PART III OF JAMES'S ACCOUNT OF S. H. LONG'S

EXPEDITION, 1819-1820

Reprinted from Volumes II and III of London edition, 1823

EXPEDITION FROM PITTSBURGH TO THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS

[PART III]

{212} CHAPTER I {VIII}[1]

Excursion to the Summit of the Peak--Mineral Springs--Coquimbo Owl--Encampment on the Arkansa.

At an early hour on the morning of the 13th, Lieutenant Swift, accompanied by the guide, was despatched from camp, to measure a base near the peak, and to make there a part of the observations requisite for calculating its elevation. Dr. James, being furnished with four men, two to be left at the foot of the mountain to take care of the horses, and two to accompany him in the proposed ascent to the summit of the peak, set off at the same time.

This detachment left the camp before sunrise, and taking the most direct route across the plains, arrived at eleven o'clock at the base of the mountain. Here Lieutenant Swift found a place suited to his purpose; where, also, was a convenient spot for those who were to ascend the mountain to leave their horses. At this place was a narrow, woodless valley, dividing transversely several sandstone ridges, and extending westward to the base of the peak.

After establishing their horse-camp, the detachment moved up the valley on foot, arriving about noon at the boiling spring, where they dined on a saddle of venison, and some bison ribs they had brought ready cooked from camp.

The _boiling spring_ is a large and beautiful fountain of water, cool and transparent, and aërated with carbonic acid. It rises on the brink of a small stream, which here descends from the mountain, at the point where the bed of this stream divides the ridge of sandstone which rests against the base of the first {213} granitic range. The water of the spring deposits a copious concretion of carbonate of lime,[2] which has accumulated on every side, until it has formed a large basin overhanging the stream; above which it is raised several feet. This basin is of a snowy whiteness, and large enough to contain three or four hundred gallons, and is constantly overflowing.

The spring rises from the bottom of the basin, with a rumbling noise, discharging about equal volumes of air and of water, probably about fifty gallons per minute; the whole kept in constant agitation. The water is beautifully transparent; and has the sparkling appearance, the grateful taste, and the exhilarating effect, of the most highly aërated artificial mineral waters.

Distant a few rods from this is another spring of the same kind, which discharges no water, its basin remaining constantly full, and air only escaping from it. We collected some of the air from both these springs in a box we had carried for the reception of plants; but could not perceive it to have the least smell, or the power of extinguishing flame, which was tested, by plunging into it lighted splinters of dry cedar.

The temperature of the water of the larger spring at noon was 63°, the thermometer at the same time, in the shade, stood at 68°; immersed in the small spring, at 67°. This difference in temperature is owing to the difference of situation, the higher temperature of the small spring depending entirely on its constant exposure to the rays of the sun, and to its retaining the same portion of water; while that in the large spring is constantly replaced by a new supply.[3]

After we had dined, and hung up some provisions in a large red cedar-tree near the spring, intending it for a supply on our return, we took leave of Lieutenant Swift, and began to ascend the mountain. We carried with us each a small blanket, ten {214} or twelve pounds of bison meat, three gills of parched corn meal, and a small kettle.

The sandstone extends westward from the springs, about three hundred yards, rising rapidly upon the base of the mountain; it is of a deep red colour, for the most part compact and fine, but sometimes embracing angular fragments of petrosilex and other siliceous stones, with a few organic impressions. The granite which succeeds to this is coarse, and of a deep red colour; some loose fragments of gneiss were seen lying about the surface, but none in place. The granite at the base of the mountain contains a large proportion of felspar, of the rose-coloured variety, in imperfect cubic crystals. The mass appears to be rapidly disintegrating, under the operation of frost and other causes, crumbling into small masses of half an ounce weight, or less.

The ascending party found the surface in many places covered with such quantities of this loose and crumbled granite, rolling from under their feet, as rendered the ascent extremely difficult. We now began to credit the assertions of the guide, who had conducted us to the foot of the peak, and there left us, with the assurance that the whole of the mountain to its summit was covered with loose sand and gravel; so that, though many attempts had been made by the Indians and by hunters to ascend it, none had ever proved successful. We passed several of these tracts, not without some apprehension for our lives; as there was danger, when the foothold was once lost, of sliding down, and being thrown over precipices. After labouring with extreme fatigue over about two miles, in which several of these dangerous places occurred, we halted at sunset in a small cluster of fir trees. We could not, however, find a piece of even ground large enough to lie down upon, and were under the necessity of securing ourselves from rolling into the brook near which we encamped by means of a pole placed against two trees. In this situation, we {215} passed an uneasy night; and though the mercury fell only to 54°, felt some inconvenience from cold.

On the morning of the 14th, as soon as daylight appeared, having suspended in a tree our blankets, all our provisions, except about three pounds of bison's flesh, and whatever articles of clothing could be dispensed with, we continued the ascent, hoping to be able to reach the summit of the peak, and return to the same camp in the evening. After passing about half a mile of rugged and difficult travelling, like that of the preceding day, we crossed a deep chasm, opening towards the bed of the small stream we had hitherto ascended; and following the summit of the ridge between these, found the way less difficult and dangerous.

Having passed a level tract of several acres covered with the aspen, poplar, a few birches, and pines, we arrived at a small stream running towards the south, nearly parallel to the base of the conic part of the mountain which forms the summit of the peak. From this spot we could distinctly see almost the whole of the peak: its lower half thinly clad with pines, junipers, and other evergreen trees; the upper, a naked conic pile of yellowish rocks, surmounted here and there with broad patches of snow. But the summit appeared so distant, and the ascent so steep, that we began to despair of accomplishing the ascent and returning on the same day.

About the small stream before mentioned, we saw an undescribed white-flowered species of caltha, some pediculariæ, the shrubby cinque-foil (potentilla fruticosa, Ph.) and many alpine plants. At this point a change is observed in the character of the rock, all that which constitutes the peak beyond containing no mica. It is a compact, fine-grained aggregate of quartz, felspar, and hornblende; the latter in small proportion, and sometimes wholly wanting.

The day was bright, and the air nearly calm. As we ascended rapidly, we could perceive a manifest {216} change of temperature; and before we reached the outskirts of the timber, a little wind was felt from the north-east. On this part of the mountain is frequently seen the yellow-flowered stone-crop (sedum stenopetalum, Ph.), almost the only herbaceous plant which occurs in the most closely wooded parts of the mountain. We found the trees of a smaller size, and more scattered in proportion to the elevation at which they grew; and arrived at about twelve o'clock at the limit above which none are found. This is a defined line, encircling the peak in a part which, when seen from the plain, appeared near the summit; but when we arrived at it, a greater part of the whole elevation of the mountain seemed still before us. Above the timber the ascent is steeper, but less difficult than below; the surface being so highly inclined, that the large masses, when loosened, roll down, meeting no obstruction until they arrive at the commencement of the timber. The red cedar, and the flexile pine,[4] are the trees which appear at the greatest elevation. These are small, having thick and extremely rigid trunks; and near the commencement of the naked part of the mountain, they have neither limbs nor bark on that side which is exposed to the descending masses of rocks. It may appear a contradiction to assert, that trees have grown in a situation so exposed as to be unable [to] produce or retain bark or limbs on one side; yet of the fact that they are now standing and living in such a situation there can be no doubt. It is, perhaps, probable the timber may formerly have extended to a greater elevation on the sides of this peak than at present, so that those trees which are now on the outskirts of the forest were formerly protected by their more exposed neighbours.

A few trees were seen above the commencement of snow; but these are very small, and entirely procumbent, being sheltered in the crevices and fissures of the rock. There are also the roots of trees to be seen at {217} some distance above the part where any are now standing.

A little above the point where the timber disappears entirely, commences a region of astonishing beauty, and of great interest on account of its productions. The intervals of soil are sometimes extensive, and covered with a carpet of low but brilliantly-flowering alpine plants. Most of these have either matted procumbent stems, or such as, including the flower, rarely rise more than an inch in height. In many of them the flower is the most conspicuous and the largest part of the plant, and in all the colouring is astonishingly brilliant.

A deep blue is the prevailing colour among these flowers; and the pentstemon erianthera, the mountain columbine (aquilegia cœrulea), and other plants common to less elevated districts, were much more intensely coloured than in ordinary situations. It cannot be doubted, that the peculiar brilliancy of colouring observed in alpine plants, inhabiting near the utmost limits of phænogamous vegetation, depends principally upon the intensity of the light transmitted from the bright and unobscured atmosphere of those regions, and increased by reflection from the immense impending masses of snow. May the deep cerulean tint of the sky have an influence in producing the corresponding colour so prevalent in the flowers of these alpine plants? At about two o'clock we found ourselves so much exhausted as to render a halt necessary. Mr. Wilson, who had accompanied us as a volunteer, had been left behind some time since, and could not now be seen in any direction. As we felt some anxiety on his account, we halted, and endeavoured to apprize him of our situation; but repeated calls, and the discharging of the rifleman's piece, produced no answer. We therefore determined to wait some time to rest, and to eat the provision we had brought, hoping, in the meantime, he would overtake us.

{218} We halted at a place about a mile above the edge of the timber. The stream by which we were sitting we could perceive to fall immediately from a large body of snow, which filled a deep ravine on the south-eastern side of the peak. Below us, on the right, were two or three extensive patches of snow; and ice could be seen everywhere in the crevices of the rocks.

Here, as we were sitting at our dinner, we observed several small animals, nearly of the size of the common gray squirrel; but shorter, and more clumsily built. They were of a dark gray colour, inclining to brown, with a short thick head, and erect rounded ears. In habits and appearance, they resemble the prairie dog, and are believed to be a species of the same genus. The mouth of their burrow is usually placed under the projection of a rock; and near these the party afterwards saw several of the little animals watching their approach, and uttering all the time a shrill note, somewhat like that of the ground squirrel. Several attempts were made to procure a specimen of this animal, but always without success, as we had no guns but such as carried a heavy ball.

After sitting about half an hour, we found ourselves somewhat refreshed, but much benumbed with cold. We now found it would be impossible to reach the summit of the mountain, and return to our camp of the preceding night, during that part of the day which remained; but as we could not persuade ourselves to turn back, after having so nearly accomplished the ascent, we resolved to take our chance of spending the night on whatever part of the mountain it might overtake us. Wilson had not yet been seen; but as no time could be lost, we resolved to go as soon as possible to the top of the peak, and look for him on our return. We met, as we proceeded, such numbers of unknown and interesting plants, as to occasion much delay in collecting; {219} and were under the mortifying necessity of passing by numbers we saw in situations difficult of access.

As we approached the summit, these became less frequent, and at length ceased entirely. Few cryptogamous plants are seen about any part of the mountain; and neither these nor any others occur frequently on the top of the peak. There is an area of ten or fifteen acres forming the summit, which is nearly level; and on this part scarce a lichen was to be seen. It is covered to a great depth with large splintery fragments of a rock entirely similar to that found at the base of the peak, except perhaps a little more compact in its structure. By removing a few of these fragments, they were found to rest upon a bed of ice, which is of great thickness, and may, perhaps, be as permanent as the rocks with which it occurs.

It was about 4 o'clock P. M. when the party arrived on the summit. In our way we had attempted to cross a large field of snow, which occupied a deep ravine, extending down about half a mile from the top, on the south-eastern side of the peak. This was, however, found impassable, being covered with a thin ice, not sufficiently strong to bear the weight of a man. We had not been long on the summit when we were rejoined by the man who had separated from us, near the outskirts of the timber. He had turned aside and lain down to rest, and afterwards pursued his journey by a different route.

From the summit of the peak, the view towards the north-west and south-west is diversified with innumerable mountains, all white with snow; and on some of the more distant it appears to extend down to their bases. Immediately under our feet, on the west, lay the narrow valley of the Arkansa, which we could trace running towards the north-west, probably more than sixty miles.

On the north side of the peak was an immense {220} mass of snow and ice. The ravine in which it lay terminated in a woodless and apparently fertile valley, lying west of the first great ridge, and extending far towards the north. This valley must undoubtedly contain a considerable branch of the Platte. In a part of it, distant probably thirty miles, the smoke of a large fire was distinctly seen, supposed to indicate the encampment of a party of Indians.[5]

To the east lay the great plain, rising as it receded, until in the distant horizon it appeared to mingle with the sky. A little want of transparency in the atmosphere, added to the great elevation from which we saw the plain, prevented our distinguishing the small inequalities of the surface. The Arkansa, with several of its tributaries, and some of the branches of the Platte, could be distinctly traced as on a map, by the line of timber along their courses.

On the south the mountain is continued, having another summit, (supposed to be that ascended by Captain Pike,) at the distance of eight or ten miles. This, however, falls much below the high peak in point of elevation, being wooded quite to its top. Between the two lies a small lake, apparently a mile long, and half a mile wide, discharging eastward into the Boiling-spring creek. A few miles farther towards the south, the range containing these two peaks terminates abruptly.[6]

The weather was calm and clear while the detachment remained on the peak; but we were surprised to observe the air in every direction filled with such clouds of grasshoppers, as partially to obscure the day. They had been seen in vast numbers about {221} all the higher parts of the mountain, and many had fallen upon the snow and perished. It is, perhaps, difficult to assign the cause which induces these insects to ascend to those highly elevated regions of the atmosphere. Possibly they may have undertaken migrations to some remote district; but there appears not the least uniformity in the direction of their movements.[7] They extended upwards from the summit of the mountain to the utmost limit of vision; and as the sun shown brightly, they could be seen by the glittering of their wings, at a very considerable distance.

About all the woodless parts of the mountain, and particularly on the summit, numerous tracks were seen, resembling those of the common deer, but most probably have been those of the animal called the big horn. The skulls and horns of these animals we had repeatedly seen near the licks and saline springs at the foot of the mountain, but they are known to resort principally about the most elevated and inaccessible places.

The party remained on the summit only about half an hour; in this time the mercury fell to 42°, the thermometer hanging against the side of a rock, which in all the early part of the day had been exposed to the direct rays of the sun. At the encampment of the main body in the plains, a corresponding thermometer stood in the middle of the day at 96°, and did not fall below 80° until a late hour in the evening.

