the water, from the head of the Illinois, to the Gulf of Mexico. Agreeably to the surveys of the Great Canal of New York, the elevation of Lake Erie above tide-water is found to be 564 feet. Hence we may assume, in round numbers, 450 feet as the altitude of the head of the Illinois above the ocean.

Of the conformation of the valley in other respects, no other ideas can be advanced but such as are suggested by a general view of the topography of the country, and especially of the courses of the principal rivers, as exhibited in the map of the country drained by the Mississippi. We will only add, that the inclined plain constituting the western side of the valley, or, in other words, the great slope down which the Red, Canadian, Arkansa, Konzas, Platte, and other large rivers have their courses, has probably a greater general inclination than any other side of the valley. In forming an estimate of the aggregate descent of this slope, commencing at tide-water, and extending to the base of the Rocky Mountains, Pike allows 8000 feet, which probably exceeds the truth by more than one-half. We would substitute 3000 feet as the aggregate elevation of the base of the mountains above the ocean, and are of opinion, that this amount rather exceeds the truth. This altitude, added to that of James's Peak as before stated, would give for the height of that Peak above the ocean, 11,500 feet; comparing this altitude with that of the "inferior {266} limit of perpetual snow," as estimated by M. De Humboldt for the latitude of 40 degrees, viz. 9846 feet above the ocean, we find the summit of the Peak 1654 feet higher than that elevation; and judging from appearances, this difference of altitude seemed sufficiently well marked by the distance to which the snow extended from the summit downward, upon the sides of the Peak, to authenticate in a good degree the calculation above stated.

* * * * *

The foregoing report is intended as a civil rather than a military description of the country. For a partial description of its military features, I beg leave to refer to my report of the 12th May, 1818, to Brigadier General T. A. Smith, on file in the War Department.

In the performance of topographical duties I have been aided by Lieutenants Graham and Swift, who have rendered essential service in these and other operations. The former of these gentlemen is at present occupied in completing the calculations upon the various astronomical and other observations we took in connexion with our duties; the latter is engaged in delineating the surveys made in behalf of the expedition.

The services of Captain Bell are to be recognized as highly important and useful to the expedition, in keeping a journal of our proceedings, and conducting detached parties whenever an occasion required. He is now busily engaged in revising his journal, a copy of which will soon be in readiness to be disposed of agreeably to your instructions.

The duties in the various departments of natural science were discharged with zeal and ability by Mr. Say and Dr. James, assisted by Mr. Peale, who was active and industrious in the collection and preservation of such rare specimens of animals, &c. as came under our observation. The vessel on board of which most of these specimens were shipped {267} from New Orleans, has very lately arrived in this port, and discharged our packages in good order. I take this opportunity to express my acknowledgements of the politeness of her owners, Messrs. Price and Morgan, who have kindly franked the transportation of the collections. A catalogue, embracing the zoology of the country explored by us, is shortly expected from Mr. Say, and shall be forwarded by the earliest opportunity. Dr. James has been instructed also to furnish a mineralogical and botanical catalogue, which is daily expected. Both of these are intended as accompaniments to this report.

Mr. Seymour has taken numerous landscape views, exhibiting the characteristic features of various parts of the country, besides many others of detached scenery.

A map of the country situated between the meridian of Washington City and the Rocky Mountains, shall be reported as soon as the necessary elements and data can be compiled and the drawings executed.

I have the honour to be, Sir, most respectfully, Your obedient and humble Servant,

S. H. LONG, Major U. S. Engineers.

_Honourable J. C. Calhoun, Secretary of War._

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY OF A PART OF THE UNITED STATES WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI.

EXTRACTED FROM A REPORT TO MAJOR LONG[79]

The following remarks are designed to give a summary and connected view of the facts and observations collected during the progress of the exploring expedition, relative to the geology and mineralogy of the several regions traversed by the party, more particularly of the Rocky Mountains, and the western portions of the great valley of the Mississippi. In an attempt of this kind, some difficulty arises from the unsettled and progressive condition of geognostic science. A nomenclature, constructed upon principles applicable to the other branches of natural history, has been extended to this. Attempts have been made to define classes, orders, genera, and species of rocks; while it must be acknowledged, that the inventors of systems have hitherto failed to point out such infallible foundations for distinction of character as exist in the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Among minerals, from one extreme of the series to the other, there is a constant transition of approximating aggregates into each other. The particles of unorganized matter, being exempt from the influence of those peculiar laws which regulate the forms and characters of living {272} beings, and moving in obedience only to the impulses of attraction and affinity, arrange themselves together not always in an invariable order, and after a permanent and unalterable type, but are variously intermixed and confounded, as circumstances may have variously influenced their aggregation. Definitions, it must be acknowledged, have been constructed, strictly applicable to particular portions of matter, which may occur under similar circumstances in remote quarters of the globe. Fragments of granite may be found in the Rocky Mountains of America which could not be distinguished from the granite of Egypt, such as is seen in our collections. These definitions, then, may be sufficient for the purposes of the naturalist who confines his inquiries to his cabinet; but when examinations are extended, when we approach the imaginary limits of these artificial divisions, we not uncommonly find ourselves deserted by our boasted distinctions and definitions. It must be evident to any person in the slightest degree familiarized to the examination of the rocky materials composing the earth's surface, that between any two of the contiguous artificial divisions there is often-times no definite and discoverable boundary. Granite must consist essentially of felspar, quartz, and mica; so must gneiss and mica-slate; and between the two former, it is often extremely difficult to point out the line which shall be considered as marking the termination of the one and the commencement of the other. It will, we think, be acknowledged, that not one of the names applied to rocks, as constituting extensive strata, conveys of itself a definite and satisfactory idea. Hence the necessity which is felt, in attempting to give a detailed account of the rock formations of any particular district, to define the names in almost every instance of their application. If the following remarks should on this account seem faulty, by a certain monotony and appearance of {273} repetition, we hope there are a few, who, for the sake of the facts detailed, will excuse any want of precision in the language which may have necessarily resulted from the unsettled condition of the nomenclature.

No part of the earth, it is probable, presents a greater degree of simplicity and uniformity in the structure and conformation of its surface than North America. The mountain ranges are here distinct, forming each its own particular system, and preserving severally, through their whole extent, a similarity in external appearance, as well as in the structure and aggregation of the various rocks of which they are composed.

The outlines of a physical delineation of the continent of North America would present, first, the great chain of the Rocky Mountains, evidently a continuation of the Andes of the southern hemisphere, stretching parallel to the direction of the western coast from the isthmus of Panama to the northern ocean. Their summits penetrating far into the regions of perpetual winter, look down upon the vast plains of the Mississippi and its tributaries; in which we distinguish a comparatively inconsiderable range of rocky hills, commencing near the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi, and running south-west of the Gulf of Mexico, near the estuary of the Rio del Norte. Beyond these, the surface subsides to a plain, stretching eastward to the commencement of the great chain of the Alleghanies. The range of the Alleghanies, far less elevated and alpine than that of the Rocky Mountains, traverses the continent in a direction nearly parallel to the Atlantic ocean, from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, on the north-east, to the confluence of the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers, in the south-west. Compared to the Rocky Mountains, this range is without summits, presenting, instead of conic peaks, long and level ridges, rising in no point to the inferior limit of perpetual frost, and scarce in any instance reaching that degree of {274} elevation which is incompatible with the growth of forests.

In many particulars there is a manifest resemblance between the Alleghanies, and the comparatively inconsiderable group known by the name of the Ozark mountains. They are parallel in direction, making an angle of about forty degrees with the great range of the Andes. They agree in having their most elevated portions made up of rocks of recent formation. It is well known, that, from the highly primitive gneiss rock at Philadelphia, there is a gradual ascent, across strata more and more recent, to the rocks of the coal formation, about the summit of the Alleghanies. Whether the same thing happens in every part of the range, our examinations have not yet been extensive enough to decide. We know that some of the granitic mountains of New England are far surpassed in elevation by the neighbouring hills and ridges of mica slate, talcose rocks, or even more recent aggregates.

In the Ozark mountains, as far as they have been hitherto explored, the granites and more ancient rocks are found at the lowest parts, being surmounted by those of a more recent date, the newest horizontal sandstone, and strata of compact limestone, forming the highest summits. What we wish to remark is, that the reverse of this being the case with the Rocky Mountains, the granite there far surpassing, both in extent and elevation, all the other aggregates forming the central and higher portions of all the ridges, that range has a character very distinct from the Ozark or Alleghany mountains.

It has been suggested by Major Long, that the hydrography of the upper portion of the Missouri seems to indicate the existence of a mountain range, approaching that river from the south-west, near the great northern bend, in the country of the Mandans. From Lewis and Clarke we have also some accounts tending to the confirmation of this opinion. Further {275} examination may perhaps prove this third range, called the Black hills, to resemble in direction and general character the Alleghany and Ozark mountains. The Rocky Mountains have not inaptly been called the backbone of the continent: these three lateral ranges, going off at an angle of about forty degrees, may with equal propriety be called the ribs. In latitude 38° north, the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains is found to be in about 106° west longitude: following the same parallel of latitude eastward, you arrive at the base of the Ozark mountains, nearly in longitude 94°. The intervening space, occupying the extent of near twelve degrees of longitude, is a wide and desolate plain, destitute of timber; scorched in summer by the reverberation of the rays of the sun, howled over in winter by the frozen west winds from the Rocky Mountains.

Though we have assumed twelve degrees of longitude as the medium width of this great plain, it is to be remarked, that to many parts of it our examinations have not been extended. In the latitude of 41°, no mountain, and scarce an elevation deserving the name of a hill, occurs between the western range of the Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountains. But at no great distance north of this parallel, low ranges of hills begin to appear in the region south-west of Lake Michigan; and though too inconsiderable in point of elevation to deserve particular notice, still they exhibit peculiar characters, which seem to designate an intimate connection with the Ozark mountains, south of the Missouri. The same succession of strata, the same alternation of crystalline beds, with those of mechanical deposition, and similar depositories of metallic ores, are observed here, as in the regions about the Merameg and St. Francis. A marked difference is also, as we think, to be discovered between the rocks and soils on the different sides of this range. Of this we shall speak more {276} particularly in another place. For our present purpose, it is sufficient to assume as a boundary of the region we propose first to consider, a line running from the confluence of the Arkansa and Canadian rivers on the south-west, to the junction of the Mississippi and Wisconsan, on the north-east. Assuming this as the direction of the range of the Ozark mountains, it will be perceived, by examining the map, that to the north-west of this line spreads an extensive plain, reaching to the base of the Rocky Mountains. This plain has been crossed in three different places by the exploring party, as already detailed in our narrative; once in ascending by the River Platte, between latitude 40° and 41° 30´; again, in descending the Arkansa, in 38°; and, thirdly, by the route of the Canadian, in 34°. To the information collected in these journeys, we have added a little from other sources; but the greater part of this extensive region yet remains unknown.

_Of the Great Desert at the base of the Rocky Mountains_

The portion of country which we design to consider under this division has an average width of five or six hundred miles, extending along the base of the Rocky Mountains from north to south: as far as we have any acquaintance with that range, consisting entirely of granitic sands, or of secondary aggregates made up of the _detritus_ of that great chain of primitive mountains, there seems to be a degree of propriety in designating it by some name recognising relation to those mountains. It has been mentioned as the "Mexican desert;" a name sufficiently applicable, perhaps, to some portions of it, but one by no means to be extended to every part alike, as there can be little doubt of its occupying an extensive {277} portion of the interior of North America. That a similar desert region exists on the western side of the mountains, we have sufficient evidence; but whether as uninterrupted and as extensive, we have not the means of determining.

The Jesuit Venegas, speaking of the early history of California, says "Father Kino and his companions, after travelling thirty leagues from San. Marcelo, came to a small rancheria (Indian village); and leaving on the north the great mountain of Santa Clara, whose sides, for the length of a league, are covered with pumice-stone, they arrived at the _Sandy Waste_, on the 19th of March." Our information is, however, too limited to justify an attempt to fix the boundaries of this desert; we will, therefore, content ourselves with communicating the observations our opportunities have enabled us to make.