Great uniformity was observed in the character of the rock about all the upper part of the mountain. {222} It is a compact, indestructible aggregate of quartz and felspar, with a little hornblende, in very small particles. Its fracture is fine, granular, or even; and the rock exhibits a tendency to divide when broken into long, somewhat splintery fragments. It is of a yellowish brown colour, which does not perceptibly change by long exposure to the air. It is undoubtedly owing to the close texture and the impenetrable firmness of this rock that so few lichens are found upon it. For the same reason it is little subject to disintegration by the action of frost. It is not improbable that the splintery fragments, which occur in such quantities on all the higher parts of the peak, may owe their present form to the agency of lightning. No other cause seems adequate to the production of so great an effect.

Near the summit some large detached crystals of felspar, of a pea-green colour, were collected; also large fragments of transparent, white and smoky quartz, and an aggregate of opaque white quartz, with crystals of hornblende.

At about five in the afternoon the party began to descend, and a little before sunset arrived at the commencement of the timber; but before we reached the small stream at the bottom of the first descent, we perceived we had missed our way. It was now become so dark as to render an attempt to proceed extremely hazardous; and as the only alternative, we kindled a fire, and laid ourselves down upon the first spot of level ground we could find. We had neither provisions nor blankets; and our clothing was by no means suitable for passing the night in so bleak and inhospitable a situation. We could not, however, proceed without imminent danger from precipices; and by the aid of a good fire, and no ordinary degree of fatigue, found ourselves able to sleep during a greater part of the night.

15th. At day break on the following morning, the thermometer stood at 38°. As we had few comforts to leave, we quitted our camp as soon as {223} the light was sufficient to enable us to proceed. We had travelled about three hours when we discovered a dense column of smoke rising from a deep ravine on the left hand. As we concluded this could be no other than the smoke of the encampment where we had left our blankets and provisions, we descended directly towards it. The fire had spread and burnt extensively among the leaves, dry grass, and small timber, and was now raging over an extent of several acres. This created some apprehension, lest the smoke might attract the notice of any Indians who should be at that time in the neighbourhood, and who might be tempted by the weakness of the party to offer some molestation. But we soon discovered a less equivocal cause of regret in the loss of our _cache_ of provisions, blankets, clothing, &c. which had not escaped the conflagration. Most of our baggage was destroyed; but out of the ruins we collected a beggarly breakfast, which we ate, notwithstanding its meanness, with sufficient appetite. We chose a different route for the remaining part of the descent from the one taken in going up, and by that means avoided a part of the difficulty arising from the crumbled granite; but this was nearly compensated by the increased numbers of yuccas and prickly pears.

We arrived a little after noon at the boiling spring, where we indulged freely in the use of its highly aërated and exhilarating waters. In the bottom of both these springs a great number of beads and other small articles of Indian ornament were found, having unquestionably been left there as sacrifices or presents to the springs, which are regarded with a sort of veneration by the savages. Bijeau assured us he had repeatedly taken beads and other ornaments from these springs, and sold them to the same savages who had thrown them in.[8]

A large and much frequented road passes the springs, and enters the mountains, running to the north of the high peak. It is travelled principally {224} by the bisons, sometimes also by the Indians; who penetrate here to the Columbia.[9]

The men who had been left at the horse-camp about a mile below the springs, had killed several deer, and had a plentiful supply of provisions. Here the detachment dined; then mounting our horses, we proceeded towards the encampment of the main body, where we arrived a little after dark, having completed our excursion within the time prescribed.

Among the plants collected in this excursion, several appear to be undescribed. Many of them are strictly alpine, being confined to the higher parts of the mountain, above the commencement of snow.

Most of the timber which occurs on any part of the mountain is evergreen, consisting of several species of abies, among which may be enumerated the balsam fir (A. balsamea, Ph.); the hemlock, white, red, and black spruce (A. canadensis, A. alba, A. rubra, and A. nigra); the red cedar, and common juniper; and a few pines. One of these, which appears to have been hitherto unnoticed in North America, has, like the great white or Weymouth pine, five leaves in a fascicle; but in other respects there is little resemblance between them. The leaves are short and rather rigid; the sheaths which surround their bases short and lacerated; the strobiles erect, composed of large unarmed scales, being somewhat smaller than those of P. rigida, but similar in shape, and exuding a great quantity of resin. The branches, which are covered with leaves chiefly at the ends, are numerous and recurved, inclining to form a dense and large top; they are also remarkably flexile, feeling in the hand somewhat like those of the dirca palustris, L. From this circumstance, the specific name, flexilis, has been proposed for this tree; which is, in several respects, remarkably contrasted with the P. rigida. It inhabits the arid plains subjacent to the Rocky Mountains, and extends up their sides to the region of perpetual frost. The {225} fruit of the pinus flexilis is eaten by the Indians and the French hunters, as that of another species of the same genus is eaten by the inhabitants of some parts of Europe.

The creek on which the party encamped during the three days occupied in making the excursion above detailed, is called Boiling-spring creek, having one of its principal sources in the beautiful spring already described.[10] It is skirted with a narrow margin of cotton-wood and willow trees; and its banks produce a small growth of rushes, on which our horses subsisted principally, while we lay encamped here. This plant, the common rush (equisetum hyemale, Ph.), found in every part of the United States, is eaten with avidity by horses, and is often met with in districts where little grass is to be had. When continued for a considerable time its use proves deleterious.

The recent track of a grizzly bear was observed near the camp; and at no great distance one of those animals was seen and shot at by one of the hunters, but not killed.

In the timber along the creek, the sparrow-hawk, mocking-bird, robin, red-head woodpecker, Lewis' woodpecker, dove, winter wren, towhe, bunting, yellow-breasted chat, and several other birds were seen.

Orbicular lizards were found about this camp, and had been once or twice before noticed near the base of the mountains.

A smoke, supposed to be that of an Indian encampment, was seen rising from a part of the mountains, at a great distance towards the north-west. It had been our constant practice, since we left the Missouri, to have sentinels stationed about all our encampments, and whenever we were not on the march by day, and until nine o'clock in the evening; it was the duty of one of the three Frenchmen to reconnoitre at a distance from camp, in every direction, and to report immediately when any thing {226} should be discovered indicating that Indians were in the vicinity. Precautions of this kind are necessary to prevent surprisal, and invariably are practised by the Indians of the west, both at their villages and on their march.

On the 14th, Lieutenant Swift returned to camp, having performed the duties on which he was sent. A base was measured near the camp, and observations taken for ascertaining the elevation of the peak.

Complete sets of observations for latitude and longitude were taken, which gave 38° 18′ 19″ north, and 105° 39′ 44″ west from Greenwich, or 28° 39′ 45″ from Washington, as the position of our camp. The bearing of the Peak from this point is north 67° west, and the distance about twenty-five miles.[11]

In all the prairie-dog villages we had passed small owls had been observed moving briskly about, but they had hitherto eluded all our attempts to take them. One was here caught, and on examination, found to be the species denominated coquimbo, or burrowing owl, (strix cunicularia.) This fellow-citizen of the prairie-dog, unlike its grave and recluse congeners, is of a social disposition, and does not retire from the light of the sun, but endures the strongest mid-day glare of that luminary, and is in all respects a diurnal bird. It stands high upon its legs, and flies with the rapidity of the hawk. The coquimbo owl, both in Chili and St. Domingo, agreeably to the accounts of Molina and Vieillot, digs large burrows for its habitations, and for the purposes of incubation; the former author gives us to understand that the burrow penetrates the earth to a considerable depth, whilst Vieillot informs us that in St. Domingo, the depth is about two feet.[12]

With us the owl never occurred but in the prairie-dog villages, sometimes in a small flock much scattered, and often perched on different hillocks, at a distance deceiving the eye with the appearance of {227} the prairie-dog, itself, in an erect posture. They are not shy, but readily admit the hunter within gun-shot; but on his too near approach, a part or the whole of them rise upon the wing, uttering a note very like that of the prairie-dogs, and alight at a short distance, or continue their flight beyond the view.

The burrows into which we have seen the owl descend, resembled in all respects those of the prairie-dog, leading us to suppose, either that they were common, though, perhaps not friendly occupants of the same burrow, or that the owl was the exclusive tenant of a burrow gained by right of conquest. But it is at the same time possible, that, as in Chili, the owl may excavate his own tenement.

From the remarkable coincidence of note between these two widely distinct animals, we might take occasion to remark the probability of the prairie-dog being an unintentional tutor to the young owl, did we not know that this bird utters the same sounds in the West Indies, where the prairie-dog is not known to exist.

It may be that more than a single species of diurnal owl has been confounded under the name of _cunicularia_, as Vieillot states his bird to be somewhat different from that of Molina; and we cannot but observe that the eggs of the bird described by the latter are spotted with yellow, whilst those of the former are immaculate.

As our specimens do not in all respects correspond with the descriptions by the above-mentioned authors, of the Coquimbo owl, we have thought proper to subjoin such particulars as seem necessary to be noted, in addition to the description already given by those authors.

The general colour is a light burnt brown spotted with white; the larger feathers five or six-banded with white, each band more or less widely interrupted by the shaft, and their immediate margins darker than the other portions of the feathers; the {228} tips of these feathers are white or whitish; the exterior primary feather is serrated, shorter than the three succeeding ones, and equal in length to the fifth; the bill is tinged with yellow on the ridges of both mandibles; the tarsi and feet distinctly granulated, the former naked behind, furnished before, near the base, with dense, short feathers, which, towards the toes, become less crowded, and assume the form of single hairs; those on the toes are absolutely setaceous and scattered; the lobes beneath the toes are large and granulated.

On the plains about our encampment, were numerous natural mounds, greatly resembling some of the artificial works so common in the central portions of the great valley of the Mississippi. About the summits of these mounds, were numerous petrifactions, which were found to be almost exclusively casts of bivalve shells approaching the genus cytherea, and usually from one half to one and an half inches in width.

On the evening of the fifteenth, finding all our stock of meat injured by too long keeping, four men were sent out on horseback to hunt. At the distance of six miles from camp, they found a solitary bison, which they killed, but concluding from its extreme leanness and the ill-savour of the flesh, that the animal was diseased, they took no part of it. On the following morning they returned, bringing nothing. We were now reduced to the necessity of feeding on our scanty allowance of a gill of parched maize per day to each man, this being the utmost that our limited stores would afford.

On the 16th of July, we moved from our encampment on Boiling-spring creek, in a south-western direction to the Arkansa. This ride of twenty-eight miles, which we finished without having once dismounted from our horses, occupied about twelve hours of a calm, sultry day, in every respect like the preceding, in which the thermometer in the shade had {229} ranged from 90 to 100°. Our route lay across a tract of low but somewhat broken sandstone, of an uncommonly slaty structure. It is fine-grained, with an argillaceous cement, and of a light gray or yellowish white colour. It contains thin beds of bituminous clay-slate; and we saw scattered on the surface some small crystals of selenite. It is traversed by numerous deep ravines, in which at this time, not a drop of water was to be found. The soil is scanty, and of incurable barrenness. The texture of the rock is so loose and porous as to unfit it for retaining any portion of the water which falls upon it in rains. A few dwarfish cedars and pines are scattered over a surface consisting of a loose dusty soil, intermixed with thin lamellar fragments of sandstone, and nearly destitute of grass or herbage of any kind. Our sufferings from thirst, heat, and fatigue, were excessive, and were aggravated by the almost unlimited extent of the prospect before us, which promised nothing but a continuation of the same dreary and disgusting scenery. Late in the afternoon we arrived at the brink of the precipice which divides the high plains from the valley of the Arkansa; this is here narrow, and so deeply sunk in the horizontal sandstone, that although there are trees of considerable size growing along the river, they do not rise to the level of the surface of the great plain, and from a little distance on either side, the valley is entirely hid. There our thirst and impatience were for some time tantalized with the view of the cool and verdant valley and copious stream of the Arkansa, while we were searching up and down for a place where we could descend the precipice.

We at length found a rugged ravine, down which we with some difficulty wound our way to the base of the cliff, where lay a beautiful level plain, having some scattered cotton-wood and willow trees, and affording good pasture for our horses. Here we encamped, and the remainder of the afternoon was {230} spent in making preparations to despatch a small party up the Arkansa to the mountains on the succeeding day.

A small doe was killed near camp, which, though extremely lean, proved an important addition to our supply of provisions.

The place where we encamped was supposed to have been near where Pike's block-house formerly stood, but we sought in vain for the traces of anything resembling the work of a white man.[13]

{231} CHAPTER II {IX}

A Detachment from the Exploring Party Ascend the Arkansa to the Mountains--Bell's Springs--Descent of the Arkansa--Grizzly Bear.

On the morning of the 17th Captain Bell, with Dr. James and two men, took their departure, proposing to ascend the Arkansa to the mountains. They were furnished with provisions for two days, according to the scanty allowance to which we were all reduced. The river valley was found so narrow, and so obstructed by the timber and the windings of the stream, as greatly to impede the travelling; we therefore resolved to leave it, and pursue our journey in the open plain at a distance from the river. The course of the Arkansa, for the first twenty miles from the mountains, is but little south of east. It enters the plain at the extremity of an extensive amphitheatre, formed by the continued chain of the mountains on the west and north-west, and by the projecting spur which contains the high peak on the east. This semicircular area is about thirty miles in length from north to south, and probably twenty wide at its southern extremity. The mountains which bound it on the west are high, but at this time had little snow on them. The surface of the area is an almost unvaried plain, and is based upon the stratum of argillaceous sandstone. Near the base of the mountain the same sandstone is observed, resting in an inclined position against the primitive rocks. It forms a range like that already mentioned, when speaking of the mountains at the Platte, separated from the primitive by a narrow secluded valley. On entering this valley we found {232} the recent trace of a large party of Indians, travelling with skin lodges, who appeared to have passed within a very short time. This trace we followed, until we found it entered the mountains in the valley of a small stream which descends to the Arkansa from the north-east. This we left on the east, and traversing a rough and broken tract of sandstone hills, arrived, after a toilsome day's journey of about thirty miles, at the spot where the Arkansa leaves the mountains.

Here we found several springs, whose water is impregnated with muriate of soda and other salts. They rise near each other, in a small marshy tract of ground, occupying the narrow valley of the river, at the point where it traverses the inclined sandstone ridge. Very little water flows from them, and the evaporation of this has left a crystalline incrustation, whitening the surface of the surrounding marsh. The springs are small excavations, which may perhaps have been dug by the Indians or by white hunters. They appear to remain constantly full; they all contain muriate of soda, and the smell of sulphuretted hydrogen is perceptible at considerable distance from them. They differ in taste a little from each other, hence the account given of them by the hunters, that one is sour, another sweet, a third bitter, and so on. One contains so much fixed air as to give it some pungency, but the water of all of them is unpalatable. The sweetish metallic taste observed in the water of one or two, appears to depend on an impregnation of sulphate of iron.

The sulphates of magnesia and soda will probably be found to exist in these springs; if their water should hereafter be analysed, they may also be found to possess some active medicinal properties. They are seven in number, and have received the name of Bell's Springs, in compliment to their discoverer. Though the country around them abounds with bisons, deer, &c. they do not appear to be frequented, {233} as most saline springs are, by these or other herbivorous animals.[14]

It was near sunset when Captain Bell and his party arrived at the springs, and being much exhausted by their laborious march, they immediately laid themselves down to rest under the open canopy, deferring their examinations for the following morning.

The sandstone near the springs is hard, though rather coarse, and of a dark gray or brownish yellow colour. In ascending the Arkansa on the ensuing morning, we found the rock to become more inclined, and of a redder colour, as we approached the primitive, until, at about half a mile from the springs, it is succeeded by the almost perpendicular gneiss rock, which appears here at the base of the first range of the mountains. We have noticed that this particular spot is designated, in the language of hunters, as "the place where the Arkansa _comes out_ of the mountains;" and it must be acknowledged, the expression is not entirely inapplicable. The river pours with great impetuosity and violence through a deep and narrow fissure in the gneiss rock, which rises so abruptly on both sides to such a height, as to oppose an impassable barrier to all further progress. According to the delineation of Pike's route, upon the map which accompanies his work, he must have entered the mountains at this place; but no corroboration can be derived from his journal. It appears almost incredible that he should have passed by this route, and have neglected to mention the extreme difficulty which must have attended the undertaking. The detached party returned to the encampment of the main body on the 18th.

The immediate valley of the Arkansa, near the mountains, is bounded by high cliffs of inclined sandstone. At a short distance below these disappear, and a sloping margin of alluvial earth extends on each side to the distance of several miles. Somewhat farther down horizontal sandstone appears, confining {234} the valley to a very narrow space, and bounding it within perpendicular precipices on each side. Seven miles from the mountains, on the left hand side of the Arkansa, is a remarkable mass of sandstone rocks, resembling a large pile of architectural ruins.

From this point the bearing of James's Peak[15] was found to be due north.

The Arkansa valley, between our encampment of the 16th and the mountains, a distance of about thirty miles, has a meagre and gravelly soil, sustaining a growth of small cotton-wood trees, rushes, and coarse grass: above the rocky bluffs, on each side, spreads a dreary expanse of almost naked sand, intermixed with clay enough to prevent its drifting with the wind, but not enough to give it fertility. It is arid and sterile, bearing only a few dwarfish cedars, and must for ever remain desolate.

During the time of Captain Bell's absence on the excursion above detailed, observations were made at camp for latitude, longitude, &c., and all the party were busy in their appropriate pursuits. Among the animals taken here was the four-lined squirrel, (S. 4-vittatus, Say) a very small and very handsome species, very similar in its dorsal markings to the getulus, L.; but as far as we can judge from the description and figures of the latter species by Buffon,[16] our animal is distinguished by its striped head, less rounded ears, and much less bushy, and not striated and banded tail, and by its smaller size. The getulus is also said to have no thumb wart.

It is an inhabitant of the Rocky Mountains about the sources of the Arkansa and Platte. It does not seem to ascend trees by choice, but nestles in holes and on edges of the rocks. We did not observe it to have cheek-pouches.

Its nest is composed of a most extraordinary quantity of the burrs of the xanthium branches, and other portions of the large upright cactus, small {235} branches of pine-trees and other vegetable productions, sufficient in some instances to fill the body of an ordinary cart. What the object of so great, and apparently so superfluous an assemblage of rubbish may be, we are at a loss to conjecture; we do not know what peculiarly dangerous enemy it may be intended to exclude by so much labour.

Their principal food, at least at this season, is the seeds of the pine, which they readily extract from the cones.[17]

There is also another species[18] inhabiting about the mountains, where it was first observed by those distinguished travellers, Lewis and Clarke, on their expedition to the Pacific Ocean. It is allied to the Sc. striatus, and belongs to the same subgenus (tamias illig.) but it is of a somewhat larger stature, entirely destitute of the vertebral line, and is further distinguished by the lateral lines commencing before the humerus, where they are broadest by the longer nails of the anterior feet, and by the armature of the thumb tubercle. It certainly cannot with propriety be regarded as a variety of the striatus, and we are not aware that the latter species is subject to vary to any remarkable degree in this country. But the species to which, in the distribution of its colours, it is most closely allied, is unquestionably the Sc. bilineatus of Geoffroy.[19] A specimen is preserved in the Philadelphia Museum.

The cliff swallow[20] is here very frequent, as well as in all the rocky country near the mountains. This species attaches its nest in great numbers to the rocks in dry situations, under projecting ledges. The nest is composed of mud, and is hemispherical, with the entrance near the top somewhat resembling a chymist's retort, flattened on one side, and with the neck broken off for the entrance. This entrance, which is perfectly rounded sometimes, projects a little and turns downward. It is an active bird, flying about the vicinity of the nest in every direction, {236} like the barn swallow. In many of the nests we found young hatched, and in others only eggs.

A fine species of serpent[21] was brought into camp by one of the men. It is new, and seems to be peculiar to this region.

A very beautiful species of emberiza[22] was caught; it is rather smaller than the indigo bunting, (emberiza cyanea) with a note entirely dissimilar. It was observed to be much in the grass, rarely alighting on bushes or trees.

We also captured a rattle-snake,[23] which, like the tergeminus, we have found to inhabit a barren soil, and to frequent the villages of the arctomys of the prairie; but its range appeared to us confined chiefly to the vicinity of the Rocky Mountains. Its rattle is proportionally much larger than that of the species just mentioned, and the head is destitute of large plates. It seems, by the number of plates and scales, to be allied to the atracaudatus of Bosc and Daud, but their description induces the conclusion that their species is entirely white beneath.[24] It is also allied to the crotalus durissus, L. (C. rhombifer, Beaur.), but it is smaller, and the dorsal spots are more rounded. A specimen is placed in the Philadelphia Museum.

The only specimens of organic reliquiæ from this vicinity, which we have been so fortunate as to preserve, are very indistinct in their characters, and are only impressions in the gray sandstone. One of them appears to have been a phytoid millepore, and the other a sub-equilateral bivalve, which may possibly have been a mactra. It is suborbicular, and its surface is marked by concentric grooves or undulations. At a previous encampment numerous fragments of shells, of a dusky colour, occurred in the same variety of sandstone, and amongst these is an entire valve of a small species of ostrea, of a shape very like that of a pinna, and less than half an inch in length. We have a specimen, from another {237} locality, of a very dark coloured compact, and very fœtid impure limestone, containing still more blackish fragments of bivalves, one of which presents the form of a much arcuated mytillus? but as the back of the valve only is offered to examination, it may be a chama, but it seems to be perfectly destitute of sculpture.

Another specimen from the mountains near the Platte river, is a reddish brick-coloured petrosiliceous mass, containing casts and impressions of a grooved terebratula.

Hunters were kept out during the day on the 17th, but killed nothing. At evening they were sent out on horseback, but did not return till 3 P. M. on the following day. They had descended the river twelve miles, finding little game. They had killed one deer, one old turkey with her young brood of six. This supply proved highly acceptable as we had for some time been confined almost entirely to our small daily allowance of corn meal. At the commencement of our tour we had taken a small supply of sea-biscuit. At first these were distributed one to each man three times per day, afterwards two, then one for two, and then one for three days, till our stock of bread was so nearly exhausted, that it was thought proper to reserve the little that remained for the use of the sick, should any unfortunately require it. We then began upon our parched maize, which proved an excellent substitute for bread. This was issued at first at the rate of one pint per day for four men, no distinction being made in this or any other case between the officers and gentlemen of the party, and the citizens and soldiers attached to it. When we arrived at the Arkansa, about one-third part of our supply of this article was exhausted, and no augmentation of the daily issues could be allowed, although our supplies of meat had been for some time inadequate to the consumption of the party.

{238} We had a little coffee, tea, and sugar, but these were reserved as hospital stores; our three gallons of salt were expended. We now depended entirely upon hunting for our subsistence, as we had done for meat ever since we left the Pawnee villages, our pork having been entirely consumed before we arrived at that place. We, however, apprehended little want of meat after we should have left the mountains, as we believed there would be plenty of bisons and other game upon the plains over which we were to travel.

At 2 o'clock P. M. on the eighteenth, rain began to fall which continued during the remainder of the day, and made it impossible for us to complete the observations we had begun.

The Arkansa, from the mountains to the place of our encampment, has an average breadth of about sixty yards, it is from three to five feet deep, and the current rapid. At the mountains, the water was transparent and pure, but soon after entering the plains it becomes turbid and brackish.

July 19th. This morning we turned our backs upon the mountains, and began to move down the Arkansa. It was not without a feeling of something like regret, that we found our long contemplated visit to these grand and interesting objects, was now at an end. One thousand miles of dreary and monotonous plain lay between us, and the enjoyments and indulgences of civilized countries. This we were to traverse in the heat of summer, but the scarcity of game about the mountains rendered our immediate departure necessary.

A large and beautiful animal[25] of the lizard kind (belonging to the genus ameiva) was noticed in this day's ride. It very much resembles the lacerta ameiva, as figured and described by Lacepede,[26] but the tail is proportionably much longer. Its movements were so extremely rapid that it was with much difficulty we were able to capture a few of them.

{239} We had proceeded about eight or ten miles from our camp, when we observed a very considerable change in the character both of the river and its valley, the former becoming wider, less rapid, and filled with numerous islands; the latter bounded by sloping sandhills, instead of perpendicular precipices. Here the barren cedar-ridges, formerly mentioned, are succeeded by still more desolate plains, with scarce a green or a living thing upon them, except here and there a tuft of grass, an orbicular lizard, basking on the scorching sand, a solitary pimelia, a blaps, or a galeodes. Among the few stinted and withered grapes, we distinguished a small cespitose species of agrestis, and several others which are thought to be undescribed. Near the river, and in spots of uncommon fertility, the unicorn plant, (martynia proboscidea, Ph.) was growing in considerable perfection. This plant, which is sometimes cultivated in the gardens, where it is known by the name of cuckold's horns, is a native of the Platte and Arkansa, and is occasionally seen in every part of the open country from St. Louis westward to the mountains.

A little before noon, we crossed a small stream which was called Castle Rock creek, from a remarkable pile of naked rocks, and halted for dinner on the bank of the river.[27]

In the morning, Mr. Peale and two hunters had taken a different route from the remainder of the party, hoping to meet with game. They arrived at a small grove of timber, where it was thought deer might be found; they therefore left their horses in care of one of the hunters, and entered the wood on foot. The man had been left alone but a short time, when he discovered a large grizzly bear (ursus horribilis, Ord.) approaching rapidly towards him, and without staying to make any inquiry into the intentions of the animal, mounted his horse and fled.

This animal is widely distinct from any known {240} species of bear, by the essential character of the elongated anterior claws, and rectilinear or slightly arcuated figure of its facial profile. In general appearance it may be compared to the alpine bear, (U. arctus), and particularly to the Norwegian variety. The claws, however, of these appear to be of the usual form and not elongated, and the facial space included between the eyes is deeply indented; they also differ in their manners, and climb trees, which the grizzly bear is never known to do.

Lewis and Clarke frequently saw and killed these bears during their celebrated expedition across the continent. They mention one which was nine feet long from the nose to the tip of the tail. The forefoot of another was nine inches across, its hind foot eleven and three quarter inches long, exclusive of the talons, and seven inches wide. The talons of a third were six and one-fourth inches long.

They will not always attack, even when wounded. "As they fired, he did not attempt to attack, but fled with a most tremendous roar, and such was its extraordinary tenacity of life, that although he had five balls passed through his lungs, and five other wounds, he swam more than half across the river to a sand-bar, and survived twenty minutes. He weighed between five or six hundred pounds, at least, and measured eight feet seven and a half inches from the nose to the extremity of the hind feet."--_Lewis and Clarke._

One lived two hours after having been shot through the centre of his lungs, and whilst in this state, he prepared for himself a bed in the earth two feet deep and five feet long, after running a mile and a half. The fleece and skin were a heavy burden for two men, and the oil amounted to eight gallons.

Another shot through the heart, ran at his usual pace nearly a quarter of a mile, before he fell.

This species, they further inform us, in all its variations {241} of colouring, is called hohhost by the Chopunnish Indians.[28] These travellers mention another species of bear, which seems to be related to the alpine bear, and which is most probably a new species. It climbs trees, and is known to the Chopunnish Indians by the name of Yackak. They also inform us, that the copulating season occurs about the 15th of June.[29]

The Indians of the Missouri sometimes go to war in small parties against the grizzly bear, and trophies obtained from his body are highly esteemed, and dignify the fortunate individual who obtains them. We saw, on the necks of many of their warriors, necklaces, composed of the long fore-claws separated from the foot, tastefully arranged in a radiating manner; and one of the band of Pawnee warriors, that encountered a detachment of our party near the Kanza village, was ornamented with the entire skin of the fore-foot, with the claws remaining upon it, suspended on his breast.

It is not a little remarkable that the grizzly bear, which was mentioned at a very early period, by Lahontan,[30] and subsequently by several writers, is not, even at this day, established in the zoological works as distinct species; that it is perfectly distinct from any described species, our description will prove. From the concurrent testimony of those who have seen the animal in its native country, and who have had an opportunity of observing its manners, it is, without doubt, the most daring and truly formidable animal that exists in the United States. He frequently pursues and attacks hunters; and no animal, whose swiftness or art is not superior to his own, can evade him. He kills the bison, and drags the ponderous carcass to a distance to devour at his leisure, as the calls of hunger may influence him.

The grizzly bear is not exclusively carnivorous, as has by some persons been imagined; but also, and perhaps in a still greater degree, derives nourishment {242} from vegetables, both fruits and roots; the latter he digs up by means of his long fore-claws.