The channel of the Missouri, near the mouth of the Platte, discloses here and there rocks of horizontal limestone; which, from their peculiar character, we are disposed to consider as belonging rather to the Ozarks, than having any connection with the Rocky Mountains. These rocks appear at the lowest parts of the valleys, and are usually surmounted by extensive beds of soil, consisting principally of flinty sand in the most minute state of division, but variously intermixed with the remains of organized beings, and sometimes with calcareous and aluminous earth. Proceeding westward, the sand becomes deeper and more unmixed; not a rock or a stone, in place or out of place, is to be met with for some hundreds of miles. It is believed that no rocky bluffs appear along the valley of the Platte, within three hundred miles of its mouth, though a small part of this distance, on the lower portion of the river, has not hitherto been explored. The surface is not an absolute plain, but is varied with gentle undulations, such {278} as the draining of water, from an immense table of a light arenaceous earth, for a succession of centuries, may be supposed to have occasioned. The gradual intermixture of the exuviæ of animals and vegetables, with what was formerly a pure siliceous sand, has at length produced a soil capable of supporting a scanty growth of grasses; now almost the only covering of these desolate regions. Scales of mica, little particles of brownish felspar, and minute fragments of hornblende, may here be detected in the soil.

About four hundred miles west of the mouth of the Platte, a low range of sandstone hills crosses the country from south-west to north-east. The strata composing these hills have no perceptible inclination, and present appearances which indicate their deposition to have been nearly contemporaneous to that of many of our coal formations. It has already been suggested that this range may probably be a continuation of the Cotes Noir, or Black hills, said to contain the sources of the Shienne, the Little Missouri, and some branches of the Yellow Stone.[80]

These inconsiderable hills being passed, the surface again subsides nearly to a plain. The fine and comparatively fertile sand which prevailed to the east of the ranges, is exchanged for a gravel made up of rounded granitic fragments, varying in dimensions from the size of a six-pound shot to finish sand. This great mass of granitic fragments, evidently brought down by the agency of water from the sides and summits of the Andes, slopes gradually from their base, appearing, as far as examinations have extended, to correspond in some measure, in magnitude, to the elevation and extent of that part of the mountains opposite which it is placed. The minute particles derived from the quartzy portions of the primitive aggregates, being least liable to decomposition, have been carried to the greatest distance, {279} and now form the almost unmixed soil of the eastern margin of the great sandy desert. The central portions are of a coarser sand, with which some particles of felspar and mica are intermixed: nearer the mountains, pebbles and boulders become frequent, and at length almost cover the surface of the country.

The opinion above advanced, that the great sandy desert has resulted from the wearing down of the mountains, both before and since the retiring of the ocean, should, perhaps, be received with some caution. We have no foundation for the belief, but in the examinations which enabled us to discover that the materials composing both regions are similar in kind; that the granitic soils of the plain are precisely such as would result from the disintegration of the rocks now existing in the mountains; and that the numerous deep ravines and water-worn valleys traversing the mountains in various directions, indicate the change here supposed to have happened.

It is probable many parts of this extensive desert may differ from that traversed by the Platte, in having the surface more or less covered with horizontal strata of sandstone and conglomerate, instead of loose sand and pebbles. Indeed, there are many appearances indicating that a formation of this kind formerly extended down the Platte much farther than at present. From the minute account given in the narrative of the expedition, of the particular features of this region, it will be perceived that its eastern portions bear a manifest resemblance to the deserts of Siberia. The soils, and I believe the rocks, wherever any occur, are saline: plants allied to chenopodium and salsola are peculiarly abundant, as are the astragali and other herbaceous leguminæ; while trees and forests are almost unknown.

The surface of the sandy plain rises perceptibly towards the base of the mountains; and becoming constantly more and more undulating, is at length broken, disclosing some cliffs and ledges of micaceous {280} sandstone. Near the Platte this sandstone occurs in horizontal strata, sometimes divided by the beds of the streams, and forming low ridges parallel to the Rocky Mountains. Whether they continue in an uninterrupted line along the base of the mountains, we have not been able to ascertain. They are separated from the first range of primitive, by more elevated cliffs of a similar sandstone, having its strata in a highly inclined position. Behind these, occur lofty but uninterrupted ranges of naked rocks, destitute of any covering of earthy or vegetable matter, and standing nearly perpendicular. At a distant view, they present to the eye the forms of walls, towers, pyramids, and columns, seeming rather the effects of the most laborious efforts of art, than the productions of nature. When surveyed from the more elevated summits of the first granitic range, these immense strata of sandstone standing on edge, and sometimes inclining at various angles towards the primitive, resemble the plates of ice often seen thrown into a vertical position in the eddies and along the banks of rivers.

Climbing to the summits of such of these elevations as are accessible, and crossing their stratifications towards the primitive, we observe appearances similar to those found in the valleys, when circumstances enable us to push our inquiries to a corresponding extent below the surface. Having crossed the upturned margin of the whole secondary formation which occupies the plain, and arriving at the primitive, we find these highly inclined strata of sandstone reposing immediately against the granite. We search in vain for any traces of those rocks distinguished by the Wernerians as rocks of the transition period. We also observe an entire deficiency of all those primitive strata which the doctrine of universal formations may have taught us to look for in approaching the granite.

The sandstone along the base of the mountains, {281} though apparently not very recent, contains the remains of marine animals and plants, and embraces some extensive beds of puddingstone. It may be remarked that the sand and gravel composing these aggregates have in general the same close resemblance to the materials of the granitic mountains, as we have already observed in the un-cemented materials of the plain. Indeed, it does not seem easy to determine whether the sands, gravel-stones, and pebbles, now loosely strewed over the extensive plains of the desert, have been brought down immediately from the granitic mountains whence they were originally derived, or have resulted from the disintegration of the stratified sandstone and conglomerates deposited during a long series of ages, while the waters of the ocean rested upon the great plain, and washed the bases of the Rocky Mountains. The very wide and equal distribution of these sands, in other words, the very gradual slope of the débris of the mountain, would seem to countenance the latter supposition.

The position of the strata of sandstone varies in the distance of a few miles from nearly horizontal to an inclination of more than sixty degrees, and that without any very manifest change of character, or the interposition of any other stratum. The laminæ most distant from the primitive, occupying the eastern sides of the first elevations, though lowest in actual elevation, may with propriety be considered the uppermost, as resting on those beyond. At the level of the surface of the great plain, they sink beneath the alluvial; and in the neighbourhood of the river Platte, they are no more seen. The uppermost are of a yellowish-gray colour; moderately fine; compact and hard; constantly varying, however, at different points, in colour as well as most other characters. The light-coloured varieties usually contain small round masses about the size of a musket-ball, which are more friable than the rock itself, {282} from which they are easily detached, leaving cavities corresponding to their own shape and dimensions. They are commonly of a dark-brown colour, and of a coarser sand than that which constitutes the rock itself. Where these are found, I could never discover any of those remains of shellfish so distinctly seen in many of the secondary rocks in this neighbourhood.

Passing downwards, or in other words, proceeding towards the primitive, crossing the edge of the secondary, the sandstone becomes more coarse and friable, its colour inclining more to several shades of brown and red. This variety contains numerous masses of iron ore, and does not appear to abound in the remains or impressions of organized beings. It is also less distinctly stratified than that just mentioned; and it often becomes exceedingly coarse, with angular fragments intermixed, being in no respect different from the rock denominated breccia, and by some geologists considered a distinct stratum.

This tract of sandstone, which skirts the eastern boundary of the Rocky Mountains, and appears to belong to that immense secondary formation which occupies the valley of the Mississippi, abounds in scenery of a grand and interesting character. The angle of inclination of the strata often approaches 90°, and is very rarely less than 45°. That side of the ridges next the primitive appears to have been broken off from a part of the stratum beyond; and is usually an abrupt and perpendicular precipice, sometimes even overhanging and sheltering a considerable extent of surface. The face of the stratum is usually smooth and hard, and both sides are alike destitute of soil and verdure. Elevations of this description are met with, varying from twenty to several thousand feet in thickness; neither are they by any means uniform in height. Some of them rise, probably, three hundred or four hundred feet; and considering their singular character, would appear {283} high, were they not subjected to an immediate and disadvantageous comparison with the stupendous Andes, at whose feet they are placed. Their summits in some instances are regular and horizontal, and are crowned with a scanty growth of cedar and pine. Where the cement and most of the materials of the sandstone are siliceous, the rock evinces a tendency to break into fragments of a rhombic form; and in this case the elevated edge presents an irregularly notched or serrated surface.

Sandstones consisting of silex, with the least intermixture of foreign ingredients, are the most durable. But in the region of which we speak, the variations in the composition, cement, and characters of the sandstone, are innumerable. Clay and oxide of iron entering into its composition in certain proportions, seem to render it unfit to withstand the attacks of the various agents, whose effect is to hasten dissolution and decay. Highly elevated rocks of this description may well be supposed in a state of rapid and perceptible change. The sharp angles and asperities of surface which they may have originally presented, are soon worn away; the matter constantly removed by the agency of water from their sides and summits is deposited at their feet; their elevation gradually diminishes, and even the inclination of their strata becomes at length obscure or wholly undiscoverable. This appears to have been a part of the process by which numerous conic hills and mounds have been interspersed among the highly inclined naked rocks above mentioned. These hills, often clothed with considerable verdure to their summits, add greatly to the beauty of the surrounding scenery. The contrast of colours in this rude but majestic region, is often seen to produce the most brilliant and grateful effects. The deep green of the small and almost procumbent cedars and junipers, with the less intense colours of various species of deciduous foliage, acquires new beauty from being {284} placed as a margin to the glowing red and yellow seen in the surfaces of many of the rocks.

_Of the Sandstones of the Rocky Mountains_

Having commenced our account of the Rocky Mountains with the consideration of that vast accumulation of rounded fragments constituting the Great Desert, which may be reckoned the most recent formation connected with that great range of mountains, we proceed to speak of the sandstones, the next member in the inverted order we have adopted; and here we take occasion to remark the peculiar grandeur and simplicity of features which distinguish the mineral geography of this part of our continent. We have here a stupendous chain of granitic mountains, many hundred miles in extent, and with no stratified rocks resting about their sides, except a few sandstones, equally granitic, and almost equally primitive. We discover here comparatively few traces of that magnificent profusion of animal and vegetable life, which in other parts of the globe has reared mountains of limestone, clay-slate, and those other aggregates, which if not entirely, are often in a great measure, made up of the exuviæ of living beings. We shall not here be understood to contradict the assertion we have before made, that the sandstones along the base of the Rocky Mountains contain organized remains, and bear abundant evidence of having been at a comparatively recent period deposited gradually from the waters of the ocean. The particular we wish to remark as distinguishing these mountains most strikingly from the Alleghanies, and many other ranges, is the entire want of the aggregates referred by the Wernerians to the transition period, as well as nearly all the stratified primitive rocks, and the limestones of the secondary formations.[81] This great range, as far as hitherto known to us, lies nearly from north to south. Considered {285} topographically, the sandstone formation belongs both to the mountains and the plains, sloping down from the sides of the granite, and disappearing under the sands of the Great Desert.

The western boundary of this formation of sandstone, as far as our examinations have searched, appears to be defined, and corresponds to the side of the easternmost granitic ranges. From the Platte towards the south, the sandstone increases in width, and on the Canadian it extends more than half the distance from the sources of that river to its confluence with the Arkansa. This sandstone formation we consider as consisting essentially of two members.

1st. _Red sandstone._--This rock, which is the lowest of the horizontal or fletz rocks met with in this part of the country, is very abundant in all the region immediately subjacent to the Rocky Mountains. We have never met with a similar rock in the eastern part of the valley of the Mississippi. It occurs at intervals along the base of the mountain, reposing against the primitive rocks, in an erect or highly inclined position. It varies in colour from bright brick red, to dark brown; and is sometimes found exhibiting various shades of yellow and gray. It is, however, almost invariably ferruginous; and the predominance of red in the colouring certainly entitles it to the distinctive appellation of red sandstone. The lowest part of the stratum has frequently least colour, and is also the most compact and hard. This is not, however, invariably the case; for in the neighbourhood of the Platte, that part of it which lies immediately upon the granite is white, and contains beds of coarse conglomerate or puddingstone. At the lowest points we have been able to examine, are found embodied large oval or irregular masses of hornstone, usually of a yellowish-white, or bluish colour; and near the surface of these masses are found the few well-marked organic relics the stratum can be said to contain. Higher {286} up the rock becomes much softer, and usually of a browner colour. It is disposed in immense horizontal laminæ or strata, which, when broken transversely, exhibit some tendency to separate into fragments of a rhombic form. Near the upper part of the stratum are frequently seen broad belts of a lighter colour, conspicuously marked with reticulating yellowish veins. The cross fracture of the stone is even and earthy, except in the conservatories. When divided in a direction parallel to that of the strata, small scales of mica are seen; but this is usual only in those parts of the stone where natural seams or fissures existed. Small specimens from many parts of this stratum could not be distinguished from the red sandstone quarried at Nyae in New Jersey, and used in great quantities in the cities of New York, Albany, &c. for building. The character which most particularly distinguishes this rock from "the old red sandstone of Werner," pointed out by Maclure in New York and New Jersey, appears to be the constant accompaniment of gypsum, and muriate of soda; the colour of the stratum is also in general of a brighter red, approaching vermilion, and is more copiously imparted to such streams of water as traverse it.