That they formerly inhabited the Atlantic states, and that they were then equally formidable to the Indians, we have some foundation for belief in the tradition of the Delaware Indians, respecting the big naked bear; the last one of which they believe formerly existed east of the Hudson river, and which Mr. Heckewelder[31] assures us, is often arraigned by the Indians before the minds of their crying children, to frighten them to quietness.

Governor Clinton, in the notes appended to his learned _Introductory Discourse_,[32] says, "Dixon, the Indian trader, told a friend of mine, that this animal had been seen fourteen feet long; that notwithstanding its ferocity, it has been sometimes domesticated; and that an Indian belonging to a tribe on the head waters of the Mississippi, had one in a reclaimed state, which he sportively directed to go into a canoe belonging to another tribe of Indians then about returning from a visit. The bear obeyed, and was struck by an Indian; being considered one of the family, this was deemed an insult, was resented accordingly, and produced a war between these nations."

A half-grown specimen was kept chained in the yard of the Missouri fur-company, near Engineer Cantonment; last winter he was fed chiefly on vegetable food, as it was observed that he became furious when too plentifully supplied with animal fare. He was in continual motion during the greater part of the day, pacing backwards and forwards to the extent of his chain. His attendants ventured to play with him, though always in a reserved manner, fearful of trusting him too far or placing themselves absolutely within his grasp. He several times broke loose from his chain; on which occasions he would manifest {243} the utmost joy, running about the yard in every direction, rearing up on his hind-feet, and capering about. I was present at one of these exhibitions; the squaws and children belonging to the establishment ran precipitately to their huts, and closed the doors. He appeared much delighted with his temporary freedom; he ran to the dogs who were straying about the yard, but they avoided him. In his round he came to me; and rearing up, placed his paws on my breast. Wishing to rid myself of so rough a playfellow, I turned him round; upon which he ran down the bank of the river, plunged into the water, and swam about for some time.

Mr. J. Dougherty has had several narrow escapes from the grizzly bear. He was once hunting with a companion on one of the upper tributaries to the Missouri: he heard the report of his companion's rifle; and looking round, beheld him at a little distance, endeavouring to escape from one of these bears, which he had wounded as it was advancing on him. Mr. D., attentive only to the preservation of his friend, immediately hastened to divert the attention and pursuit of the bear to himself, and arrived within rifle-shot distance just in time to effect his generous object. He lodged his ball in the animal, and was obliged to fly in his turn; whilst his friend, relieved from imminent danger, prepared for another onset, by charging his piece, with which he again wounded the bear, and relieved Mr. D. from pursuit. In this most hazardous encounter neither of them were injured, and the bear was fortunately destroyed.

Several hunters were pursued by a grizzly bear that gained rapidly upon them. A boy belonging to the party, who possessed less speed than his companions, seeing the bear at his heels, fell with his face to the soil; the bear reared up on his hind-feet over the boy, looked down for a moment upon him, then bounded over him in pursuit of the fugitives.

A hunter, just returned from a solitary excursion {244} to the Qui Court river, informed me at Engineer cantonment, that going one morning to examine his traps, he was pursued by a bear, and had merely time to get into a small tree, when the bear passed beneath him; and without halting, or even looking up, passed on at the same pace.

Another hunter received a blow from the fore-paw of one of these animals, which carried away his eye and cheek-bone.

In proof of the great muscular power with which this animal is endowed, a circumstance related to us by Mr. J. Dougherty may be stated. He shot down a bison; and leaving the carcass to obtain assistance to butcher it, he was surprised on his return to find that it had been dragged entire, to a considerable distance, by one of these bears, and was now lodged in a concavity of the earth, which the animal had scooped out for its reception.

Notwithstanding the formidable character of this bear, we have not made use of any precautions against their attacks; and although they have been several times prowling about us in the night, they have not evinced any disposition to attack us at that season.

They appear to be more readily intimidated by the voice, than by the appearance of men.

Some grizzly bears were brought, when very young, from the country of the Sioux by Lieutenant Pike, and were presented to the Philadelphia Museum. They were kept several years in that splendid institution, secured in a strong cage; during which time they gradually increased in size, until at length they became dangerous from their strength and unsubdued ferocity, and it was judged proper to prepare them for the cabinet. From these specimens our description is chiefly taken.[33]

{245} CHAPTER III {X}

Natural Mounds--Kaskaia Indian and Squaw--Preparations for a Division of the Party--Sandstones of the High Plains South of the Arkansa--Fletz Trap Formation.

In the afternoon of the 19th of July we passed the mouth of the river St. Charles, called by Pike the Third Fork, which enters the Arkansa from the south-west. It is about twenty yards wide; and receives, eight miles above its confluence, the Green Horn creek, a small stream from the south-west. The Green Horn rises in the mountains, and passes between the Spanish peaks into the plains. These two peaks had been for several days visible, standing close to each other, and appearing entirely insulated. If they are not completely so, the other parts of the same range fall far below them in point of elevation. They are of a sharp conic form, and their summits are white with snow at midsummer.[34]

This day we travelled twenty-five miles, the general direction of our course being a little south of east, and encamped at five P. M. in a grassy point on the north side of the river. The soil of the islands and the immediate valley of the river were found somewhat more fertile than above. Immediately after encamping, the hunters were sent out, who soon returned with two deers and a turkey.

In the evening the altitude of Antares was taken. Throughout the night we were much annoyed by mosquitos, the first we had met for some weeks in sufficient numbers to be troublesome.

July 20th. We left our encampment on the following morning at five, the weather warm and fair. {246} Soon afterwards we passed the mouth of a creek on the south side, which our guide informed us is called by the Spaniards Wharf creek, probably from the circumstance of its washing the base of numerous perpendicular precipices of moderate height, which is said to be the case. It is the stream designated in Pike's map as the Second Fork. A party of hunters in the employ of Choteau, who were taken prisoners by the Spaniards in the month of May, 1817, were conducted up this creek to the mountains, thence across the mountains to Santa Fé.[35]

We observed this morning some traces of Indians, but none very recent. On the preceding day we had passed the site of a large encampment, where we saw several horse-pens well fenced.

Near the place where we halted to dine, a large herd of elk was seen; but unfortunately they "took the wind of us," and disappeared, giving us no opportunity to fire upon them.

Along the river bluffs we saw numerous conic mounds, resembling those of artificial formation so frequently met with near the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, but differing from them by their surface from the apex to the base being terminated by a strait or concave instead of a convex curve, which is usual in those of artificial origin. The natural mounds of which we speak appear usually to contain a nucleus of sandstone, which is sometimes laid bare at the summit or on the sides, and sometimes entirely concealed by the accumulated _débris_ resting upon it, but often contains petrified remains of marine animals.

At the end of this day's ride of twenty-six miles, we found the river valley more than a mile in width, and the distant hills or bluffs which bound it low, and of gradual ascent. The boulders, pebbles, and gravel so abundant near the base of the mountain, had been growing gradually less frequent and diminishing in size, till they had now almost entirely disappeared, their place being supplied by a fine {247} sand intermixed with clay, which here composed the surface. The soil is still marked with a character of extreme barrenness, the islands and the immediate margin of the river bearing an inconsiderable growth of cotton-wood and willows, but the great mass of the country being almost destitute of vegetation of any kind. Hunters were sent out immediately on encamping, and returned at dark, bringing a wild cat, an old turkey, and five of her chickens.

A bird was taken, closely resembling in point of colouring a species preserved in the Philadelphia Museum, under the name of _ruby-crowned flycatcher_, said to be from the East Indies; but the bill differs in being much less dilated. We can hardly think it a new species, yet in the more common books we do not find any distinct description of it. It is certainly allied to the tyrannus griseus and sulphuratus of Vieillot; but in addition to other differential characters, it is distinguished from the former by its yellow belly, and from the latter by the simplicity of the colouring of the wing and tail feathers, and the absence of bands on the side of the head; the bill also is differently formed from that of either of those species, if we may judge from Vieillot's figures.[36]

Friday, July 21st. We left our encampment at five A. M., and having descended six or eight miles along the river, met an Indian and squaw, who were, as they informed us, of the tribe called Kaskaia; by the French, Bad-hearts. They were on horseback; and the squaw led a third horse of uncommon beauty. They were on their way from the Arkansa below to the mountains near the sources of the Platte, where their nation sometimes resides. They informed us that the greater part of six nations of Indians were encamped about nineteen days' journey below us, on the Arkansa. These were the Kaskaias, Shiennes, Arrapahoes, Kiawas, the Bald-heads, and a few Shoshones or Snakes. These nations, the Kaskaia {248} informed us, had been for some time embodied, and had been engaged in a warlike expedition against the Spaniards. They had recently met a party of Spaniards on Red river, when a battle was fought, in which the Spaniards were defeated with considerable loss.

We now understood the reason of a fact which had appeared a little remarkable; namely, that we should have traversed so great an extent of Indian country as we had done since leaving the Pawnees, without meeting a single savage. The bands above enumerated are supposed to comprise nearly the whole erratic population of the country about the sources of the Platte and Arkansa; and they had all been absent from their usual haunts on a predatory excursion against the Indians of New Mexico.

At our request, the Kaskaia and his squaw returned with us several miles, to point out a place suitable for fording the Arkansa, and to give us any other information or assistance in their power to communicate. Being made to understand that it was the design of some of the party to visit the sources of Red river, he pretended to give us information and advice upon that subject; also to direct us to a place where we might find a mass of rock salt, which he described as existing on one of the upper branches of Red river.

At ten o'clock we arrived at the ford, where we halted to make a distribution of the baggage and other preparations requisite to the proposed division of the party. Our Kaskaia visitor, with his handsome and highly ornamented wife, encamped near us, erecting a little tent covered with skins. They presented us some jerked bison meat, and received in return some tobacco and other inconsiderable articles. A small looking-glass, which was among the presents given him, he immediately stripped of the frame and covering, and inserted it with some ingenuity into a large billet of wood, on which he {249} began to carve the figure of an alligator. Captain Bell bought of him the horse they had led with them; and which, according to their account, had recently been caught from among the wild horses of the prairie. This made some new arrangement of their baggage necessary; and we were surprised to witness the facility and despatch with which the squaw constructed a new pack-saddle. She felled a small cotton-wood tree, from which she cut two large forked sticks. These were soon reduced to the proper dimensions, and adapted to the ends of two flat pieces of wood about two feet in length, and designed to fit accurately to the back of the horse, a longitudinal space of a few inches in width being left between them to receive the ridge of the back. The whole was fastened together without nails, pins, or mortices, by a strong covering of dressed horse hide sewed on wet with fibres of deer's sinew.

The Indian informed us he was called "The Calf." He appeared excessively fond of his squaw; and their caresses and endearments they were at no pains to conceal. It was conjectured by our guide, and afterwards ascertained by those who descended the Arkansa, that they had married contrary to the laws and usages of their tribe, the woman being already the wife of another man, and run away for concealment.

The small point of land on which we encamped has a sandy soil, and is thinly covered with cotton-wood, intermixed with the aspen poplar (P. tremula, Mx.) and a few willows. The undergrowth is scattered and small, consisting principally of the amorpha fruticosa and a syngenecious shrub, probably a vernonia. Along the base of the mountains, and about this encampment, we had observed a small asclepias not easily distinguished from a verticillata, but rarely rising more than two or three inches from the ground. Here, we saw also the A. longifolia and A. viridifolia of Punsh. The scanty {250} catalogue of grassy and herbaceous plants found here comprises two sunflowers, (H. giganteus, N. and an undescribed species,) the great bartonica, the Mexican argemone, the cactus ferox, the andropogon furcatum, and A. ciliatum, cyperus uncinatus, elymus striatus, and a few others. Soon after arriving at this encampment, we commenced the separation of our baggage, horses, &c. preparatory to the division of the party. It was now proposed, pursuant to the plan already detailed, that one division of the party, consisting of Mr. Say, Mr. Seymour, Lieut. Swift, the three Frenchmen, Bijeau, Le Doux, and Julian, with five riflemen, the greater part of the pack-horses, the heavy baggage, and the two dogs, all under the direction of Captain Bell, should proceed directly down the Arkansa by the most direct route to Fort Smith, there to await the arrival of the other division; while Major Long, accompanied by Dr. James, Mr. Peale, and seven men, should cross the Arkansa, and travel southward in search of the sources of Red river.

While several of the party were engaged in making these preparations, hunters were sent out; who were so far successful, that they soon returned, bringing two deer, one antelope, and seven turkeys. The opportunity of an unoccupied moment was taken to collect from Bijeau an account of some part of the Rocky Mountains which we had not seen.

Joseph Bijeau, (or Bessonet, which is his hereditary name, the former having been derived from a second marriage of his mother,) had performed, in a very adequate and faithful manner, the services of guide and interpreter from the Pawnee villages to this place. He had formerly been resident in these western wilds, in the capacity of hunter and trapper, during the greater part of six years.

He had traversed the country lying between the north fork of the Platte and the Arkansa in almost every direction. His pursuits often led him within the {251} Rocky Mountains, where the beaver are particularly abundant. He appears possessed not only of considerable acuteness of observation, but of a degree of candour and veracity which gives credibility to his accounts and descriptions. To him we are indebted for the following account of the country situated within the mountains.

The region lying west of the first range of the Rocky Mountains, and between the sources of the Yellow Stone on the north, and Santa Fé on the south, is made up of ridges of mountains, spurs and valleys. The mountains are usually abrupt, often towering into inaccessible peaks covered with perpetual snows. The interior ranges and spurs are generally more elevated than the exterior; this conclusion is at least naturally drawn from the fact, that they are covered with snow to a greater extent below their summits. Although that point which we have denominated James's Peak has been represented as higher than any other part of the mountains within one hundred or one hundred and fifty miles, we are inclined to believe it falls much below several other peaks, and particularly that which was for many days observed by the party when ascending the Platte.[37]

The valleys within the Rocky Mountains are, many of them, extensive, being from ten to twenty or thirty miles in width, and are traversed by many large and beautiful streams. In these valleys, which are destitute of timber, the soil is frequently fertile and covered with a rich growth of a white-flowered clover, upon which horses and other animals feed with avidity. They have an undulating surface, and are terminated on all sides by gentle slopes leading up to the base of the circumjacent mountains. Timber may be had on the declivities of the hills in sufficient quantity to subserve the purposes of settlement. The soil is deep, well watered, and adapted to cultivation.