2d. _Argillaceous or gray sandstone._--Immediately above the red sandstone, we have invariably found, where any rock rests upon it, a grayish or yellowish-white sandstone, which we distinguish as the second variety. It most frequently contains a large proportion of argillaceous earth in the cement, and has a more or less slaty structure. Hence it may with propriety be denominated argillaceous sandstone, though it may in some respects differ from the rock known to many by that name. This variety being uppermost in actual position, is perhaps more frequently seen than the other, while at the same time it is probably less abundant. The line of separation betwixt the two is often manifest and well defined; and in other instances, they pass by imperceptible gradations into each other. {287} The upper, or gray sandstone, is usually more compact and homogenous than the red; it breaks like the other, though more rarely, into large cubic or rhombic masses, which, on account of the more compact texture of the stone, retain their form longer than those of the other variety. The precipices formed by both are often lofty and perpendicular; but the projections and angles of the red are more worn and rounded than those of the gray. The narrow defiles and ravines which the streams of water have excavated, are less tortuous when they are made entirely in the gray sandstone, than in other instances. The springs of water flowing from it are more free of mineral impregnations, than such as are found in the other variety. It sometimes consists of glittering crystalline particles, but does not in this case appear to be a chymical deposit. In fine, it appears under an endless variety of characters, of which it would be in vain to attempt the enumeration. Although the gray sandstone is not invariably distinguished by the presence of an argillaceous ingredient, yet it is constantly found accompanying soft clay-slate, or bituminous shale and coal, wherever these last are met with.

If this formation of sandstone, consisting of the two varieties just mentioned, ever extended across the valley of the Mississippi to the Alleghany mountains, as some might be disposed to believe, we cannot pretend to determine what was its position relative to the immense masses of fletz, limestone, and other rocks now found in that valley. But as the red variety is still extensively disseminated, and usually accompanied by those valuable substances, salt and plaister, it may not be amiss to trace, as far as our examinations have enabled us to do it, the outline of the region which it occupies. As we have before mentioned, it is found in the vicinity of the river Platte, in a highly inclined position, covering a narrow margin immediately at the foot of the Rocky Mountains. {288} From the accounts of Lewis and Clarke, we are induced to believe that it exists under similar circumstances, near the falls of the Missouri. On the Canadian it is constantly met with, from the sources of that river on the borders of New Mexico, near Santa Fé, 106° west, until you arrive within a short distance of its confluence with the Arkansa, in long. 97° west. The waters of the Canadian, from flowing over the sandstone in question, acquire an intense red colour, and are so impregnated with muriate of soda and other soluble salts as to be unfit for use. This, we are credibly informed, is also the case with the waters of three small rivers tributary to the Arkansa, above the Canadian, on the same side; also with the waters of Red river. Hence the conclusion appears to be justified, that this rock extends from near the Arkansa on the north, to a point beyond Red river on the south; and from near the mouth of the Canadian, an unknown distance to the west. It is not unlikely it may exist about the sources and upper branches of the Rio Colorado of California, the Red river of Santa Fé, and the other Red rivers of New Mexico. Near the mountains, and for a great distance to the south and east of the High Peak, it is covered by the gray sandstone already mentioned. This gray sandstone is the uppermost of those horizontally stratified rocks which are seen in this region, possessing convincing evidence of their being the deposition of an ocean or lake of salt water.

Perhaps the most striking feature of this formation of sandstone, is the great and abrupt change in the inclination of the strata in the parts near the granite. We have already described this in a manner sufficiently explicit, as we suppose, to convince most of our readers that since the deposition of the sandstones, a signal change must have happened in the elevation of the secondary aggregates as compared with the granite. The appearances are precisely {289} such as we must suppose would have ensued, had the sudden emerging of the granite broken off, and thrown into an inclined or vertical position the margin of the horizontally stratified rocks of the plains. We are conscious that inclined strata of sandstone are by no means infrequent about the declivities of lofty mountains, but we are not well assured that the same strata being traced to a little distance, are often found in a horizontal position in the plains, as is the case in the instance under consideration.

It may perhaps be thought possible that the gradual wearing away, by the agency of rivers, of some portions of the sandstone, may have been sufficiently extensive to have occasioned that change of elevation of which we speak; and that those rocks now found in an inclined position, are insulated portions of what was formerly the upper part of the stratum, which having been undermined on their eastern side, and supported by the granite on their western, have fallen into their present situation.

This supposition, however, seems incompatible with the vast magnitude and extent of these rocks, and entirely irreconcilable to the fact that they dip to a great and indefinite extent below the present level of any of the beds of the river.

The position of this formation in relation to the granite is similar to that of the sandstone of Guachaco, in South America, observed by Humboldt; also to that spoken of by Mr. Burkhardt, at the entrance of Nubia, superimposed upon the granite of Syene, and to that mentioned by Mr. Schoolcraft, as found near Lake Superior, but it does not appear that those formations have the same peculiarities in regard to inclination.

FLETZ TRAP ROCKS

Another family of rocks, of recent formation, and connected with the sandstone last mentioned, remains to be noticed.

{290} These are rocks of basaltic conformation, belonging to the class, by some mineralogists denominated superincumbent rocks, and by many considered of volcanic origin. They present a striking contrast, by their dark colour, by the vastness and irregularity of their masses, to the smooth, light, and fissile sandstone on which they rest. Sometimes they are observed compact and apparently homogeneous in their composition, and in many particulars of structure, form, hardness, &c. seeming more analogous to the primitive rocks than to those recent secondary aggregates with which they are associated. In other instances, black and formless masses of porous and amygdaloidal substances are seen scattered about the plains or heaped in conic masses, but having no immediate connection with the strata on which they rest. Most of the rocks belonging to this class were observed in the neighbourhood of the sources of the Canadian. Among them we distinguish two kinds, referable to the two divisions called greenstone and amygdaloid.

1. _Greenstone_, JAMESON.--It appears in the limited district we examined under almost every variety of form and character noticed by mineralogists. Sometimes it is nearly or quite free from any intermixture of hornblende, is of a fine dark green colour, and closely resembles some varieties of serpentine. Sometimes its colour is a dull gray, graduating into brown and black of various shades and intensities. It forms numerous conic hills of considerable elevation, scattered without order, or grouped in various directions. These hills are usually of a regular and beautiful form. The great plain on which they are based is elevated and destitute of timber or water, but ornamented with a carpet of thick and verdant grasses. The hills, though steep and high, are sometimes smooth and green to the summit, the surface on all sides being unbroken by trees or rocks, and covered with thick turf. The whole forms a scene of singular {291} beauty. During our journey across the district, based upon the rocks now under consideration, we had constantly occasion to admire the freshness and abundance of the grasses and other herbaceous plants. The plains of the Platte and Arkansa we had seen brown and desolate, as if recently ravaged by fire; but here we passed elevated tracts, where, for many miles, we could find no water for our own necessities, yet the vegetation possessed the freshness of spring in the most fertile regions. But the conic hills just mentioned, are not invariably the form under which the greenstone appears. It sometimes rises in low irregular ridges, extending a considerable distance, and sloping on both sides into the level of the plain.

In the narrow channels which the streams of water have sunk in it, may be seen perpendicular precipices of great elevation, but the valley between them is usually almost filled with large broken masses of the rock, which frequently exhibit a prismatic form. It falls readily into large masses, but seems strongly to resist that progress of disintegration which it must undergo before it can be removed by the water. The face of the perpendicular precipices are almost invariably marked by distinct and large seams running nearly parallel to each other, and at right angles with the horizon. Following the watercourses, which are sunk considerable distance below the surface, the line of separation from the sandstone on which the greenstone rests, at length becomes visible on account of the descent of the surface.

2. _Amygdaloid_, KIRWAN, JAMESON.--We apply this name to a porous or vesicular rock, of a very dark gray, greenish or black colour, usually found near the greenstone, but sometimes in connection with the sandstone. In its ultimate composition it resembles greenstone, but we have never seen in it such large fragments of felspar and scales of mica, as are observed in that rock. The amygdaloidal {292} cavities which every where penetrate this rock, are of various sizes, some of them appearing like bubbles which have been formed in a semifluid mass, and afterwards lengthened and variously distorted by the motions of the contiguous matter. Near the surface they contain a soft white, or yellowish white substance, very different from the rock itself, usually a soft chalk-like carbonate of lime. This gives the recent surface a mottled appearance. In surfaces which have been for some time exposed to the air, this soft substance has been removed, and the pores and vesicles are found empty.

Amygdaloid does not appear to occupy any very great extent of the country near the Rocky Mountains. We have not met with it imbedded in, or surmounted by any other rock. Like the greenstone, it forms conic hills which sometimes occur in deep water-worn vallies, bounded on both sides by perpendicular walls of sandstone. It is likewise seen in the high plains, sometimes in the form of narrow and crooked ridges, apparently following what were anciently the beds of small brooks. Some very high and sharp conic hills were visible to the westward, but at a great distance. Two of this kind which stand near each other, and seem to be detached from the primitive mountains, are called the Spanish peaks, and at the end of July, snow was still to be seen on them.

When either of the two rocks last mentioned occur, it is not uncommon to find detached masses of a stone somewhat resembling the pumice-stone of commerce. It is usually of a faint red, or yellowish white colour, but sometimes it is brown, or nearly black. It feels less harsh than the pumice-stone which is used in the arts, and seems to consist in a great degree of clay. It appears to be entirely similar to the substance brought down the Missouri by the annual floods, and by many considered as a {293} product of pseudo-volcanic fires, said to exist on that river.

With regard to the soils resting upon the rocks of this trap formation, it may be worthy of remark, that gravel and water-worn pebbles rarely occur, except in situations where it is easy to see they may have been derived from the substratum of sandstone. We are not disposed to enter into any discussion concerning the origin of the trap rocks. The volcanists, and those who believe the trap formations to have been thrown up in a state of fusion from beneath the crust of the earth, will have an easy method of accounting for a fact mentioned in our journal, namely, that pieces of charred wood were found enclosed in the sandstone underlying the formation in question. Though we sought in vain for some evidence that the rocks of this formation traversed the strata of sandstone in the manner of the whin dikes of England, we are conscious our examinations were far too limited to justify us in asserting that this is not the case; nor can we adduce a single fact from which it could be inferred that these basaltiform rocks have been deposited, like the accompanying strata of sandstone, from suspension in water. The country occupied by this formation, exhibits scenery of a very peculiar and interesting character. It is remarked by Humboldt,[82] that "in the Canary islands, in the mountains of Auvergne, in the Mittelgebirge, in Bohemia, in Mexico, and on the banks of the Ganges," and we may add, in the United States, the formation of trap is indicated by a symmetrical disposition of the mountains by truncated cones, sometimes insulated, sometimes grouped, and by elevated plains, both extremities of which are crowned by a conical rising. In some of the unpublished drawings by Mr. Seymour, these peculiar {294} features of the scenery of the fletz trap formation, have been preserved.

RECAPITULATION

The secondary formations along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, are:

1st. _Red Sandstone_--Rests immediately upon the granite, is rather indistinctly stratified; strata sometimes inclined and sometimes horizontal; abounds in gypsum, salt, and iron, but exhibits no indications of coal.

2d. _Argillaceous_, or _Gray Sandstone_--Overlays the red, conforming to it in the inclination of the strata, occurs principally near the primitive; contains coal and iron.

3d. _Greenstone_ and _Graystone_[83]--Of an imperfectly columnar structure, resting on the argillaceous sandstone.

4th. _Amygdaloid_--Sometimes containing argil, and sometimes hornblende, occurs with the greenstone about the sources of the Canadian river, constituting with the former the newest fletz trap formation.

5th. _Sand_ and _Gravel_--Accompanying the sandstones and extending over the great desert, but rarely found resting on the trap rocks.