{252} The Indians who inhabit within the mountains are roving bands, having no permanent places of residence, and subsisting entirely upon the products of the chase. The people called Padoucas have been often represented as residing in the district now under consideration; but are not at this time to be found here, unless this name be synonymous with that of the Bald-heads, or some other of the six nations already enumerated.

On the morning of the 22d, one of two hunters who had been sent out on the preceding day, but had not returned, came into camp to give notice that a bison had been killed at the distance of eight miles on the other side of the river; men were accordingly despatched with pack-horses to bring in the meat. Astronomical observations were resumed; and all the party were busily employed in the discharge of their ordinary duties, or in preparations for the approaching separation.[38] A vocabulary of the Kaskaia language was filled up with words obtained from the Calf, who still remained with us.

The New York bat (vespertilio noveboracensis) which occurs here, does not vary in any degree from the general characters and appearance of individuals of the Atlantic States. The specimen we obtained is most unequivocally furnished with incisores in the superior jaw, which by Pennant[39] were denied to exist in the species of this name. These teeth being small, and hardly rising to a level with a line of the intervening callosity, might be readily overlooked by a casual observer, who does not aid his vision by the use of the lens. In adducing this fact, it must not be understood that we affirm the existence of those teeth in individuals of this species generally; we only refer to the single specimen before us.

{253} A small bat was shot this evening during the twilight, as it flew rapidly in various directions over the surface of the creek. It appears to be an immature specimen, as the molares are remarkably long and acute: the canines are very much incurved, and the right inferior one singularly bifid at tip, the divisions resembling short bristles. This species is beyond a doubt distinct from the Carolina bat, (V. Caroliniana, Geoff.) with which the ears are proportionably equally elongated, and, as in that bat, a little ventricose on the anterior edge, so as almost to extend over the eye; but the tragus is much longer, narrower, and more acute, resembling that of the V. emarginatus, Geoff. as well in form as in proportion to the length of the ear. We call it V. subulatus, Say; and it may be thus described,--ears longer than broad, nearly as long as the head; hairy on the basal half; a little ventricose on the anterior edge, and extending near to the eye; tragus elongated, subulate; the hair above blackish at base, tip dull cinereous; the interfemoral membrane hairy at base; the hairs unicoloured, and a few also scattered over its surface and along its edge, as well as that of the brachial membrane; hair beneath black, the tip yellowish-white; hind-feet rather long, a few setæ extending over the nails; only a minute portion of the tail protrudes beyond the membrane; total length, two inches and one-tenth; tail, one and one-fifth.

This encampment was situated about eighteen miles above the confluence of that tributary of the Arkansa called, in Pike's map, "The First Fork;" and by our computation near one hundred miles from the base of the mountain.[40] James's Peak was still visible, bearing north, 68° west; and the Spanish peaks, the westernmost of which bore south, 40° west. The observations made here received the most minute and careful attention. The moon was at this time too near the sun to admit of taking her distance from that luminary, and too near Antares {254} for an observation. The distance of Spica Virginus was too great, and the star was too near the horizon; yet we trust accurate deductions may be made from the distances which are given in the Appendix.[41]

On the evening of both days which our Kaskaia spent with us, we observed him to commence soon after sunset a monotonous and somewhat melancholy song, which he continued for near an hour. He gave us some account of a battle which had lately been fought between the Tabba-boos (Anglo-Americans) and the Spaniards, in which great guns had been used, and when the Spaniards, though superior in number, had been beaten. He appeared well acquainted with the use of fire-arms, and challenged one of the party to a trial of skill in shooting at a mark with the rifle. He had a fusee, kept very carefully in a case of leather, and carried, when travelling, by his squaw. He was also armed with a bow and some light arrows for hunting, which he carried constantly in his hand. He took his leave of us on the morning of the 23d, having received several presents, with which he appeared highly pleased.

The Arkansa, between this point and the mountains, has a rapid current, whose velocity probably varies from five to six miles per hour. It may be forded at many places in a moderate stage of water. The average breadth of the river is from sixty to seventy-five yards; at many places, however, it is much enlarged, including numerous islands. It pursues a remarkably serpentine course within its valley, forming a succession of points on both sides of the river; which, together with the islands, are usually covered with cotton-wood. The bed of the river is gravelly, or composed of waterworn stones, which diminish in size as you recede from the mountains. The water is turbid, but in a less remarkable degree than that of the Platte. The bed of the river has, in many instances, changed its place; and the old {255} channel is sometimes occupied by stagnant water, and sometimes by a small stream, which is rendered transparent by passing through the sand and gravel, forming the recently-raised bank of the river.

On the 24th the movements of the party were resumed. Major Long, with the division destined to Red river, crossed the Arkansa at five A. M. On arriving at the opposite bank three cheers were given, which our late companions returned from the other side. We lost sight of them as they were leaving the camp to descend the Arkansa.

The party, consisting of ten men, took with them six horses and eight mules, most of them in good condition for travelling. A few had sore backs, but one horse only was unfit for service.

Our course was a little to the east of south, nearly at right angles to the direction of the Arkansa. It was our intention to cross to and ascend the First Fork, a considerable stream, entering the Arkansa eighteen miles below our last encampment. After leaving the river we found the surface to rise gradually till, at the distance of six or eight miles, it is broken by a few small gravelly ridges. These are of little elevation; and their summits overlook an extensive waste of sand, terminated towards the south and east only by the verge of the sky, on the west and north-west by the snowy summits of the Spanish mountains. As our way led across the general course of the stream, we met with no water, except such as was still standing in puddles, which had been filled by the last night's rain. Near one of these we halted to dine. The thermometer, hanging in the shade of our tent, the most perfect, and indeed the only shade we could find, stood at 100°. The little water we could procure was thick with mud, and swarming with the larva of mosquitos; but this we regretted the less, as we had no cooking to perform. We dined upon jerked meat from our packs. Some animals, seen at a distance, {256} were at first mistaken for bisons; but were found, by the hunters sent in pursuit of them, to be horses, and too wild and vigilant to be taken.

A species of cone-flower (rudbeckia tagetes)[42] with an elongated receptacle, and large red brown radial florets, was observed about the margin of the stagnant pool near which we halted.

We also collected the linum rigidum, and a semi-procumbent species of sida, which appears to be undescribed. It is a little larger than the S. spinosa, to which it has some general resemblance.

The whole tract passed in this day's journey of twenty-seven miles, is sterile and sandy. At sunset we were so fortunate as to meet with another small pool of water, by which we pitched our tent, and kindled a fire with the dung of the bison. Since leaving the Arkansa, we had scarcely seen so much wood as, if collected, would have supplied us for a single night.

We passed, in the course of the day, not less than four or five paths, leading south-west, towards the Spanish settlements. Some of them appeared to have been recently travelled by men with horses, such paths being easily distinguished from those of bisons or wild horses.[43]

Our camp was near the head of a dry ravine, communicating to the south-east, with a considerable stream, which we could distinguish at the distance of eight or ten miles, by a few trees along its course.[44] Continuing our journey on the ensuing day, July 25th, we soon found ourselves in a tract of country resembling that on the Arkansa near the mountains. A similar horizontal slaty sandstone occurs, forming the basis of the country. There is also here a coarse, somewhat crystalline, variety, resembling that of St. Michael's in the lead mine district, but exhibiting no trace of metallic ores. These rocks are deeply channeled by the watercourses, sunk to a great depth, but at this time containing but little, if any, {257} water. These ravines are, the greater number of them, destitute of timber, except a few cedars, attached here and there in the crevices of the rock. The larger valleys, which contain streams of water, have a few cotton-wood and willow trees. The box elder, the common elder, (sambucus canadensis,) and one or two species of biburium are seen here.

It was perhaps owing to our having followed more carefully than they deserved, the directions of the Calf, that we did not arrive as early as we had expected, upon the stream we designed to ascend. In the middle of the day on the 25th, we fell in with a small river, at the distance of thirty-six miles from the point where we had left the Arkansa. This we concluded could be no other than that tributary, whose mouth is said to be distant eighteen miles from the same spot. This stream, where we halted upon it to dine, is about ten yards wide and three feet deep, but appeared at this time unusually swollen. Its immediate valley is about three hundred yards in width, bounded on both sides by perpendicular cliffs of sandstone, of near two hundred feet elevation. A very large part of the area included between these, showed convincing evidence, in the slime and rubbish with which its surface was covered, of having been recently inundated. This stream, like all others of similar magnitude, having their sources in high mountains, is subject to great and sudden floods. A short time before we halted, our two hunters, Verplank and Dougherty, were sent forward to hunt, and joined us with a deer soon after we had encamped.

After dinner we moved on, ascending the creek above mentioned, whose valley was sufficiently wide for a little distance, to afford us an easy and unobstructed passage. The stream runs nearly from south to north, in a deep, but narrow and tortuous valley, terminated on both sides by lofty and perpendicular precipices of red sand rock. This sandstone {258} appears entirely to resemble that before mentioned, as occurring in an inclined position along the base of the mountains, on the Arkansa and Boiling-spring creek. Here it is disposed in horizontal strata of immense thickness; it varies in colour, from a bright brick red to a dark, and is sometimes grey, yellow, or white. It consists essentially of rounded particles of quartz and other siliceous stones, varying in size from the finest sand to gravel stones and large pebbles. Extensive beds of pudding-stone occur in every part of it, but are abundant somewhat in proportion to the proximity of the high primitive mountains. In the lower parts of the stratum these beds of coarse conglomerate appear to have the constituent gravel and pebble-stones more loosely cemented than in portions nearer to the upper surface; wherever we have met with them in immediate contact with the granite of the Rocky Mountains, they are nearly destitute of cement, and of a colour approaching to white. This remark, it is highly probable, may not be applicable to many extensive beds of pudding-stone which lie near the base of the mountains. In the instances which came under our notice, the absence of colour and the want of cement may very probably have been accidental. The finer varieties of the sandstone are often met with in the immediate neighbourhood of the granite, and are of a compact structure, and an intense colour. Red is the prevailing colour in every part of the stratum, but stripes of yellow, grey, and white, are frequently interspersed. In hardness and other sensible properties, it varies widely at different points. In many instances it is entirely similar to the sandstone about New Brunswick, in New Jersey, at Nyac, and along the Tappan bay, in New York, and particularly that variety of it which is quarried at Nyac, and extensively used in the cities of New York and Albany for building. It contains a little mica in small scales; oxyde of iron predominates in the cement, and the ore denominated {259} the brown oxyde, occurs in it in seniform botryoidar and irregular masses.

A few miles above our mid-day encampment, we entered the valley of a small creek, tributary from the south-east to the stream we had been ascending; but this we found so narrow and so obstructed by fallen masses of rock, and almost impenetrable thickets of alders and willows, as to render our progress extremely tedious and painful. We were several times induced to attempt passing along the bed of the stream, but as the mud was in many places very deep, this was done at the cost of the most violent and fatiguing exertions on the part of our horses, and the risk to ourselves of being thrown with our baggage into the stream. With the hope of finding an easier route across the hills, we ascended with much difficulty a craggy and abrupt ravine, until we had attained nearly the elevation of the precipitous ramparts which hemmed in the narrow valley of the creek; but all we gained by this ascent was the opportunity of looking down upon a few of our companions still lingering below, diminished to the stature of dwarfs by the distance, and by contrast with the rude and colossal features of the scene. The surface of the country extending on both sides from the summit of the precipices, consisted of abrupt conic piles, narrow ridges, and shapeless fragments of naked rocks, more impassable than the valley below. Counselled therefore by necessity, we resumed our former course, ascending along the bed of the creek.[45]

Among other birds which occurred in this day's march, we noticed the yellow-bellied fly catcher and the obscure wren.

One of the small striped ground-squirrels already noticed was killed, and an individual belonging to another species,[46] distinguished by the extraordinary coarseness and flattened form of the fur, and by three black lines on each side of the tail; these {260} lines at their tips are of course united over the surface of the tail as in the Barbary squirrel. It nestles in holds and crevices of the rocks, and does not appear to ascend trees voluntarily.

It appears to inhabit principally about the naked parts of the sandstone cliffs, or where there are only a few cedar bushes. In the pouch of the specimens killed, we found the buds and leaves of a few small plants, common among the rocks.

Following up the bed of the creek, we ascended by a gradual elevation to the surface of the stratum of red sandstone. It is separated by a somewhat distinct boundary from the finer and more compact grey variety which rests upon it. This grey sandstone appears from the organic relics it contains, as well as from its relative position, to have been of more recent deposition than the red. Its prevailing colours are grey or yellowish white; its stratifications distinct; and its cement often argillaceous.

After entering upon this variety, we found the valley of the creek less circuitous in direction, but narrower and more obstructed by detached fragments than below. The impaling cliffs on each side were also more uniformly perpendicular, putting it out of our power to choose any other path than the rugged one before us. As with every step of our advance upon this route, we were gaining a little in point of elevation, we hoped by following it to reach at length its termination in the high and open plain, which we had no doubt existed, extending over the greater part of the surface of the country, wherever the strata of sandstone were still unbroken. At five P. M., supposing we had arrived very near this much-wished-for spot, and finding an indifferent supply of grass for our horses, we halted for the night, having travelled fifteen miles.

July 26th. The water of the large stream we had crossed, and ascended for some distance on the preceding {261} day, was turbid, and so brackish as to be nauseous to the taste. The same was observed, though in a less remarkable degree, of the little tributary we had followed up to our encampment. After leaving the region of red sandstone, we found the water to become perceptibly purer. In the districts occupied by that rock, we have observed several copious springs, but not one whose waters were without a very manifest impregnation of muriate of soda, or other saline substances. In the gray or argillaceous sandstone springs are less frequent, but the water is not so universally impure.

A beautiful dalea, two or three euphorbias, with several species of eriogonum, were among the plants collected about this encampment. Notwithstanding the barrenness of the soil and the aspect of desolation which so widely prevails, we are often surprised by the occurrence of splendid and interesting productions springing up under our feet, in situations that seemed to promise nothing but the most cheerless and unvaried sterility. Operating with unbounded energy in every situation, adapting itself with wonderful versatility to all combinations of circumstances; the principle of life extends its dominion over those portions of nature which seem as if designed for the perpetual abode of inorganic desolation, distributing some of its choicest gifts to the most ungenial regions; fitting them by peculiarity of structure, for the maintenance of life and vigour, in situations apparently the most unfavoured.