The sandstones being entirely mechanical aggregates, consisting of rounded fragments of rocks formerly constituting a part of the primitive mountains, would seem to have been deposited at a very remote period, when the waters of the primeval ocean covered the level of the great plain and the lower regions of the granitic mountains.

Subsequent to the deposition of the horizontally stratified rocks, the position of these in relation to the primitive, has been somewhat changed either by the action of some force beneath the primitive rocks, {295} forcing them up to a greater elevation than they formerly possessed, or by the sinking down of the secondary, produced by the operation of some cause equally unknown. Without supposing some change of this kind, how can we account for the great inclination of the margin of the sandstone rocks which is found resting against the granite almost perpendicularly? Nearly contemporaneous to this change, was the retiring of the sea, and the formation of the trap rocks. The beds of loose sand and gravel which are still constantly accumulating, have been formed in part from the disintegration of the sandstones and puddings, and partly by the action of those currents of water which are constantly bringing down small fragments from the primitive rocks, and depositing them in the plains.

The absence of any formation of limestone is a distinguishing characteristic of the country under consideration. A traveller to the upper part of the Missouri mentions "calcareous and petrosiliceous hills," as existing in the coal districts on that river. But in ascending the Platte from its confluence with the Missouri to the mountains, we saw not a single fragment of limestone. Small veins of carbonate of lime crystallized in the usual form, are met with in the argillaceous sandstone of the Arkansa, also the sulphate in small quantities. Gypsum is very abundant on the Canadian river, at a distance of three or four hundred miles from the mountains. It is disseminated in veins and thick horizontal beds in the red sandstone. The extent and thickness of these horizontal beds are, perhaps, such as would justify the appellation of stratum, but as it is not met with in great quantities, except in connection with the sandstone, with which it often alternates, it may with propriety be considered a subordinate rock.

_Rock Salt._--This substance has often been said to exist in some part of upper Louisiana, in the form of {296} an extensive stratum: we have met with salt among the natives in masses of twenty or thirty pounds weight. The interior of these masses when broken, presented a crystalline structure, being made up of incomplete cubic crystals variously grouped together. On one of the surfaces, which had probably been the one in contact with the ground or rock on which the salt had rested, a considerable mixture of red sand was discoverable. These masses had apparently been produced by the evaporation, during the dry season, of the waters of some small lake. The whole country near the mountains abounds in licks, brine springs, and saline efflorescences, but it is in the neighbourhood of the red sand-rock before mentioned, that salt is met with in the greatest abundance and purity. The immediate valley of the Canadian river in the upper part of its course, varies in width from a few rods to three or four miles, but it is almost invariably bounded by precipices of red sand-rock, forming "the river bluffs." In the valley between these, incrustations of nearly pure salt are often found, covering the surface to a great extent, in the manner of thin ice, and causing it to appear when seen from a distance, as if covered with snow.

Most of the remarkable formations of rock-salt hitherto known, have been found in the stratum denominated "the lowest red sand rock," which appears to correspond in character, position, &c. with the sandstone above mentioned. Rock salt is found in connection with this sandstone in Cheshire, and at Northwich and Droitwich, in England, at Cardona in the province of Catalonia in Spain, and at the base of the Carpathian mountains in Moldavia and Poland. In Peru it is accompanied by sandstone and gypsum.

Accident, or further examination, it is probable, may hereafter bring to light those extensive beds of {297} this substance, which there is reason to believe exist in the neighbourhood of the Rocky Mountains. The briny character of those great streams, the Arkansa and Red rivers, flowing over the red sandstone formation, and receiving from it the peculiar character and colour of their waters, affords sufficient evidence of the existence of such beds, and the greatness of the quantity washed away in any given time, would lead to the conclusion, that they must be of vast extent. By the analogy of other rock salt formations apparently similar in character, we should be instructed to search for these beds in depressed situations and basin-shaped cavities, whose contents had not been worn down and removed by the currents of water.

Other secondary rocks found in different parts of the great valley of the Mississippi will be noticed hereafter. Those above enumerated seem to have a peculiar dependence upon the Rocky Mountains, and for this reason, we thought proper to consider them in connection with that range; they also appear to be, in some measure, independent of the other members of that great secondary formation on the borders of which they occur. The peculiar features of the region occupied by these rocks have been minutely described in the narrative of our journey. It is a region unfitted by the barrenness of its soil, the inhospitable character of its climate and other physical disadvantages, to become the residence of a permanent and numerous population. The immense grassy plains of the southern and eastern portions are adapted to the feeding of cattle and horses; and it is not improbable the countless herds of bisons and wild horses will soon give place to domesticated animals. The coal, salt, plaster, and iron, which constitute the mineral wealth of this portion of the United States' territory, lose much of their value on account of their remoteness from navigable streams. Beautiful carnelions and agates occur in the alluvial regions of {298} the Platte and the Missouri; but these will never become objects of any importance.

_Of the Ozark Mountains_

Leaving the newest fletz trap rocks, about the sources of the Canadian, and returning eastward along the great woodless plain between the Arkansa and Red rivers, we find an extensive tract occupied exclusively by the red sandstone of the salt formation. This rock, as we have already remarked, is constantly accompanied by gypsum and muriate of soda. The red and somewhat argillaceous soil which results from its disintegration is far more fertile than that of the gravelly plains of the Platte, being often covered with a luxuriant growth of grasses, and affording pasturage to great numbers of herbivorous animals.

About one hundred and fifty miles west from the confluence of the Arkansa and Canadian, this red sandstone is discontinued, being succeeded, or perhaps overlaid by an extensive coal formation. The argillaceous sandstone of this formation assumes various characters at different points. The Falls of the Canadian, particularly described in our narrative, are occasioned by a small ridge of fine argillaceous sandstone of a deep green colour, crossing the bed of the river obliquely. The coal beds in this region are of great thickness, and are apparently extensive and numerous. This formation appears, in a great measure, unconnected with the coal strata along the base of the Rocky Mountains, and the sandstone of the two districts are often remarkably dissimilar. Though the strata in both instances are nearly horizontal, the formation at the base of the Rocky Mountains must have an actual elevation greatly surpassing that of the district now under consideration. For these reasons, we have been induced to consider {299} this as belonging to the small group of mountains we have already had frequent occasion to mention, and which have received from Major Long, the name of Ozark mountains. These we shall now proceed to describe, according to the information in our possession.

From an inspection of the map annexed to this work, it will be perceived that the course of the Missouri, below the mouth of the Konzas, is considerably inflected to the east, in order to pass round the end of a range of hills, rising in the angle between this river and the Mississippi. This range increases in elevation for some distance to the south-west, its highest point being somewhere near the sources of the White and Osage rivers, the two most considerable streams originating in these mountains. Farther to the south-west, losing a part of its elevation, it is traversed in succession by the Arkansa and Red rivers from the west, and gives origin to the Washita, the Sabine, and some other rivers of inconsiderable magnitude. Our acquaintance with the country between Red river and the Rio del Norte is too imperfect to enable us to trace particularly the continuation of the Ozark mountains, which is believed to extend to that river, and to have some connection with its great southern bend, below the confluence of the Rio Conchos. We will, therefore, at present, confine our attention to that portion north-east of Red river. Though there is no point of great elevation in any part of the range, the whole is truly a mountainous region, and well entitled to a distinctive appellation. Its parallelism in general direction to the Atlantic coast, and the great chain of the Alleghanies, as well as the character and inclination of its component strata, afford unequivocal indication that it belongs to a different system from the great chain of the Rocky Mountains. In several particulars, there is a striking resemblance between this range and the Alleghanies, {300} and in some, as we shall notice hereafter, as manifest a dissimilarity.

Near the western limits of the coal formation, which are also the limits of the mountainous countries on the Canadian and Arkansa, compact limestone occurs for the first time (as far as our acquaintance extends) on this side the Rocky Mountains. This formation of limestone, and the accompanying strata of argillaceous sandstone, though they do not, perhaps, always strictly coincide in position, may be traced far to the north; and these we consider as marking the western limits of the Ozark mountains. It is to be remarked, however, that in these observations, we do not intend to apply this name with strict geographical precision to those portions only which are sufficiently elevated to be called mountains; but so far to extend its signification as to include not only the high and broken ridges, but several less elevated tracts possessing the same peculiar mineralogical features.

The few facts and observations we have it in our power to contribute towards an account of this interesting range, were collected during a pedestrian excursion from Bainbridge on the Mississippi, through the country of the lead-mines, at the sources of the Merameg and St. Francis, and a journey from Belle Point, by the way of the hot springs of the Washita, and the upper settlements of White river, to Cape Girardeau. For many important facts we are indebted to Major Long's unpublished journals of tours in various parts of the region in question, and to Mr. Nuttall's "Travels into the Arkansa Territory."

_Compact Limestone._--We commence with the consideration of this stratum, as it is one of frequent occurrence, and perhaps occupies a greater extent of surface than any other. It so frequently alternates with the micaceous sandstones, and with the peculiar flint-rock of this district, that we have never been able to devise any theory of arrangement {301} which appeared applicable to more than an inconsiderable extent of territory.

A few miles west of the Rapids of the Canadian, a thin stratum of compact limestone, of the common blue variety, and abounding in organized remains, overlays the argillaceous sandstone of the coal formation. This limestone becomes more abundant towards the south, and is the prevailing rock on that part of Red river, near the confluence of the Kiamesha.[84] At Cape Girardeau, in the country a few miles in the rear of Herculaneum and St. Genevieve, and in many places throughout the district of the lead-mines, there is a coarse crystalline limestone, of a light gray colour, which is usually the lowest rock exposed in those places. It is very indistinctly stratified, and has in many respects a considerable resemblance to the more crystalline varieties of primitive limestone: for such it appears to have been mistaken by Mr. Schoolcraft, who, in his work on the lead-mines, asserts that the "mineral soil at Mine a Burton, and the numerous mines in its vicinity, reposes on primitive limestone," page 108. Afterwards, at page 119., speaking of this same primitive limestone, he says, "On going deeper, the rock again graduated into a compact limestone, very hard, and of a bluish gray colour, in which were frequently found small cavities studded over with minute pyramids of limpid quartz." And again, at the page first referred to, he informs us, "The primitive limestone passes into transition, and secondary, in various places on the banks of the Mississippi, between Cape Girardeau, and Saint Louis." We adduce these statements as confirming our own observations of the alternation of the _crystalline_ or _sparry_ limestone, with the compact blue variety; but as we have examined with great care several of the places mentioned by Mr. Schoolcraft, and many others apparently similar, we are disposed to think he has mistaken the character of the rock. We have never met with any {302} limestone about the lead-mines which did not contain organized remains; and the white crystalline variety abounds particularly in casts of encrinites, though these are not always manifest without careful examination.

This limestone, though rather indistinctly stratified, is marked by horizontal seams, distant one or two feet, and sometimes more, from each other. Its exposed surface becomes somewhat bleached and rough with small prominences, in which we may often distinctly trace the forms of animal remains. The recent fracture is uneven, distinctly crystalline, and much like that of many moderately fine-grained granites. Careful examination shows that in many instances the most minute particles visible under a lens, have assumed the rhombic form so common to the carbonate of lime. These crystalline particles vary greatly in size, and are sometimes half an inch across. In the interior of the casts of animal remains, they are sometimes less distinct than in parts of the rock where no such remains are discovered.

These vast beds of sparry limestone, made up almost exclusively of deposits from chymical solution, would seem to have been formed during periods when great tranquillity prevailed in the waters of the primeval ocean; and their alternation with limestones of the common earthy variety, and with sandstones made up of fragments rounded by attrition, may be considered as proofs that those periods, whatever may have been their distinguishing peculiarity, alternated with other periods of a different character.

This variety of limestone is perhaps the lowest rock hitherto noticed in the country of the lead-mines, and it may, according to the suggestion of Schoolcraft, be considered as the basis rock in that district; but as it certainly passes through every intermediate variety into the compact blue limestone, there seems to be no propriety in separating it from that rock, which often overlays the newest sandstones. If this view of the subject be admitted, it results that we are to consider {303} the whole of that part of the Ozark mountains which contains the lead-mines as belonging to a coal formation. We have met with nothing north of the Arkansa which appears to us to have any claim to be considered as belonging to the class of primitive rocks.

Mr. Schoolcraft informs us, that granite, gneiss, and mica slate exist in Missouri, but has omitted to point out the particular localities. See Views of the Lead Mines, page 92.