At nine o'clock in the evening of the 25th, a fall of rain commenced; we were now ten in company, with a single tent, large enough to cover half the number. In order, however, to make the most equal distribution of our several comforts, it was so arranged that about the half of each man was sheltered under the tent, while the remainder was exposed to the weather. This was effected by placing all our heads near together in the centre of the tent, and {262} allowing our feet to project in all directions, like the radii of a circle.

On the ensuing morning we commenced our ride at an early hour, being encouraged still to pursue the course up the ravine, by a bison path, which we believed would at length conduct us to the open plain. Our progress was slow and laborious, and our narrow path so hemmed in with perpendicular cliffs of sandstone, that our views were nearly as confined, and the surrounding objects as unvaried as if we had been making our way in a subterranean passage. Two black-tailed deer, with a few squirrels, and some small birds, were all the animals seen in the course of the day. Some enormous tracks of the grizzly bear, with the recent signs of bisons, afforded sufficient proof that these animals, though unseen, were near at hand.

Our courses were nearly south during the day, and the distance we travelled, estimated on them, fifteen miles. The actual distance passed must have been much greater, as our real course was extremely circuitous, winding from right to left in conformity to the sinuosities of the valley.

At 4 o'clock we arrived at the head of the stream which we had hitherto ascended; as we were conscious that after leaving this, and emerging into the open country, we could not expect to meet with water again in a distance of several miles, it was resolved to halt here for the night, and the hunters were sent out. Soon afterwards it began to rain. At sun-set the hunters returned, having killed a female of the black-tailed or mule deer. The flesh of this we found in tolerable condition, and extremely grateful to our hungry party.

On the morning of the 27th, we rose at 3 o'clock, and hastened our preparations for an early start. The morning was clear and calm, and the copious dew which was beginning to exhale from the scanty herbage of the valley, gave to the air a delightful {263} freshness. The mercury, as on several of the preceding mornings, stood at about 55°. At sun-rise we resumed our toilsome march, and before 10 o'clock, had arrived at a part of the valley beyond which it was found impossible to penetrate. The distance we had travelled would have been, in a direct line, about three miles; in passing it we had followed no less than ten different courses, running in all possible directions. This fatiguing march had brought us to a point where the valley was so narrow, and so obstructed with large detached rocks, as to be entirely impassable on horseback. We were therefore under the necessity of halting, and as the place afforded some grass, our horses were turned loose to feed, while several persons were sent to discover, if possible, some passage by which we might extricate ourselves from the ravine. One of them at length returned, having found at the distance of a mile and a half below, a pass where it was thought our horses could be led up the cliff.

On the preceding day we had commenced our accustomed march in a valley bounded by perpendicular cliffs of red sandstone, having an elevation of at least two hundred feet. As we ascended gradually along the bed of the stream, we could perceive we were arriving near the surface of this vast horizontal bed of sandrock, and at night we pitched our tent at the very point where the red sandstone began to be overlaid in the bed of the creek by a different variety. This second variety, the gray sandstone, is a horizontal stratum, evidently of more than two hundred feet in thickness. It is usually more compact and imperishable than the red, its fragments remaining longer entire, and retaining the angles and asperities of the surface, which in the other variety are soon softened down by the rapid progress of disintegration.

It is easy to perceive that the sandstone formation, including the two varieties above mentioned, {264} must be at this point of immense thickness. Fifteen hundred feet is probably a very moderate estimate for the aggregate elevation of some insulated, but extensive portions of the gray sandstone, above that part of the valley at which the red sandstone first appears. From this point downwards, the extent of the latter variety may be very great, but no estimate can be formed which would be in any measure entitled to confidence.

After we had dined we retraced our two last courses, and succeeded in ascending the cliff at the place which one of the hunters had pointed out, taking, without the least regret, our final leave of the "valley of the souls in purgatory."[47]

From the brow of the perpendicular precipice, an ascending slope of a few rods conducted us through scattering groves of junipers, to the border of the open plain. Here the interminable expanse of the grassy desert burst suddenly upon our view. The change was truly grateful. Instead of a narrow crooked avenue, hedged in by impending cliffs and frightful precipices, a boundless and varied landscape lay spread before us. The broad valley of the Arkansa, studded with little groves of timber, and terminated in the back ground by the shining summit of James's Peak, and numerous spurs of the Rocky Mountains, with the snowy pinnacles of the more distant ranges, limited our view on the right; on our left, and before us, lay the extended plain, diversified with vast conic mounds, and insulated table-like hills, while herds of bisons, antelopes, and wild horses, gave life and cheerfulness to the scene.

A large undescribed species of the gaura is common {265} about the banks of all the creeks we had seen since leaving the Arkansa. It attains, ordinarily, the size of G. biennis, but is clearly distinct both from that and all other North American species. It has a broader leaf than any other of the genus met with in this country. The flowers are small, of a purple colour, and incline to form a terminal spike. The whole plant is covered with a dense silky pubescence, and is remarkably soft to the touch. We propose to call it gaura mollis.

After travelling one mile and a half into the plain in a due south course, we halted to take the bearings of several remarkable points. Due east was a solitary and almost naked pile of rocks towering to a great elevation above the surface of the plain. James's Peak bore north 71° west; the west Spanish Peak, south 87°. West magnetic variation, 13½ deg. east. As we proceeded, we were surprised to witness an aspect of unwonted verdure and freshness in the grasses and other plants of the plains, and in searching for the cause of this change, we discovered we had arrived at a region differing both in point of soil and geological features from any portion of the country we had before seen. Several circumstances had induced us to conjecture that rocks of the newest fletz trap formation, existed in some portions of the secondary region along the eastern declivity of the Rocky Mountains; but until this time we had met with no positive confirmation of the opinion. We are glad to be at length relieved from the tiresome sameness of the sand formation, and promised ourselves in the treasures of a new and more fertile variety of soil, the acquisition of many important plants.

At five P. M. we met with a little stagnant water, near which we encamped, having travelled about ten miles nearly due south from the point where we had left the valley of the creek. The hunters went out on foot in pursuit of bisons, several herds being {266} in sight; but returned at dark, having effected no more than to break the shoulder of a young bull, who ran off, pursued by a gang of wolves. Several of the party understanding the route the animal had taken, and instigated in common with the wolves by the powerful incitement of hunger, resolved to join the chase, and to dispute with their canine competitors the possession of the prey. When they had nearly overtaken the bison, they saw him several times thrown to the ground by the wolves, and afterwards regaining his feet. They soon came near enough to do execution with their pistols, and frightened away the wolves only to make a speedier end of the harassed animal. It was now past nine o'clock, but the starlight was sufficient to enable them to dress the meat, with which they returned loaded to camp, and spent the greater part of the night in regaling on the choice pieces.

Friday, July 28th. From an elevated point, about eight miles south of our encampment of last evening, the high peak at the head of the Arkansa was still visible when we passed this morning. From a computation of our courses and distances we find we cannot, according to our estimate, be less than one hundred and thirty miles distant from its base; but the air at this time happened to be remarkably clear, and our elevation above the common level of the plain considerable. By referring to Pike's "Journal of a Voyage to the Sources of the Arkansa," it will be seen that this peak is the most prominent and conspicuous feature in a great extent of the surrounding country. "It is indeed so remarkable as to be known to all the savage nations for hundreds of miles around, and to be spoken of with admiration by the Spaniards of New Mexico, and was the bounds of their travels north-west. Indeed, in our wanderings in the mountains, it was never out of sight, except when in a valley, from the 14th of November to the 27th of January."[48]

{267} Notwithstanding this representation, and the fact that the peak in question was seen by ourselves at the distance of one hundred and thirty miles, we are inclined to the opinion, that in point of elevation, it falls far below many portions of the interior ridges of the mountains which are visible from its summit, and from the plains of the Platte, and that it is by standing a little detached from the principal group of the mountains, it acquires a great portion of the imposing grandeur of its appearance.

In the forenoon of this day we passed some tracts of grey sandstone; having, however, met with several inconsiderable conic hills belonging to that interesting formation, called by the disciples of Werner,[49] the fletz trap rocks. We perceived before us a striking change in aspect and conformation of the surface. Instead of the wearisome uniformity, the low and pointless ridges which mark the long tract of horizontal sandstone we had passed, we had now the prospect of a country varied by numerous continued ranges of lofty hills, interspersed with insulated cone-like piles, and irregular masses of every variety of magnitude and position. This scenery is not to be compared in point of grandeur with the naked and towering majesty of the great chain of the Andes, which we had lately left, but in its kind it is of uncommon beauty. The hills, though often abrupt and high, are sometimes smooth and grassy to their summits, having a surface, unbroken by a single rock or tree, large enough to be seen at the distance of a mile.

At noon we halted near the base of a hill of this description. It is of green stone, and the sandrock on which it rests is disclosed at the bottom of a ravine which commences near the foot of the hill. This latter rock is of a slaty structure, and embraces narrow beds of bituminous clay slate, which contains pieces of charcoal, or the carbonised remains of vegetables, in every possible respect resembling the charcoal {268} produced by the process of combustion in the open air. In the ravines and over the surface of the soil we observed masses of a light porous reddish-brown substance, greatly resembling that which is so often seen floating down the Missouri, and has by some been considered a product of pseudo-volcanic fires, said to exist on the upper branches of that river.[50] We also saw some porphyritic masses with a basis of greenstone, containing crystals of felspar.

In the afternoon several magpies, shore larks, and cow buntings were seen. One of the cow buntings followed us five or six miles, alighting on the ground, near the foremost of our line, and within a few paces of our horses' feet, where he stood gazing at the horses until all had passed him, when he again flew forward to the front, repeating the same movement many times in succession.

We had now arrived near that part of the country, where, according to the information of the Kaskaia, we expected to find the remarkable saline spring from which we were told the Indians often procured large masses of salt. The Kaskaia had, by the aid of a map traced in the sand, given us a minute account of the situation of the spring and of the surrounding country, stating that the salt existed in masses at the bottom of a basin-like cavity, which contained about four and a half feet of reddish water. Thus far we had not found a single feature of the country to correspond in the slightest degree to his descriptions, and as we had been careful to follow the general direction of the course he pointed out to us, it was probably his intention to deceive.

Our course, which was a little east of south, led us across several extensive valleys, having a thin dark coloured soil, closely covered with grasses, and strewed with fragments of greenstone. Descending towards evening into a broad and deep valley, we {269} found ourselves again immured between walls of grey sandstone, similar in elevation and all other particulars to those which limit the valley of Purgatory Creek. It was not until considerable search had been made, that we discovered a place where it was possible to effect the descent, which was at length accomplished, not without danger to the life and limbs of ourselves and horses. The area of the valley was covered with a sandy soil. Here we again saw the great cylindric cactus, the cucumis, and other plants common to the sandy districts, but rarely found in the scanty soils of the fletz trap formation. Pursuing our way along this valley, we arrived towards evening at an inconsiderable stream[51] of transparent and nearly pure water, descending along a narrow channel paved with black and shapeless masses of amygdaloidal and imperfectly porphyritic greenstone. This was the first stream we had for a long time seen traversing rocks of the secondary formation, whose waters were free of an impregnation of muriate of soda and other salts. From the very considerable magnitude of the valley, and the quantity of water in the creek, it is reasonable to infer that its sources were distant at least twenty miles to the west, and the purity and transparency of its waters afford sufficient evidence that it flows principally from a surface of trap rocks.

Having crossed the creek with some difficulty, we halted on its bank to set up our tent, and prepare ourselves for a thunder shower, which was already commencing. After the rain, the sky became clear, and the sun, which was near setting, gilded with its radiance the dripping foliage of a cluster of oaks and poplars, which stood near our tent. The grassy plain, acquiring an unwonted verdure from the shower, and gemmed with the reflection of innumerable pendant rain-drops, disclosed here and there a conic pile, or a solitary fragment of black and porous amygdaloid. The thinly-wooded banks of the creek {270} resounded to the loud notes of the robin, and the more varied and melodious song of the mocking-bird; the stern features of nature, which we had long contemplated with a feeling almost of terror, seemed to relax into a momentary smile to cheer us on our toilsome journey.

On the morning of the 29th, our course (S. 35° E.) brought us at the distance of three miles from our camp, to the foot of the cliff which separates the valley from the high plain. This mural barrier has an elevation of about two hundred feet, and is impassable, except at particular points, where it is broken by ravines. One of these we were fortunate in finding, without being compelled to deviate greatly from our course, and climbing its rugged declivity, we emerged upon the broad expanse of the high plain. Turning with a sort of involuntary motion towards the west, we again caught a view of the distant summits of the Andes appearing on the verge of our horizon. The scene before us was beautifully varied with smooth valleys, high conic hills, and irregular knobs, scattered in every direction as far as the eye could comprehend. Among these singular eminences nothing could be perceived like a continuous unbroken range. Most of them stand entirely isolated; others in groups and ranges, but all are distinct hills, with unconnected bases. The surface of the country generally, and more especially in the immediate vicinity of these hills, is strewed with fragments of compact or porphyritic greenstone. These are, in some places, accumulated in such quantities as render the passing extremely difficult.

At half-past eleven, A. M., a violent storm, with high and cold wind, came on from the north-east, and continued for two hours. Soon after its commencement we halted to dine, but were unable to find a spot affording wood until so much rain had fallen as to wet our clothing and baggage. Fire was almost the only comfort we could now command, our {271} provisions being so nearly exhausted, that about an ounce of jerked bison meat was all that could be allowed each man for his dinner.

The rain ceasing, we again resumed our journey, but had not proceeded far when we were overtaken by a second storm from the north-east, still more violent than the first, and attended with such pelting hail that our horses refused to proceed in any direction except that of the wind, so that rather than suffer ourselves to be carried off our course, we were compelled to halt, and sit patiently upon our horses; opposing our backs to the storm, we waited for its violence to abate. As soon as the hail ceased we moved on, the water pouring in streams from our mockasins and every part of our dress. The rain continued until dark, when, being unable to find wood, and having no occasion for water, we halted, and without the delay of cooking supper, or eating it, we set up our tent, and piled ourselves together under it in the most social manner possible. During the day the mercury had fallen from 70° to 47°, indicating a change of temperature, which was the more severely felt, as we were hungry, wet, and much fatigued. As we had neither dry clothing or blankets, we could find no other method of restoring the warmth to our benumbed bodies than by placing them together in the least possible compass. We spent a cheerless night, in the course of which Mr. Peale experienced an alarming attack of a spasmodic affection of the stomach, induced probably by cold and inanition. He was somewhat relieved by the free use of opium and whiskey.

30th. We left our comfortless camp at an early hour on the ensuing morning, and traversing a wide plain strewed with fragments of greenstone, amygdaloid, and the vesicular substance already mentioned as the pumice-stone of Bradbury, we arrived in the middle of the day in the sight of a creek, which, like all the watercourses of this region, {272} is situated at the bottom of a deep and almost inaccessible valley. With the customary difficulty and danger, we at length found our way down to the stream, and encamped.

We were much concerned, but by no means surprised, to discover that our horses were rapidly failing under the severe services they were now made to perform. We had been often compelled to encamp without a sufficiency of grass, and the rocky travelling, to which we had for some time accustomed them, was wearing out and destroying their hoofs. Several were becoming lame, and all much exhausted and weakened.

Verplank, our faithful and indefatigable hunter, was so fortunate as to kill a black-tailed deer at a distance from our course. A horse was, however, sent for the remainder of the meat, Verplank having brought the greater part of it on his shoulders; and we once more enjoyed the luxury of a full meal.

In the course of the day we saw several antelopes, all more wild and shy than those between the Pawnee villages and the Missouri. Also a few wild horses, but it was easy to see that all the animals inhabiting this portion of the country had been accustomed to be hunted. Few traces of bison, either old or recent, were to be seen. From these facts we inferred that we were now on the frontiers of some permanent settlement, either of Spaniards or Indians.

{273} CHAPTER IV {XI}

Sufferings of the Party from Stormy Weather and Want of Provisions--Indications of an Approach towards Settlements--Inscribed Rock--Cervus Macrotis--Volcanic Origin of Amygdaloid.

The valley in which we halted, is narrow and bounded on both sides by cliffs of greenstone, having manifestly a tendency to columnar or polyhedral structure. It falls readily into large prismatic masses, but obstinately resists that further progress of disintegration which must take place before it can be removed by the water. For this reason the valley is much obstructed by fallen masses retaining their angular form, and little intermixed with soil. The common choke cherry, and the yellow and black currants, are almost the only woody plants met with in this valley.

The stream which may be supposed to exist in it for a part of the year at least, but which was now dry, runs towards the south-east. Having arrived at that part of the country which has by common consent been represented to contain the sources of the Red river of Louisiana, we were induced, by the general inclination of the surface of the country and the direction of this creek, to consider it as one of those sources; and accordingly resolved to descend along its course, hoping it might soon conduct us to a country abounding in game, and presenting fewer obstacles to our progress than that in which we now were. Our sufferings from the want of provisions, and from the late storm, had given us a little distaste for prolonging farther than was necessary our journey towards the south-west. And our horses {274} failing so rapidly, that we did not now believe they would hold out to bring us to the settlements by the nearest and easiest route.[52]

The country between the sources of Purgatory creek and the stream on which we were now encamped, is a wide and elevated formation of trap rocks, resting upon horizontal sandstone. It has a loose and scanty soil, in which sand, gravel, and rolled pebbles are rarely seen, except in the vicinity of some parts where the sandstone appears to have been uncovered by the action of currents of water. In traversing it we had collected many new and interesting plants. Among these were a large decumbent mentzelia, an unarmed rubus, with species of astragalus, pentstemon, myosotis, helianthus, &c. Beside the common purslane, one of the most frequent plants about the mountains, we had observed on the Arkansa a smaller species, remarkably pilose about the axils of the leaves, which are also narrower than in P. oleracea. A very small cuscuta also occurs almost exclusively parasitic on the common purslane.

July 31st. In attempting to descend the creek from our last encampment, we found the valley so obstructed with fragments of greenstone as to be wholly impassable. We accordingly ascended into the plain; and continuing along on the brink of the precipice, arrived in a few hours at a point where the substratum of sandstone emerges to light at the base of an inconsiderable hill. It is a fine gray sandstone, having an argillaceous cement, and its lamina are so nearly horizontal, that their inclination is not manifest to the eye. It is smooth and fissile, and in every respect remarkably contrasted to the massive and imperfectly columnar greenstone which it supports.

The greenstone of this district is not universally characterized by any tinge of green in the colouring, but often, as in the instance of which we are speaking, its colour is some shade of gray, varying from light {275} gray to grayish black. The hornblende and felspar which enter into its composition, are minutely and intimately blended. Its minute structure is rarely, if ever distinctly crystalline; most frequently it is compact, and the fracture nearly even.

The hunters were kept constantly forward of the party, and in the course of the morning they killed a small fawn and a heron. At one o'clock we arrived at the confluence of a creek tributary from the east to the stream we were following, and descending into its valley by a precipitous declivity of about four hundred feet, we encamped for the remainder of the day. This valley is bounded by perpendicular cliffs of sandstone, surmounted by extensive beds of greenstone. The fragments of the latter have fallen down into the valley, and being less perishable than the sandstone, they constitute the greater part of the _débris_ accumulated along the base of the cliffs.

The sand-rock, which in some places is exposed in perpendicular precipices, is soft and friable, being very readily scratched with the point of a knife, and has been rudely inscribed, probably by the Indians, with emblematic figures commemorative of some past event. Several of the figures intended to represent men are distinguished by the sign of the cross inscribed near the head; some are represented smoking, and some leading horses, from which we infer, that the inscriptions are intended to commemorate some peaceful meeting of the Indians with the Spaniards of N. Mexico for the purposes of trade, when horses were either given as presents or bartered for other articles. Some meeting of this kind has probably happened here at no very distant period, as corn cobs were found near our encampment. From this circumstance it would appear, that the distance to the Spanish settlements cannot be very great.

Mr. Peale, who had been unwell since the cold storm of the 28th, now found some relief in the {276} opening of an abscess which had formed upon his jaw. As several of our horses had been lamed in descending into the valley, and by the rough journey of the preceding day, it was thought necessary to allow ourselves a day of rest. Since arriving in the country inhabited by the hitherto undescribed animal called the black-tailed or mule deer, we had been constantly attentive to the important object of procuring a complete specimen for preservation and description. Hitherto, though several had been killed, none had been brought to camp possessing all the characters of the perfect animal. Supposing we should soon pass beyond their range, a reward had been offered to the hunter who should kill and bring to camp an entire and full-grown buck.

Verplank killed one of this description, on the afternoon of the 1st of August, near enough our camp to call for assistance, and bring it in whole. They did not arrive until dark, and we had such pressing necessity for the flesh of the animal, that we could not defer dressing it until the next morning. The dimensions were accordingly taken, and a drawing made by Mr. Peale, the requisite light being furnished by a large fire. Verplank informed us, that in company with the buck which he killed, were five does, two of the common red deer, (C. virginianus) and three of the other kind.[53]

We observed about this camp, a yellow-flowering sensitive plant, apparently a congener to the saw-brier, (schrankia uncinata) of the Platte and Arkansa. Its leaves are twice pinnated, and manifestly irritable. We also added to our collection, two new species of gaura, smaller than G. mollis, which is also found here.

Several rattle-snakes were seen, and many orbicular lizards. These are evidently of two different species, differing from each other in the length of the spines and position of the nostrils. Scarce any two of either species are precisely similar in colour, but the markings are permanent. Both species possess, in a slight {277} degree, the power of varying the shades of colour. We can find no conspicuous difference, marking the different sexes in the species with long spines; the other we have not had sufficient opportunity to examine.

Wednesday, August 2d. The rain which had fallen during great part of the preceding day and night, had considerably raised the water in the small creek on which we were encamped. At sunrise we collected our horses and proceeded down the valley, the direction of our course south, 30° east. At the distance of two or three miles we found the valley much expanded in width, and observed a conspicuous change in the sandstone precipices which bound it. This change is the occurrence of a second variety of sand-rock, appearing along the base of the cliff, and supporting the slaty argillaceous stratum already described. These rocks have precisely the same position relative to each other, and nearly the same aggregate elevation, as the two very similar varieties observed in the valley of Purgatory creek; indeed, the conclusion that they are the continuation of the same strata as appeared similarly exposed in that valley, can scarcely be avoided. The lowermost, or red sand-rock, is here very friable and coarse. Its prevailing colour is a yellowish grey or light brown. It is often made up almost exclusively of large rounded particles of white or transparent quartz, united by a scanty cement, which usually contains lime, and sometimes, but not always, oxide of iron. In some instances the cement seems to be wanting. Its stratifications are very indistinct compared to those of the gray sandstone, and like them disposed horizontally.

On entering the wider part of the valley, we perceived before us, insulated in the middle of the plain, an immense circular elevation, rising nearly to the level of the surface of the sandstone table, and apparently inaccessible upon all sides. On its summit {278} is a level area of several acres, bearing a few cedar bushes, probably the habitation of birds only.

Leaving this, we passed three others in succession similar to it in character, but more elevated and remarkable. Of one of them, Mr. Peale has preserved a drawing. After passing the last of these, the hills ceased abruptly, and we found ourselves once more entering a vast unvaried plain of sand. The bed of the creek had become much wider, but its water had disappeared. Meeting at length with a stagnant pool, we halted to dine, but found the water more bitter and nauseous than that of the ocean. As it could neither be used for cooking or to drink, we made but a short halt, dining on a scanty allowance of roasted venison, which we ate without bread, salt, water, or any thing else. Some fragments of amygdaloid were strewed along the bed of the stream, but we saw no more of that rock, or of the other members of the fletz trap formation in place. They may extend far towards the south-west, but of this we have no conclusive evidence. The aspect of these rocks, particularly of the amygdaloid or toad stone, is so peculiar, and its disposition so remarkably dissimilar to that of the sandstones with which it is associated, that nothing seems more natural than that it should be referred to a different origin.

In the midst of one of the violent storms we encountered in passing this trap formation, we crossed the point of a long and inconsiderable elevated ridge of amygdaloid, so singularly disposed as to suggest to every one of the party the idea that the mass had once been in a fluid state; and that, when in that state, it had formed a current, descending along the bed of a narrow ravine, which it now occupied, conforming to all the sinuosities and inequalities of the valley, as a column of semifluid matter would do. Its substance was penetrated with numerous vasicular cavities, which were observed to be elongated in the direction of the ridge. Its colour is nearly {279} black, and when two masses are rubbed together, they yield a smell somewhat like the soot of a chimney. These appearances are so remarkable, that it is not at all surprising these rocks should have been considered of volcanic origin; and it is this supposition unquestionably from which has originated the statement contained in the late map of the United States by Mellish,[54] that the district about the sources of Red river is occupied by volcanic rocks; the information having probably been derived from the accounts of hunters.

The valleys which penetrate into the sandstone supporting these trap rocks, have usually a sandy soil, while that of the more elevated portions, though inconsiderable in quantity, is not sandy nor intermixed with pebbles or gravel. Among the few scattered and scrubby trees met with in this district, are oaks, willows, and the cotton-wood; also a most interesting shrub or small tree, rising sometimes to the height of twelve or fourteen feet. It has dioecious flowers, and produces a leguminous fruit, making in several particulars a near approach to gladitschia; from which, however, it is sufficiently distinguished by the form of the legume, which is long and nearly cylindric, and by the seeds, which are enclosed in separate cells, immersed in a saccharine pulp, but easily detached from the valves of the legume. In these particulars it discovers an affinity to the tamarind of the West Indies. The legume or pod, which is from six to ten inches long, and near half an inch in diameter, contains a considerable quantity of a sugar-like pulp, very grateful to the taste when ripe. The leaves are pinnated, and the trunk beset with spines, somewhat like the honey locust, but the spines are simple. Our Spanish interpreter informs us, that it is found about Monterrey, and other parts of the internal provinces, where it must have been noticed by Humboldt, but we have not been able to have access to his account of it. In the afternoon we travelled {280} thirteen miles, descending along the valley in a south-east direction. We extended our ride farther than we had wished, finding no suitable place to encamp. After sunset we found a small puddle of stagnant water in the bed of the creek, which, though extremely impure, was not as bitter as that near which we halted in the middle of the day. Neither wood nor bison dung could be found, so that being unable to kindle a fire, we were compelled to rest satisfied with the eighth part of a sea biscuit each for supper, that being the utmost our supplies would allow. In the afternoon one of our hunters had killed a badger; this was all the game we had, and this we were compelled to reserve until we could make a fire to cook it.

Thursday, 3d. Little delay was occasioned by our preparations for breakfast. The fourth part of a biscuit, which had been issued to each man on the preceding evening, and which was to furnish both supper and breakfast, would have required little time had all of it remained to be eaten, which was not the case. We were becoming somewhat impatient on account of thirst, having met with no water which we could drink for near twenty-four hours; accordingly, getting upon our horses at an early hour, we moved down the valley, passing an extensive tract, whose soil is a loose red sand, intermixed with gravel and small pebbles, and producing nothing but a few sunflowers and sand cherries, still unripe. While we should remain upon a soil of this description, we could scarcely expect to meet with water or wood, for both of which we began to feel the most urgent necessity; and as the prospect of the country before us promised no change, it is not surprising we should have felt a degree of anxiety and alarm, which, added to our sufferings from hunger and thirst, made our situation extremely unpleasant. We had travelled great part of the day enveloped in a burning atmosphere, sometimes letting fall upon {281} us the scorching particles of sand, which had been raised by the wind, sometimes almost suffocating by its entire stagnation, when we had the good fortune to meet with a pool of stagnant water, which, though muddy and brackish, was not entirely impotable, and afforded us a more welcome treat than it is in the power of abundance to supply. Here was also a little wood, and our badger, with the addition of a young owl, was very hastily cooked and eaten.

Numbers of cow buntings had been seen a little before we arrived at this encampment, flying so familiarly about the horses that the men killed several with their whips.

August 4th. We were still passing through a barren and desolate region, affording no game, and nearly destitute of wood and water. Its soil is evidently the detritus of a stratum of red sandstone and coarse conglomeratic, which is still the basis and prevailing rock. It appears to contain a considerable proportion of lime, and fragments of plaster stone and selenite are often seen intermixed with it.