At St. Louis, Cote sans Dessein, Isle a Loutre, and at many points on the Missouri, the limestone partakes of the character of both the varieties above mentioned, but is rarely if ever so exclusively crystalline as in the lead-mine district. Most of the limestones between Franklin on the Missouri, and the Council bluffs, are distinctly crystalline, and are usually of a yellowish or reddish white colour.

The horizontal limestone near the mouth of the Ohio, is of a bluish gray colour, of a compact or fine granular structure, and contains some metallic ores often occurring in veins of beautifully crystallized fluat of lime. Near some of these localities of fluat of lime, we have observed the rock itself to contain small and apparently water-worn masses of hornstone, and some fragments of a perfectly white granular limestone.

_Petrosilex._--In the vicinity of Bainbridge, ten miles above Cape Girardeau, is a stratified gray flint rock very similar in aspect, and having nearly a similar fracture to the common gun-flint. This rock is here an extensive stratum, and occurs in connection with compact limestone. In tracing it towards the south-west, we have not been able to detect the slightest interruption to its continuity through an extent of more than two hundred miles along the central portion of the mountainous district. Towards the south-west it is found to acquire gradually a more and more primitive character, and losing, near the Chattahoocke mountain the accompanying stratum {304} of compact limestone, it appears near the hot springs of the Washita, associated with the highly inclined argillite of that district. This rock, as far as our limited observations have extended, exhibits no traces of organized remains. Its colour seems gradually to change according to its age, or at least with the apparent age of the rocks associated with it. South of the Arkansa it is of a yellowish or pearly white colour; about White river, it is a dirty yellow, and at the St. Francis a grayish brown. A corresponding change may also be noticed in the inclination of the strata, and in other particulars. Aside from this apparently intimate connection there is a particular resemblance between the petrosilex of the Washita, and the flint rock of the lead-mine district. The rock in both instances falls readily into small masses of a few ounces weight. The hills it forms have usually a rounded outline, and often bear open forests of pine, while the timber on the sandstone hills is usually oak. Open woods of pine and oak occur in almost all the uplands in the Ozark mountains, and are considered unfailing indications of a meagre and flinty soil.

_Argillaceous Sandstone._--The sandstones of this small group of mountains appear under almost every variety of character, but in most of them, as far as hitherto examined, we discover traces of coal or of those minerals and organized remains which usually accompany it. In the inclined sandstone near the hot springs, there are, it is true, no indications of coal; and that rock is in every respect similar to what are called the transition sandstones of the Alleghany and Coatskill mountains, but by following it an inconsiderable distance either east or west, it is found passing imperceptibly into the coal strata of the Poteau, and of the Little Red river of White river. In this instance, as in that of the stratum last mentioned, we find a rock apparently possessing as much unity as can belong to such a subject, passing from {305} recent _secondary_ down, through all the intermediate grades, to the oldest _transition_, and thus heaping confusion upon our doctrines of the original continuity and systematic succession of strata.

A conspicuous character in the sandstones about the central and western portions of the region under consideration, is the great proportion of mica, in large scales, which enters into their composition. Fragments of the sand-rock, about the mouth of the Poteau, might be mistaken for mica slate. This mica is rarely if ever of that dark coloured variety which prevails in the Rocky Mountains; and in the other materials of these aggregates, there is a manifest want of resemblance to those mountains. A very slight comparison of the secondary formations at the base of the Rocky Mountains, with the similar aggregates in the Ozark range, will be sufficient to convince any one that they have resulted from the wearing down of primitive mountains, very dissimilar in character to each other.

We might have remarked, when speaking of the Rocky Mountains, the absence of any formation of talcose rocks, and indeed of magnesian fossils of any kind, and a corresponding deficiency of talcose and chloritic sandstones among the secondary rocks. We no sooner arrive at the western margin of the secondary belonging to the Ozark mountains, than we meet with extensive beds of sandstone, in which the prevalence of magnesia forms a conspicuous character. The beautiful argillaceous chlorite sandstone at the rapids of the Canadian, has been already described, and similar beds are not uncommon in many places in the vicinity of extensive depositions of coal.

Another peculiar variety of sandstone occurs, in connection with the sulphuret of lead, at the old mines of St. Michael, and at many places thereabouts. This bears apparently the same relation to the common sandstones, as the crystalline limestone above {306} mentioned does to the earthy varieties, and it alternates with and passes into the common rock in a similar manner. Its particles are crystalline, and appear to remain undisturbed in the position in which they were originally deposited from solution in water. Nevertheless the aggregate is manifestly secondary, and embraces the relics of many organized beings, as is common in the other secondary rocks.

There is also about the lead mines a sandstone composed of small glimmering grains of transparent quartz, and so loosely cemented as to fall rapidly to pieces, forming a light gray sand. In this variety we have sometimes observed the lead ore either disseminated, or forming horizontal veins between the laminæ of sandstone. An examination of some spots might lead to the conclusion that the soil in which most of the lead has hitherto been found, has resulted from the disintegration of a sandstone of this kind.

Sandstone, though often covered at the surface by compact limestone or some other stratum is probably the rock which occurs in the greatest quantity throughout every part of this range of mountains. It is the prevailing stratum in all the country between the Arkansa and Red rivers, from the confluence of the Mamelle westward; rising to the height of two or three thousand feet, to form the summits of the Cavaniol, Sugar Loaf, and Mt. Cerne, and to a less considerable elevation at the Mamelle, Magasin, Caslete, and Short mountains.

North of the Arkansa it forms the body of the Chattahoocke mountain, and of many nameless elevations, which diversify the surface from the sources of the Little Red river to the Mississippi. Beds of coarse conglomerate or puddingstone, are met with in many places; but these are particularly frequent in connection with the inclined or transition sandstones about the Washita.

_Native Argil._--Nine miles west of Bainbridge, on {307} the road to Jackson, and on the right bank of the Mississippi, near the head of Tiawapeti bottom, also in various other places in this vicinity, there are extensive beds of perfectly white native argil, of about the hardness of common chalk, for which it has often been mistaken.[85] See Schoolcraft's "Catalogue of Western Minerals," art. 1st. Notwithstanding Mr. Schoolcraft's confident assertion, it must yet be considered doubtful whether any chalk has ever been found in the region under consideration.

Specimens of the substance called chalk by the inhabitants, were collected at several places between Cape Girardeau and St. Louis. Also on the north side of the Missouri, on the road from St. Louis to Franklin. Some of these which were brought to New York, have been examined by my brother, Dr. J. James, and others, and were found to consist principally of argil, none of them occasioning the slightest effervescence with acids.

This substance, whatever it is to be considered, is distributed extensively throughout the country lying around the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi. Some specimens have been sent from Illinois to the Lyceum of Natural History at Troy, where they are spoken of as a "littrographic carbonate of lime;" but whether any experiments have been made to ascertain their real character we have not been able to learn. We have not, from our own observation, found occasion to confirm the statement, that nodules of flint are found imbedded in this substance; but we have commonly found it accompanied by the flint rock already mentioned, which has in many respects a manifest resemblance to the flints occurring in chalk formation. We have sought in vain for the remains of echini and other animals so common in chalk beds.

_Argillite._--Of the older secondary rocks, we have observed in the Ozark mountains only the inclined {308} sandstones and conglomerates above mentioned, and a limited formation of argillite, extending a few miles around the hot springs of Washita, and re-appearing on the Arkansa at and above the town of Little Rock, being usually accompanied by vast beds of petrosilex. This latter ought, perhaps, to be considered a distinct stratum, but south of the Arkansa we have not been able to trace it uninterrupted for any great distance.

Mr. Nuttall, in his valuable Journal of Travels into the Arkansa Territory, mentions _grauwacke slate_ as occurring along the Arkansa river near Little Rock, p. 105. We have observed none here in any considerable degree similar to the grauwacke slate of the transition mountains of New York, or even to that of the Alleghanies. We are aware, however, that some of the aggregates which we call sandstones, have all the characters attributed to grauwacke slates, "_grauwacke is a complete sandstone_,"[86] and in a district where both are so intimately blended as in that we are considering, perhaps it is unnecessary to attempt any distinction between them; or we may persevere in the use of the two names at the same time, acknowledging they are both applied to the same stratum.

The hot springs of the Washita issue from clay-slate, and if we may judge from the inclination of the strata, and the distance at the surface from the granite of the cove, we may conclude a very large mass of clay-slate is interposed between the surface of the granite and the point at which the springs rise. This however it is not possible to ascertain. The hottest springs on the globe rise from beneath or within the granite,[87] and it is not improbable this rock may approach near the surface at many points {309} in the Ozark mountains, where it has not yet been uncovered.

The slate rock about the hot springs is highly inclined, often a good deal flinty in its composition, and as far as we have observed, contains no organised remains. It is traversed by large upright veins, filled usually with white quartz, contrasting strongly in colour with the dark blue of the slate-stone. The elevation of the "Hot Springs mountain" is estimated by Hunter and Dunbar at three hundred feet above the surface of the creek at the springs. This point is probably raised twenty or thirty feet above the Washita at Keisler. North of the springs the slate-rocks rise to greater elevation; but it is not probable that at any point where we have seen them, they attain the height of one thousand feet above the Mississippi.

The high lands between Washita and Red river are occupied principally by sandstone, the clay-slate appearing to extend from north-east to south-west, which, as far as we have observed, is the direction of the strata; these, when they are not perpendicular, usually dipping to the north-west.

The country about the sources of the Washita is represented as affording many interesting minerals; among them are enumerated "a martial pyrites, large bodies of crystallised spar, and hexagonal prisms, which are known to contain no small portion of the precious metals."[88] If the clay-slate in any part of this mountainous region should be found accompanied by its usual attendant, the metalliferous limestone, we should be more ready to credit the accounts of the precious metals being found, as at least some of the valuable mines in America exist in that stratum. But as yet we have no satisfactory accounts of the occurrence of that limestone, or any of the precious metals in that part of the United States.

{310} _Granite._--About fifteen miles south-east from the hot springs, near the Washita, granite is found _in situ_. It forms the basis, and, as far as we could discover, the whole mass of a small hill, but little elevated above the level of the river; we found it emerging from beneath the soil at several parts of an area for two hundred or three hundred acres; but had not an opportunity to trace it to any great distance, nor to observe its connection with any other rock. The extent of surface which it covers, we believe, cannot be very great. This granite is very soft, and disintegrates rapidly when exposed to the air. It is compounded of grayish-white quartz, yellowish-white felspar, and an unusually large proportion of mica, in variously and brilliantly coloured masses. These large laminæ of mica are white, pearl colour, yellow, brown, green, and often black, and in some instances are so large and numerous as to exceed in proportion the other ingredients of the aggregate. Talc also enters in large proportion into the composition of this granite. It is indeed sometimes so abundant as to occasion a doubt whether the whole should not be considered a bed of talc, rather than granite. This talc is in tabular masses, two or three inches in diameter, and about half an inch in thickness. Zeolite is also so abundant as sometimes to seem to take the place of the other materials of the granite. It is of two varieties, radiated and mealy. Stilbite (blaettriger zeolith of Werner) occurs in connexion with zeolith. The bed of one of the small streams which traverses this formation of granite is paved with small crystals of schorl, that of another with native magnet. Sulphuret of iron is disseminated in the granite. Several of the appearances presented by this interesting mass of granite, would seem to countenance the opinion that it is of secondary origin, like that mentioned by Saussure, as existing near the valley of Valorsine, at Semur en Auxois, and at the city of Lyons. In speaking of the granite {311} at these places, he says, "It could not be doubted on seeing these heaps of large crystals, that they are the produce of the rain-waters, which, passing through the granite, have dissolved and carried down these different elements, and have deposited them in these wide crevices, where they have formed new rocks of the same kind. The crystals of these new granites are larger than those of the ancient, on account of the repose which the waters enjoyed in the inside of these reservoirs."

The granite of the Washita, if it is to be considered as of secondary formation, appears to be much more extensive than any of the kind hitherto known. Many more particulars must, however, be ascertained before this question can be settled. We are ignorant of the manner of its connection with any other rock. Nor do we know of any formation of primitive granite from which it could, by the action of water, have been derived. One can have no hesitation, however, in considering the Ozark mountains, as a separate system within themselves, and having no immediate connection with the Alleghanies or Rocky Mountains. The sandstones which lie about these mountains, abound much more in mica than those near the Rocky Mountains, nearly in the same proportion as the granite of the latter has less than what is met with in the little we have seen of the former. The Ozark mountains exhibit evidence of metallic riches far exceeding any thing that appears in the Rocky Mountains. May not an extensive range of granite and other primitive rocks have existed at some distant period where the Ozark mountains now are, containing the vast quantities of the ores of lead, iron, &c. now found in rocks of recent secondary origin, and even in the alluvial? and may not the operations of water during many ages, when an ocean rolled over the summits of these mountains, have worn down those primitive rocks, their detritus having been deposited horizontally upon their submarine sides and summits; {312} so that the greater part of their surfaces are now covered by secondary aggregates? Our acquaintance with this range is however much too limited to admit of indulgence in such speculations.

Numerous specimens of minerals brought by Lieutenant Graham and Dr. Somerville from the Upper Mississippi and the Illinois rivers and others from that region, now in the possession of Dr. L. C. Beck, of St. Louis, have a peculiar resemblance to similar minerals met with in the Ozark mountains, south of the Missouri. From these resemblances, and the corroborating testimony of all the accounts we have received concerning that country, rich in mines, which lies along the eastern side of the Upper Mississippi, we have been induced to believe that a continuation of the Ozark mountains, or at least, of a region similar in Mineralogical features, extends from the confluence of the Missouri, northward to the sources of the Wisconsan, and the Ontonagon river of Lake Superior, north of the Missouri, the country is very little elevated; but aside from this it appears to possess all the peculiar features of the region we have been considering. The sandstones, the limestones, and other rocks, have a striking resemblance. Both regions abound in the ores of lead, and both afford copper.[89]

We are aware that the great irregularity in the direction of the ridges accessory to this range, and of the dip and inclination of the older secondary rocks belonging to it, may be considered objections to our idea of the connection and continuity of the different parts and the general direction of the group. But we are by no means anxious to maintain the position we have assumed. Our examinations have been limited, and we shall rejoice in any opportunity of correcting our errors, and enlarging our acquaintance with this interesting range of country.

{313} We subjoin in a note some account of a few of the most interesting minerals hitherto observed in connection with the rocks of this district.[90]

_Recapitulation_

The Ozark mountains extend from the sources of the Rio Colorado of Texas on the south-west, to the confluence of the Mississippi and Missouri on the north-east, and are continued in a low range from this point towards Lake Superior. They are widest in the south-west, and in that quarter they mingle with some low tracts of secondary sandstone, extending from near the Gulf of Mexico to the base of the easternmost ridge of the Rocky Mountains. Whether there is any similar expansion at the northern extremity, or whether this range is connected as a spur to the great primitive chain supposed to exist north of the great lakes, and is separated by a wide secondary and alluvial valley from the Rocky Mountains, is yet to be determined. This range consists of low ridges, irregular in direction, rarely rising to an elevation of more than 1500 or 2000 feet, and consisting principally of secondary rocks.

The strata are--

1st. _Granite_--at the cove of the Washita.

2d. _Argillite_--ranging north-east and south-west from Little Rock on the Arkansa to the hot springs, and thence to the sources of the Kiamesha.

3d. _Transition Sandstone_--a narrow margin, following nearly the same direction on the north-west side of the argillite, and usually inclining like it to the south or south-east.

4th. _Flint_ (petrosilex)--From the hot springs north-east to the Mississippi, and usually forming the basis of the pine-lands.

5th. _Limestone_--Compact and sparry; distributed {314} in the same direction as the last, but more extensive.

6th. _Argillaceous Sandstone_--with extensive beds of coal, and abounding in mines of lead.

7th. _Alluvial_--There are many extensive tracts of deep argillaceous or calcareous loam; in other instances, a more meagre soil has resulted from the disintegration of the sand-rock.

These are the remarks we have been able, from observation, to make respecting the geology of a part of the United States' territory, west of the Mississippi. Relating to that part of the interior of our country which lies north-west of Lake Superior, and north of the sources of the Missouri, we have little satisfactory information. From the accurate and intelligent Mackenzie,[91] we are however able to collect a few important particulars. This enterprising voyager, it is well known, travelled from Montreal, L. C., in latitude 45° 30´, longitude 74°, in a north-west direction, to the mouth of Mackenzie's river, latitude 69°, longitude 135°; and again, at a later period, leaving his former route at the Lake of the Hills, about midway between Lake Superior and the mouth of Mackenzie's river, he ascended, in a south-west direction, the Unjegah, or River of Peace, to the Rocky Mountains, and crossing them, fell upon the sources of the northern branch of the Columbia, and from thence arrived at the Pacific, at a point a little north of the inlet of Queen Charlotte's sound. From him we learn that the Rocky Mountains continue in an uninterrupted chain, from the sources of the Missouri in the south, to a point beyond the sixty-fifth parallel of north latitude, near the mouth of Mackenzie's river. The River of Peace which he ascended in his journey to the western ocean, has its source in these mountains in about 55° north, nearly opposite to those of the great northern branch of the Columbia. Farther towards the south are the sources of the Saskatchawin, a large river, discharging itself from the {315} north-west into Lake Winnipic. The mountains in this part seem to be less elevated than those more to the south, but in other respects entirely similar. Their northern termination, according to this traveller, is in about north latitude 65°, 130° west longitude. Santa Fé in New Mexico is in latitude 36°, longitude 104° 53´ west.[92] From this it will be perceived, that the general direction of this great mountain range is nearly from north-north-east to south-south-west. We have no evidence to confirm the conjecture, which, nevertheless, is highly probable, that the principal ridges of this range consist through their whole extent of granite or other primitive rocks. Considering the stupendous character, the great elevation and uniformity of the appearance of that portion of these primitive mountains with which we are acquainted, we should be led to look for similarity of character, and similar uniformity throughout. It is commonly believed, as asserted by Maclure, that "a large mass of primitive occupies all the northern part of this continent;" and he considers the great Atlantic range of primitive, the mountains of New England, New York, and the Alleghanies, as a spur for this formation. We are not acquainted with the grounds on which this opinion is founded, but we see no reason to consider it an improbable one. Of the northern boundary of that vast formation of secondary which certainly occupies a very large portion of the interior of this continent, we are ignorant. On the south-east, its limit is the irregular border of the transition of the Alleghanies, commencing between the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers, and running north-west to Fort Anne, near Lake Champlain. From this point, a narrow and perhaps interrupted strip of secondary extends through the valley of Lake Champlain to the upper parts of St. John's river. The island and mountain of Montreal are of secondary. The country {316} also between St. John's and La Prairie is most probably secondary, as is much of that along the St. Lawrence below Montreal. From the termination of the transition near the confluence of the Alabama and Tombigbee, the secondary rocks continue on the south-west, sometimes concealed by the recent alluvial to the Black-lake river, near Natchitoches. Beyond this, the information we have is not satisfactory. From this point, turning north-west, we may for the present consider the Red river of Louisiana as the boundary of the secondary, or rather the limit of our acquaintance with this formation.

Beyond the Ozark mountains, the district between the Red river and the Canadian is occupied by the red sandstone of the salt formation, mentioned when speaking of that region, and is undoubtedly to be considered secondary. How far it extends to the west beyond the sources of Red river and the Canadian, we are unable to determine. At the commencement of the most eastern ridge of the Rocky Mountains, a few south of the high peak, and at no very great distance north from Santa Fé, the boundary again becomes determinate. From this point it runs nearly north one hundred and fifty miles, where it crosses the river Platte. From the narrative of Lewis and Clarke, we are enabled to determine with sufficient accuracy, that it crosses the Missouri not far from the Falls, in longitude 110° west. Beyond this, the little information we have, we owe to Sir Alexander Mackenzie. He informs us, that great quantities of pit coal are found about the sources of the Saskatchawin which lie near the Rocky Mountains, and between 50° and 55° north latitude. The sources of Saskatchawin are placed by this traveller near the base of the Rocky Mountains; and the coal formation which he mentions, lies on the margin of a plain extending far to the north and east. The Saskatchawin running to the east, traverses 15° of longitude, and discharges its waters into Lake Winnipic in {317} latitude 53° north. Lake Winnipic is connected by the Severn and Port Nelson rivers to Hudson's-bay. There is a water communication, interrupted by one portage, from the Saskatchawin, north-west, to the Mississippi or Churchill's river; and from thence, by the Lake of the Hills, Slave Lake, and Mackenzie's river, to the North Sea. Near the Lake of the Hills, in latitude 59°, Mackenzie found several brine springs. This, though not decisive evidence, perhaps justifies the conclusion, that secondary rocks exist in that neighbourhood. A view of the character and direction of the several large rivers which traverse the region about Hudson's Bay, of their numerous inosculations, and the number and position of the small lakes which abound in every part of it, afford, at least, presumptive evidence, that it is an extensive plain little inclined in any direction.

We may, perhaps, venture to conclude, that the secondary formation extends uninterrupted along the base of the Rocky Mountains, as far as to the Saskatchawin, where coal was observed by Mackenzie. What lies beyond is as yet unknown. From this coal formation, our boundary must for the present run in a direction a little south of east to Lake Superior, whence it may, with a few inconsiderable interruptions, follow the territorial boundary of the United States, until it arrives at 45° parallel of latitude, thence by the St. Lawrence to Montreal. The slight acquaintance we have with the country north of this line, is perhaps insufficient to justify the conjecture, that secondary formations occupy an extensive portion of that country. It is improbable, that formations of secondary extend along the base of the Rocky Mountains through their whole course, and from thence spread themselves to the east, knowing no limits but Atlantic mountains, the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the northern ocean. We know that rocks of this formation exist about the {318} Gulf of St. Lawrence, whence coal, plaster, and sandstone, are brought to our markets.[93]

This boundary of the great formation of secondary rocks, which occupies so large a portion of the interior of our continent, includes a vast area of surface, extending through 25° of latitude, and 60° of longitude. I intend to consider that portion of it only of which the state of facts at present known enables us to speak with some degree of confidence. This portion may be conceived as occupying the area of a large triangle, the base of which is a line running from Montreal in Lower Canada, south-west to a point, near the outlet of the river Sabine, the western boundary of the state of Louisiana. The summit would be at the sources of the Saskatchawin, which are west of north from the mouth of the Sabine, and north of west from Montreal. The Rocky Mountains on the west, and the Alleghanies on the south-east mark the limits of the secondary in those directions. Its extent towards the north and north-east is as yet unknown.

In the wide space included within the lines above mentioned, we know of but one exception to the remark, that all the rocks found in place are secondary. This is the instance of the Ozark hills traversing the horizontal strata from south-west to north-east, somewhat in the manner of a whindyke. The most striking peculiarity of this range, is the prevalence among the secondary strata of crystalline substances, and what are called rocks of chymical deposition, and the alternation of these with beds and strata whose integrant particles bear evident marks of having been worn and rounded by mechanical attrition. {319} Appearances of this kind are observed in all formations of secondary rocks, but it is believed, are, in few instances, as extensive or as numerous as in this. It is well known, that the ores of lead, so abundant in many parts of this range, occur in the uppermost strata of horizontal sandstone, or in primary soils superimposed upon those sandstones. It has been suggested, that these ores of lead may have been brought down in the alluvion of rivers from some more ancient and elevated region, but any one who shall examine them in connection with the substances with which they are now found associated, will, we think, be convinced of their having been of contemporaneous origin with the sandstone. That the sparry limestones, the crystalline sandstones, and perhaps the ores of lead, (almost invariably found in the form of crystals,) have been deposited from solution in water, is highly probable; and that these depositions must have taken place in connection with circumstances not unfavourable to animal life is evident, as all these crystalline rocks abound in organised remains.

In attempting an explanation of these appearances, can any assistance be derived from recourse to the ingenious suggestion of Bakewell, that _the matter of these crystalline beds and strata has been ejected from beneath the crust of the earth in a state of chymical solution_. These submarine eruptions may have been numerous, and may have happened at different and remote periods; hence the alternation of rocks, consisting of particles mechanically aggregated together with those of chymical deposition. Hence the existence of metallic ores overlaying recent marine sandstones and compact limestones; for these ores, in a state of solution, may have been the matter thrown out in some of the latest eruptions.

This supposition may derive some confirmation from the well known fact that this region is still in a remarkable degree subject to subterranean concussions {320} and earthquakes. These concussions centring apparently in this range of mountains, and felt at times throughout all the western parts of the United States, are certainly too considerable in force and extent to be attributed to the operation of a cause so limited and superficial as the decomposition of beds of lignite lodged among the alluvion of the Mississippi. We do not insist upon the accounts that have been so often circulated, of the blowing, smoking, and burning mountains, said to exist in the country west of the hot springs of the Washita, because these accounts want confirmation.

Though this range of mountains has probably a nucleus of primitive rocks running through its whole extent: yet these appear but rarely at the surface. We have seen such only in the places already mentioned, and have been informed of others in Washington county, near the sources of the St. Francis, and about Lake Superior.[94]

From the information we have been able to collect, we are induced to believe that secondary rocks occupy the country on both sides of Red river, from its sources to its confluence with the Mississippi. If this be the case, the primitive of the Ozark mountains must be considered a small and insulated mass.

The inequalities of surface in this great secondary formation are considerable. It has often been called the "basin of the Mississippi," but with little propriety, since it might with equal accuracy be called the basin of the St. Lawrence, the Saskatchawin or Mackenzie's river. The form of that part of it which contains the Mississippi, is however similar to that designated by geologists as a _basin-shaped cavity_. As far as our acquaintance extends, it is bounded on all sides, except a narrow space at the outlet of the Mississippi, by a surface of greater elevation than itself. But whether this surface is not sometimes of secondary {321} formation is doubtful. It is dangerous to infer the existence at a former period of an insulated inland sea from any formation of secondary rocks, without being acquainted with its whole extent, with its elevation at different points, and its connexion with other rocks. On the south-east, secondary sandstones and depositions of coal are met with in some of the most elevated parts of the Alleghany mountains. The positive elevation of the primitive mountains of New England is, except at a few points, scarce equal to that of the secondary in the western parts of the state of New York. From the primitive rocks near Philadelphia, to the secondary of the Alleghanies, is an almost uninterrupted ascent. The clay-slate and granite of the Washita, occupy nearly the lowest part of the surface of the Mississippi valley. We are as yet destitute of barometrical or other observations, by which we might determine the actual height which the secondary rocks reach on the sides of the Rocky Mountains. Pike estimates the elevation of the plain at the foot of the mountains, at 8000 feet above the level of the ocean. This is doubtless overrated. We have already observed, that secondary rocks are found upon the sides of the Rocky Mountains, considerably above the level of the plain. It is probable, that this estimate of Pike's far exceeds the truth, yet any one who considers the great length and rapidity of the rivers which flow from that region, the severity of cold in winter, the rapidity with which evaporation is carried on in summer, the transparency and peculiar aspect of the sky, will be convinced that those tracts are highly elevated; and there is unquestionably good reason to believe, the secondary rocks along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains have in many points an elevation at least equal to the summits of the Alleghanies.

This vast formation of secondary, extending as it probably does from the Gulf of Mexico to the Northern ocean, and from the Bay of St. Lawrence {322} to the Rocky Mountains, must of necessity occupy in various parts different and sometimes great elevations: like other great fields of the same formation, its borders are marked by high and broken ridges, which become less elevated and less frequent towards the centre. Sandstone appears to be the basis and predominating rock occupying the borders contiguous to the primitive and transition, and passing under the more recent secondary. In this sandstone on the outskirts of the secondary, have been found most of the extensive coal beds hitherto known, also gypsum and brine springs.

Horizontally stratified limestone is met with in many parts of this formation, but is most abundant in the central portions, about the beds of the great rivers, and in those parts which have the least positive elevation. Compact limestone is a name sometimes used to designate all the varieties of that rock occurring in districts of secondary, but is certainly inapplicable to the limestone about Cape Girardeau and in many other places, which is notwithstanding manifestly secondary. Some of the limestone north-west of the primitive on Hudson's river, about the Coatskill and Hellebergh mountains, is of this crystalline variety, but abounds in marine exuviæ. That of Lake Champlain, as well as the greater part of that in the interior and western parts of the state of New York, is of the compact blue variety. From the falls of the Ohio at Louisville to Cincinnati, a mixed kind, partaking of the character of both of the before-mentioned varieties, is found along the river, and for some distance on each side. From Dr. Drake we learn, that this limestone is confined to a small district, and is on all sides bounded by sandstone, which rises from below it, and on which it is supposed invariably to rest. Whether the red sand-rock which is found on the south-west branches of the Arkansa, in a horizontal position, and in an highly inclined one skirts the Rocky Mountains, {323} extends to other parts of this formation of secondary, we are unable to say.

Throughout the country adjacent to the Ohio river, the prevailing and basis rock is a gray horizontal sandstone, often approaching in character those varieties which contain coal. It embraces extensive beds of coarse conglomerate, and supports or alternates with compact limestone.

_Of the Alleghany Mountains_

By this name we intend to designate the great range of mountains extending parallel to the Atlantic coast, from the sources of the St. John's river in New Brunswick in the north-east, to the confluence of the Alabama and Tombigbee in the south-west. An outline of this great chain has already been traced by Maclure, and particular accounts of portions of it are to be found in the works of Eaton and others; we shall, therefore, confine our attention to those strata, which, forming the north-western side of the range, are most intimately connected with the great secondary formations of the west.

1st. _Granular Limestone_--Appears in every part of the United States, where it has hitherto been observed to be the uppermost in the series of primitive rocks. It is true, it is often found to graduate, by minute and imperceptible shades of difference, into that which is decidedly secondary. Instances of this have been observed so frequently that the fact can be no longer questioned. This fact, and others of the same kind, ought not, perhaps, to be considered as invalidating the received opinions with regard to the classification of rocks according to the doctrines of Werner. If a division is to be made of the rocky strata of the earth into primitive, transition, &c. it is, perhaps, of little importance whether the boundaries thus instituted shall traverse beds of the same substance, {324} or separate contiguous strata composed of different materials.

That series of rocks next in order to the primitive limestone above mentioned, has been very generally denominated the Transition Class. It comprehends the following strata: _Metalliferous limestone_, _Clay-slate_, _Graywacke_, and _Graywacke-slate_, and _Old Red sandstone_. If we confine our attention to the consideration of these rocks as they exist in our own country, we shall find them appearing in their different localities under circumstances of considerable uniformity.

2d. _Metalliferous Limestone._--The prevailing colour of this rock is blue, of various shades and intensities, varying into yellow and gray. It has usually a close texture, an even, large conchoidal, or somewhat splintery fracture. In many varieties the surface, by long exposure, becomes coated with an incrustation of a yellowish white powdery matter, which adheres closely. It is frequently traversed by small reticulating veins of quartz or calcareous spar, which, during the gradual decomposition of detached masses, resist the progress of disintegration, and are left standing out from the surface, giving it a chequered appearance. It is the lowest and is considered as the most ancient of the rocks containing organized remains, which are those of cryptogamous plants, and animals without sight.

_Geographical distribution._--This rock occurs extensively along all the north-western side of the primitive of the great chain of the Alleghanies. In lower Canada and Vermont, it is accompanied by granular limestone and granular quartz, which separate it from the mica slate and talcose rocks on the east. [See Eaton's Index to the Geology of the Northern States.] It is there usually inclined towards the west, at an inconsiderable angle. It is separated from the compact fletz limestone of the valley of Lake Champlain by a stratum of old red sandstone, which forms {325} the upper part of a range of hills, called, in Vermont, the Snake mountain. In Berkshire county, in the western part of Massachusetts, and along the eastern side of the Hudson in New York, a stratum of primitive clay-slate intervenes between this rock and the granular limestone. The New Lebanon mountain, which is of slate, and divides the primitive limestone of Pittsfield, Richmond, Stockbridge, &c. from the transition which occurs at New Lebanon springs, and along the western base of this range, is considered primitive. (_Dewey in Silliman's Journal._) To the north-east of the Hudson river, the transition limestone nowhere occupies any great extent of surface from east to west, but is a narrow strip running along the margin of the primitive, and in a few miles is succeeded either by red sandstone, or clay-slate resting upon it. In Vermont, in the same neighbourhood, it alternates with clay-slate, and supports red sandstone.

Crossing the Hudson above the highlands, and proceeding south-west, little of this stratum is seen in the lower part of New York; but it becomes more abundant in the western parts of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. If we suppose the whole of the Alleghany mountains of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the western parts of Virginia, removed to a level with the surface at base of their eastern declivities, it is probable their foundation, which would be thus exposed, would be found through their whole extent to be of transition limestone. This rock is almost the only one which occurs between the primitive limestone. About twenty miles west of Philadelphia and Harrisburgh, Cove Hill, the North and South mountains, and the other eastern ranges of the Alleghany, are all based upon metalliferous limestone. It is seen emerging from beneath the sandstone which forms the body of these mountains at O'Connel's town, and in most of the vallies between the Alleghanies. We learn from Maclure, that it extends itself to the south and west, nearly to the termination of this range of mountains at the {326} confluence of the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers in Mississippi.

3d. _Transition Argillite._--This name is intended to comprehend not only the common varieties of the clay-slate of transition, but also some varieties of graywacke, and the siliceous slate by some considered a distinct stratum. It is believed, that throughout the range of country occupied by the several rocks here mentioned, they will be found too intimately blended, and too closely entangled with each other, to allow of their being considered as separate formations.

_Geographical distribution._--The formation including the above mentioned rocks, may with propriety be denominated clay-slate of transition. As far as our acquaintance has extended, it occurs in all its localities associated with metalliferous limestone, or old red sandstone. It is not to be confounded with the primitive argillite which occurs below transition limestone, and is met with in the highly primitive parts of New England, nor with the aluminous schist of the great secondary formation to the west. It is distinct from either; and in most instances its character is marked with sufficient distinctness. It occurs in the central portions of that extensive field of transition which skirts the western margin of the primitive of New York and New England, and forms the great body of the Alleghany and Catskill mountains. It is wider and more extensive in the north, occupying much of the surface in Vermont, the northern parts of the state of New York and Canada. In the Alleghany mountains of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, its beds are of great thickness, and form, in some instances, the prevailing rocks, being, however almost invariably overlaid by sandstone. It has, in several instances, been observed to contain impressions of organized remains, but these are usually those of zoophytic animals, and are exceedingly unlike those found so abundantly in the schist of coal formations. Its colours are variable, it {327} is, however, most commonly blueish, black, or dark brown. Between Albany and Pittsfield, it is met with of a green colour, and a few miles to the south-east of White-hall, New York, it is bright red.

The _graywacke_, which in this very general and hasty view we have considered as in part belonging to the clay-slate of transition, appears to us to form the connecting link between that clay-slate and the old red sandstone. In attempting to give a more detailed account of these formations, we might perhaps speak of the graywacke as others have done, as a distinct stratum. We have, however, usually found it so intimately blended either with the sandstone or clay-slate, that in this enlarged view we see no necessity for a separation. We cannot agree in opinion with some who have considered the graywacke as the substratum of the great secondary formation of the valley of the Mississippi. We have found it almost invariably overlaid by an inclined sandstone, separating it from the secondary rocks towards the west. This may not be as often the case at the north, as in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. Mr. Eaton is of opinion, that "graywacke underlays all that district of country in the interior of the state of New York, which would be bounded on the north by a line drawn from Albany westward to the Onondaga salt springs; on the west, by a line running from the salt springs by Bath to the Pennsylvania line; on the south, by a line running thence to Newbergh on the Hudson, above the highlands; and from thence to Albany, by a line running parallel to the river, at a few miles distance." We are informed by Governor Clinton,[95] that coal strata exist in the western part of the state of New York, and we are induced from the analogy of the other parts of the same great secondary formation, to believe that the brine springs of Onondaga rise not from graywacke, {328} but from the sandstone of that coal formation. According to Maclure,[96] old red sandstone appears from under the limestone and other strata at Lewestown, ten miles below the falls of Niagara, and also near the salines of Onondaga in Genessee county. "This," says he, "would give some probability to the conjecture that the old red sandstone is the foundation of all this horizontal formation, and is perhaps attached to some series of rocks laying on the primitive north of the Great Lakes."

_Sandstone of Transition. Old Red Sandstone of Werner?_--Throughout the whole extent of the transition formation before mentioned, a sandstone occurs, evidently belonging to the oldest depositions of that rock. It is for the most part distinctly stratified, and in all cases its stratifications are inclined. It consists of grains of quartz, united by a scanty cement, and usually more or less rounded, as if by attrition and the operation of currents of water. Their fragments vary in magnitude from the finest sand to boulders of several pounds weight. Among the Alleghany mountains are many extensive beds of puddingstone or coarse conglomerate, usually coloured by oxide of iron. It is also to be observed, that this formation of transition sandstone sometimes embraces extensive beds, whose integrant particles have by no means the appearance of having been rounded by attrition. As in the case of almost all the rocks of secondary formation, there appear to have been periods during the time of its deposition when the waters of the superincumbent ocean ceased to throw down the mechanical _débris_ of former rocks, and deposited earthy matter from a state of chymical solution. It is perhaps one of the most interesting and most difficult problems which remain unsolved, to account for the alternation through the whole series of lower secondary and fletz rocks, of {329} beds of strata of mechanical with those of chymical deposition.

The Alleghany mountains in New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, are made up principally of rocks belonging to the transition class, and among these sandstone is perhaps of more frequent occurrence than any other aggregate. We are aware that Maclure has not considered the sandstones of the Alleghany mountains generally, as belonging to the old red sandstone formation of Werner; and it must be acknowledged there is some difference, at least in colour, between the ferruginous sand-rock, which commences on the shore of Tappan bay near Nyac, and extends south and west by the way of Newark, Amboy, and Brunswick, in New Jersey, and that which forms the body of the Cove, Sideling and Alleghany ridges farther to the west. But we cannot discover so marked a difference between the sandstone of the localities last mentioned, and that which occurs about the South mountain in Pennsylvania, that at Hagerstown in Maryland, and near Harper's ferry, in Virginia, which Maclure considers as the _old red sandstone_. Indeed, this last appears to us in almost every respect to resemble the inclined sandstone which prevails so generally throughout the middle and eastern ridges of the Alleghany mountains in Pennsylvania and Maryland. We have already stated the opinion, in part sanctioned by the observations of Maclure, that the old red sandstone is the great substratum of the part of the secondary formation south of Lake Ontario. If this be the case, what stratum, if not the old red sandstone, should be seen emerging from beneath that secondary along its south-eastern margin? We will not, however, contend for the name. It is sufficient for our purpose to state, that the sandstone so abundant in all the principal ridges accessory to the Alleghany on the east, has the character of a rock belonging to the transition class of the Wernerians; that is, its {330} strata have a somewhat regular dip and inclination; it contains no beds of bituminous coal, though many of anthracite, and few organised remains. Near the summit of the ridge called particularly the Alleghany, the change to secondary begins to appear. Without the interposition of any other stratum, and without any sudden change of features, the strata of sandstone become nearly horizontal, assuming gradually all the characters of secondary rocks. About one mile west of the summit of the Alleghany, on the road from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, the first indications of coal are observed. Descending into the vallies, the transition strata again emerge to the light. The same thing happens in the case of Coatskill and other mountains west of the Hudson, their basis being of transition, and their summits crossed with secondary.

The horizontal sandstones connected with the depositions of coal occurring along the Ohio from Pittsburgh to the confluence of Green river, assume various characters,[97] and often support extensive formations of compact limestone.

FOOTNOTES:

[79] The Report from which these observations are extracted was drawn up at Smithland, Kentucky, in January, 1820, soon after the return of the exploring party from the Rocky Mountains. Since that time, opportunities have been wanting to supply the deficiency of study and comparison, for which that place, remote from all collections of books and minerals, did not afford the means. We may be allowed to mention these circumstances in extenuation of our apparent neglect of many recent innovations in geology, and of some late works, with which we had not the opportunity to be acquainted.--JAMES.

[80] Lewis and Clarke's History, vol. i. p. 83. Philadelphia, 1814.--JAMES.

[81] What explanation the advocates for the doctrine of the recent _emersion_ of our continent will give of the highly and exclusively primitive character of the Rocky Mountains, we are at a loss to conjecture. The organized remains hitherto observed in the secondary aggregates along the base of those mountains, are mostly of animals supposed to have inhabited the depths of the ocean. But if the granite of the Rocky Mountains has been _forced up_ at a recent period, where are the traces of all those older secondary, and fletz rocks, which should have intervened between it and the horizontal sandstones? If these mountains had formed the shores of that ocean, in which the greater part of our continent was so long immersed, after the elevation of the _old world_, we should have expected to find along their base, the remains of littoral animals, and not of those which inhabited the depths of the ocean. It would be proper, however, before we refer to the character of the Rocky Mountains, as invalidating or confirming any system of opinions, to ascertain that their eastern and western sides are in all respects similar.--JAMES.

[82] Personal Narrative, vol. i. p. 87. American edition.--JAMES.

[83] Pinkerton.--JAMES.

[84] The valley of Red river abounds in limestone, often presenting the shells of oysters and other molluscous animals in a state of petrifaction, scattered in profusion over the surface of the ground, and retaining their original form entire, while on the Arkansa, the rocks are generally sandstone, no limestone being found, except of the Illinois, Grand, and Canadian rivers. _Major Long's_ MS. Journal. Several organic relics from the country about the confluence of the Kiamesha, have been obligingly communicated by Mr. Nuttall: among these is a shell which approaches nearest to the variety of the gryphœa dilatata of Sowerby, 149. fig. 2, but the lobe is far less distinct, and the shell is more narrowed towards the hinge, and is somewhat less dilated, and much more like an ostrea. It may be thus described: G. _corrugata_, SAY.--Small valve, flat, and very much wrinkled, and like the other, narrowed near the hinge. The beak is short, and curved upwards, and laterally, and the sulcus is very distinct. Length, and greatest breadth of the small valve nearly equal; from 1½ to 2 inches. It is in a very perfect state of preservation. Mr. Nuttall brought also from Red river, a species of ostrea, which to the eye appears hardly changed. The anterior portion of the specimens are wanting, but the greatest breadth of the remaining portion of the largest one is nearly three inches. The hinge fosse in this species is proportionably much more contracted, and smaller in every respect, than any other species of the genus we have seen; that of the specimen above mentioned is less than one-half of an inch. The specimens were evidently those of old shells, being much thickened. Another species of ostrea, a hinge fragment of an old and thickened individual, which appears to have been long, and narrow; the hinge fosse itself is long and wide. Length of the hinge more than three inches, greatest width more than one inch.--JAMES.

[85] "A very extensive bed of native argil occurs on the right bank of the Mississippi, commencing near the head of Tiawapeti Bottom, at the Little Chain, about forty miles above the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi, and extending with very little interruption near six miles above the Grand Tower, a distance of thirty-four miles. Beyond these limits I have not observed it. Its colour is snow-white; structure fine, pulverulent; fracture dull earthy. It is amorphous, and adheres to the tongue. It does not effervesce with acids, even in the slightest degree. The bed of argil reposes on horizontal strata of siliceous sandstone, and is overlaid by shell limestone. In the vein of argil, nodules and veins of flint are arranged so as to make with the horizon an angle of about fifty degrees. The argil has been taken to New Orleans, Pittsburgh, St. Louis, &c. in considerable quantities, supposing it to be chalk, for which substance it has been used." _Mr. Jessup's_ MS. Report.

"_Flint._--This occurs in nodules and veins in a bed of native argil, above Tiawapeti Bottom. Its colours are bluish-gray and greenish-black. It gives fire with steel; fracture is conchoidal, and the edges are translucent. The veins of flint dip to the south-east." _Ibid._

Imbedded in the chalk of Cape Girardeau, are occasionally found nodules of flint, which are enveloped by a hard crust of calcareous carbonate, arranged in concentric layers. Its colour is grayish-black, breaks with a perfectly conchoidal fracture, is translucent on the edges, and readily gives fire with the steel. _Schoolcraft's_ View of the Lead Mines, p. 180.--JAMES.

[86] Jameson in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Art. Mineralogy.--JAMES.

[87] Humboldt's Personal Narrative, vol. iv. p. 171. 195. vol. v. p. 553.--JAMES.

[88] Stoddart's Louisiana, p. 391.--JAMES.

[89] Copper has been found in Illinois, near the sources of Cache river.--JAMES.

[90] "_Fluate of Lime._--This mineral occurs in great abundance seventeen miles south of Shawaneetown, Illinois, on Peter's creek, and proceeding about thirteen miles in a south-west direction, it again appears on and near the surface of the ground; at the three forks of the Grand Pierre creek, maintaining the same course, it breaks out in several places for near twenty miles. This beautiful and useful species of lime occurs at Peter's creek, almost invariably in a crystallized form; the crystals are universally cubes: at the three forks of the Grand Pierre creek, it occurs in masses of several feet in diameter. Both the crystallized and massive varieties, possess almost all the shades of colour and have been observed in the European specimens: viz. green, violet, blue, red, yellow, white, black, and rose-coloured. This mineral varies in transparency, some specimens being perfectly limpid, others opaque. Some of the violet and rose-coloured specimens, when recently fractured or pulverized, yield a strong bituminous odor; this character (which has never been observed heretofore as belonging to this species of lime) is perceptible only in the crystallized specimens.

"The vein of fluate of lime is apparently very extensive; very few minerals have been found associated with it, at the above localities. I saw at Peter's creek a few specimens of laminated calcareous spar, and a few of sulphuret of lead. Excavations have been made by several gentlemen who reside in that vicinity, for lead, but no veins or beds of this ore have been found.

"From examination of the situation of those specimens which I found, and the general appearance of the vein of fluor spar, I do not think that there is a sufficiency of lead ore, to reimburse the expenses that would be necessarily incurred in mining. The accompanying rocks of the vein of spar are compact limestone, sandstone, and oolite." _Jessup's_ MS. Report.

"_Concreted Carbonate of Lime, variety Oolite._--This occurs on Peter's creek, seventeen miles south of Shawaneetown, Illinois, associated with compact limestone, and sandstone, in the gangue of the fluate of lime. It is composed of globular masses, about the size of English mustard-seed, which are united by a calcareous cement; the nucleus of the globules are detached, leaving a small cavity in the centre of each; its colour is yellowish-white; fracture dull." _Ibid._

"_Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gas._--This gas is very abundant in the water of many of the springs and wells in Missouri territory. Its origin is probably owing to the decomposition of sulphuret of iron. Six miles west of St. Louis is a large spring of water strongly impregnated with this gas; its odour is perceptible to the distance of four or five hundred yards from the spring. It is reported, that the water has proved beneficial in cases of cutaneous disorders and rheumatic complaints." _Ibid._

"_Red Oxide of Iron._--This occurs, though not very abundant, in the hills near Isle a Loutre, on the Missouri river. Its texture is compact, fracture earthy. Its external colour is brownish red; its streak and powder is blood red. This variety of ore produces good iron, and yields from sixty to eighty per cent." _Ibid._

"_Hematitic Brown Oxide of Iron._--This variety of iron ore occurs in considerable quantity in the vicinity of the vein of fluate of lime, near Shawaneetown, Illinois. It occurs there under a number of imitative forms, such as tubular, stalactitical, nodular, botryoidal, and reniform. Its colour is blackish and yellow brown; it is easily fused, and will produce near sixty per cent. of good malleable iron." _Ibid._

"_Argillaceous Oxide of Iron._--This variety of iron ore is abundant in the western parts of Pennsylvania and Virginia, and in Kentucky, where it is almost the only ore of iron that is worked. The principal furnaces in Pennsylvania, are in Cumberland, Northumberland, and Centre counties, and on the Juniata river." _Ibid._

"_Columnar Argillaceous Oxide of Iron._--Near the confluence of the Ohio and Tennessee rivers, is a locality of argillaceous oxide of iron, of a columnar structure, and so rising from the surface of the ground as to have some resemblance to cypress trees. This mineral has by many been thought of volcanic origin; at least, that the cause of its peculiar form is, in some measure, connected with the operation of volcanic causes." _Ibid._

"_Sulphuret of Lead, or Galena._--This mineral is abundant in Missouri territory, about sixty miles south-west of St. Louis; but as I had not an opportunity of visiting the mines I cannot say any thing respecting its geological situation or quantity. There are two reservations for lead in the vicinity of the United States' Saline, Illinois. From external appearances, I should judge, the ore was abundant; but from the success of former diggings, and the situation of the ore, which has not as yet been found there, either in beds or veins, but sparingly diffused in small masses (attached to the fluate of lime) not exceeding in weight two or three pounds, I think the quantity inconsiderable. Every specimen of sulphuret of lead that I saw there, possessed a crystalline form." _Ibid._

"_Sulphuret of Zinc, or Blende._--Fifteen miles south of Shawaneetown, Illinois, uniform masses of argillaceous iron ore enclosed in concentric layers of slate clay, are found in a bed of slate clay. In the argillaceous iron ore small particles of sulphuret of zinc occur. This is the only locality west of the Alleghany mountains that I have seen of this ore." _Ibid._--JAMES.

[91] For sketch of Mackenzie, see Franchère's _Narrative_, in our