Our morning's ride of sixteen miles brought us to a place where the water of the river emerges to view, rising to the surface of that bed of sand beneath which it had been concealed for a distance of more than one hundred miles. The stream is still very inconsiderable in magnitude; the water brackish, and holds suspended so large a quantity of red earth as to give it the colour of florid blood. The general direction of its course inclining still towards the south-east, we were now induced to believe it must be one of the most considerable of the upper tributaries of Red river. A circumstance tending to confirm this opinion was our falling in with a large and much frequented Indian trace, crossing the creek from the west, and following down along the east bank. This trace consisted of more than twenty parallel paths, and bore sufficient marks of having been recently travelled, affording an explanation of {282} the cause of the alarming scarcity of game we had for some time experienced. We supposed it to be the road leading from the Pawnee Piqua village on Red river to Santa Fé.[55]

Two shrubby species of cactus, smaller than the great cylindric prickly pear noticed near the Rocky Mountains, occur in the sandy plains we were now traversing. One of these, which is about four feet high, and very much branched, has long and solitary spines, a small yellow flower, and its fruit, which is about as large as the garden cherry, is very pleasant to the taste. The fruit of the C. ferox, which was also found here, was now ripe, being nearly as large as an egg, and of a deep purple colour. The jatropha stimulosa, a congener to the manihot or cassada of the West Indies, a cassia, an amorpha, and many new plants, were here added to our collection.

The hunters were kept constantly out during the day, but nothing was killed until evening, when Verplank brought in a young buck, which enabled us to make a full meal, the first we had eaten for several days.

Game in this portion of the country is extremely scarce, and few traces of bisons are to be seen; and as we were travelling along a frequented road, we had some reason to fear this want of game might continue.

A few wild horses had been observed in the course of the day, and towards evening one was seen following the party, but keeping at a distance. At night, after our horses had been staked in the usual manner, near our camp, we perceived him still lingering about, and at length approaching the tent so closely, that we began to entertain some hopes of capturing him alive. In attempting this we stationed a man with a long-noosed rope in the top of a cotton-wood tree, under which we tied a few of our horses; but this plan did not succeed.

{283} On the following morning [5th] one of our hunters fortunately discovered the same horse standing asleep under the shade of a tree, and having shot him, returned immediately to camp with the intelligence. We had all suffered so severely from hunger, and our present want of provisions was so great, that instead of questioning whether we should eat the flesh of a horse, we congratulated ourselves on the acquisition of so seasonable a supply. We felt a little regret at killing so beautiful an animal, who had followed us several miles on the day before, and had lingered with a sort of confidence about our camp; but our scruples all yielded to the loud admonitions of hunger. The [next] day being Sunday, and the plain about our camp affording a supply of grass for our jaded horses, we resolved to remain encamped, seizing the opportunity of making observations for latitude, &c. The morning was calm and clear; the mercury at 69° Fah. For five mornings preceding this it had been at 58°, and in the middle of each day rose to above 90°. The moon was now too near the sun to admit of observations by lunar distances; but the meridional altitude of the sun's lower limb was taken with great care, and under circumstances favourable to accuracy, gave 35° 16′ 19″ for the latitude of our encampment.

The river bed in the front of our camp was found by admeasurement to be sixty yards in width, twenty of which were naked sand-bar, the remaining forty covered with water, having an average depth of about ten inches. The current is moderate, the water intensely red, having nearly the temperature and the saltness of new milk. It suspends a great quantity of clay, derived from the cement of the sand-rock; but notwithstanding its impurities, it is more grateful to the taste than any we had met with since leaving the mountains, and though drank in large quantities, produces no unpleasant effect.

{284} Some spots in the low plains had here considerable fertility, depending probably, in some degree, upon the intermixture of a large proportion of calcareous matter with the soil, resulting from the disintegrated sand-rock. Though no extensive formation, a limestone appears, yet the sandstone has, in many instances, a calcareous cement; but is traversed by numerous veins, both of gypsum and carbonate of lime.

The occurrence of the elm and the diospyros indicated a soil at least approaching towards one adapted to the purposes of agriculture. Among great numbers of interesting plants, we found here a gentian, with a flower much larger than G. crinita, an orobanche (probably the O. ludoviciana, N.) a new croton, an ipomopsis, and many others. Notwithstanding the scarcity of game which we had so long felt, we daily saw considerable numbers of antelopes, with some signs of bear, deer, and turkies; but these animals had acquired all the vigilance which results from the habit of being often hunted, and the entire want of thick forests, and even of solitary trees or inequalities of the surface, to conceal the approach of the hunter, rendered abortive most of our attempts to take them.

The common partridge (perdix virginianus) was seen near this encampment; also the dove, which had never disappeared entirely in all the country we had passed.

Rising at the customary hour on the morning of the 7th, we perceived that a part of our horses were missing. As we were apprehensive that they had been stolen by Indians, a small party was immediately sent to discover the route they had taken; pursuing along their path, the men overtook them at the distance of two or three miles, as they were straying on in search of pasture.

On leaving our camp, we endeavoured to regain the trace on which we had for several days travelled; {285} but though we spent considerable time in the search, and travelled several miles off our course, we were not able to find it. This we had occasion to regret, as the surface of the country is mostly of a loose sand, bearing turfs of wormwood and other plants, rendering the travelling difficult where there is no road. In order to shun the numerous ravines which now began to occur, we chose our route at some distance from the bank of the river, where we found the vallies deeper and more abrupt, though less frequent.

In the course of our morning's ride of twenty miles, we saw several gangs of wild horses, and with these we distinguished numbers of colts and some mules. In passing through a village of prairie dogs, of which we saw great numbers, Mr. Peale killed a burrowing owl. The bird, though killed instantly, had fallen into one of the marmot's burrows; but had luckily lodged within the reach of the arm. On opening it, the intestines were found filled with the fragments of grasshoppers' wings, and the hard parts of other insects. We have never been able, from examination, to discover any evidence that these owls prey upon the marmots, whose villages they infest.

After proceeding near twenty miles, we directed our course towards the river, which we kept at some distance on our left; arriving at it at two o'clock, we encamped and sent out the hunters; as we had some hopes of procuring a supply of provisions less repugnant to our prejudices than horse-flesh; the hunters, however, as well as others of the party, spent the remaining part of the afternoon in an unavailing search after game.

The hills which bound the immediate valley of the river at this place, have an elevation of from one to two hundred feet above the surface of the water. They are usually covered with a deep sandy soil, but disclose in their sides, points, and precipices of red sandstone, containing large quantities of very beautiful selenite. The other more common varieties {286} of sulphate of lime are also of frequent occurrence, crystals of carbonate of lime are also met with in veins traversing the sandstone.

The cenchrus tribuloides, a most annoying grass, which is common here, supplies the place of the cactus ferox; and the troublesome stipas of the Platte now become less abundant. The cenchrus bears its seed in small spikelets, which consist of a number of rigid radiating spines. These clusters of barbed thorns are detached at the slightest touch, falling into our mockasins, adhering to our blankets and clothing, and annoying us at every point. The cloth-bur (xanthium strumianum), which had occurred in every part of our route, began now to ripen, and cast off its muricated fruit, adding one more to the sources of constant molestation.

A formidable centipede (scolopendra) was caught near the camp, and brought in alive by one of the engagees. It was about eight inches in length, and nearly three-fourths of an inch in breadth, being of a flattened form, and of a dark brown colour. While kept alive, it showed great viciousness of disposition, biting at every thing which came within its reach. Its bite is said to be venomous.

On the morning of the 8th, we continued our journey, crossing and recrossing the river several times. This we found necessary, as the occurrence of steep and rocky ravines made it impossible to pass along the bank, parallel to the course of the river, which here became more meandering, winding about the points of rocky and impassable promontories.

Few trees occur along this part of the valley; but grape vines were becoming numerous, and some of them loaded with fruit. Among these, we saw numerous signs of the black bear, and one of these animals was this morning seen and shot at, but not killed. We also saw some recent tracks of bison, reviving us with the hope of a return of the days of plenty. We constantly met with the remains of Indian {287} encampments; trees which had been felled with the tomahawk, and other evidences that the country had been recently occupied by savages.

We passed in the afternoon to a more plain and fertile country than that we had been for some days traversing. The river valley became wide, and bounded on both sides by low and rounded hills instead of abrupt and perpendicular precipices. The interior of the country is but little elevated above the river, and its surface is nearly unbroken.

We crossed the beds of several creeks, apparently of large streams in the wet season, but now entirely destitute of water. As yet we had not a single tributary discharging any water into the river, nor had we been able to discover any augmentation of the volume of water, which appeared to have been derived from tributaries entering on the other side. The channels of all the creeks hitherto observed, were beds of sand without water. Several of these "dry rivers," which we passed in the course of the day, have broad valleys, which, if we may judge from a comparison with that we are descending, must have an extent of more than one hundred miles, draining a wide expanse of country of the surplus water in the rainy season, but remaining dry during great part of the year. At five o'clock we encamped, having travelled twenty-six miles due east. The hunters were immediately sent out, but returned without game, having seen nothing.

A beautiful white-flowered gaura,[56] had been for several days observed along the bank of the river. It is undescribed, and has, before flowering, a very distinct resemblance to common flax.

{288} CHAPTER V {XII}

Kaskaia Hunting Party--Indian Encampment--Unfriendly Behaviour of the Kaskaias--Some Account of their Persons and Manners--Salt Plains--Cumancias.

Wednesday 9th. We breakfasted on the last of the horse, which, having been killed on the 5th, and the weather since unusually warm, had suffered from long keeping. We ate it cheerfully, only regretting that we could not promise ourselves as good for dinner. All our party, who are marksmen, were kept constantly out in search of game, but for several days had met with no success in hunting.

In the morning our course was east, thirteen and a-half miles, at the end of which we found a large spring of transparent and almost pure water, where we halted to dine. Our sufferings from want of provisions, and from the apprehension of still more distressing extremities, were now so great, that we gave little attention to any thing except hunting. Unfortunately for us the wind had been high during the morning, and had blown from west to east, nearly in the direction of our route, so that whatever animals might have been in the way, had received early intimation of our approach. We were glad to observe considerable numbers of wolves, jackals, and carrion birds, as they afforded an almost certain indication of the proximity of herds of bisons. The recent tracks of a herd of these animals had been discovered, from which we learned that they had crossed the river within a day or two, in a crowded and hurried manner, as if pursued by hunters. In the afternoon we pursued on nearly the {289} same course, and halted for the night at a late hour, much exhausted with fatigue, hunger, and the heat of the day, the mercury at noon having stood at 96°. Distance twenty-eight miles.

At about 10 o'clock on the morning following, the hunters who had preceded the party, discovered on the opposite side of the river a solitary bison, of which they went immediately in pursuit. The party had made their breakfast of about two ounces of sugar and some grapes which had been found near the camp, and having been for several days reduced to a scanty allowance of provisions, they encamped immediately, and awaited with great anxiety the return of the hunters, who soon joined us, bringing in the greater part of the carcass of the bison, so extremely lean and ill-flavoured, that nothing but the most urgent necessity could have induced us to taste it. It was indeed sufficiently evident that the animal was diseased, and had lingered behind the herd for want of strength to travel. Our situation, however, afforded us not the power of choosing, and from the occurrence of this one, we were induced to hope we should soon meet with others in better condition.

We had passed on the preceding day for the first time, a small creek discharging some water into the river, and shortly afterwards the sandy bed of another, sixty yards in width, with an extensive valley, but having no water visible above the sand. This morning we also crossed a tributary affording a little water, and a dry channel communicating opposite to our encampment with the bed of the river, which is filled with small stones, occasioning an inconsiderable fall. Throughout the day the weather was extremely warm, and at sunrise on the following morning, the mercury was standing at 71°.

We had not proceeded far on our way when we discovered on the opposite side of the river a large party of Indians, approaching in an irregular and interrupted line which extended more than a mile from {290} the opposite bank. They had, as was evident, already discovered us, and their outriders were seen plunging into the river at various points, and several soon came up to shake hands with us. The foremost scarcely allowed themselves time to finish this hasty ceremony of salutation, when they rode to reconnoitre some points of bushes and patches of low grape vines on our left, manifestly to ascertain if the whole strength of our party was collected. The main body of the Indians crossed the river more slowly, and as we halted on an elevation near the point where they ascended the bank, the whole passed in review before us. They were all on horseback, and the squaws and children, composing by far the greatest part of the cavalcade, passed us without halting. Every squaw appeared to have under her care a greater or less number of horses, which were driven before her, some dragging lodge-poles, some loaded with packs of meat, and some carrying children. We were surprised to observe many small children too young to be able by their own strength to sit upon a horse, lashed by their legs to the saddle, and riding on in entire unconcern. As they passed the deepest part of the river, many of the squaws stooped to fill their vessels with water. These were of the most primitive kind, being formed, almost without exception, of the stomach or bladder of a bison or other animal.

At length the chief, who was one of the last to cross the river, came up, and shaking each of us by the hand, with some appearance of cordiality, invited us to accompany him a short distance on his route, to a place where his party would encamp for the remainder of the day and the ensuing night. The chief was accompanied by an old man who could speak a little Spanish, by which language we communicated with him. He informed us his band were a part of the tribe of Kaskaias, or Bad-hearts, as they are called by the French; that they had been on a {291} hunting excursion to the sources of the Rio Brases and the Rio Colorado of Texas,[57] and were now on their way to meet the Spanish traders at a point near the sources of the river we were descending. They in their turn demanded who we were, whence and whither we were travelling, and were apparently satisfied with our answers, though, as afterwards appeared, they did not entirely credit what we had told them of the purposes of our journey.

To our inquiries concerning the river they answered without hesitation, that it was Red river; that at the distance of ten days' travelling in the manner of Indians with their lodges, (about one hundred miles,) we should meet with the permanent village of the Pawnee Piquas, that a large band of Cumancias were hunting on the river below, whom we should fall in with in two or three days. Having described to them the route we had pursued, and the great and frequented road on which we had travelled, they said, that when we were at the point where that road first crosses the river, we were three days' ride from Santa Fé, which was situated behind a low and distant range of hills, which we remembered to have seen from that place.[58]

We hesitated a little to comply with the request of the chief, enforced as it was with some insolence, that we would return and encamp with his party. As, however, we wished to purchase horses and provisions, and to make the best use of an opportunity to become acquainted with the savages, we at length consented. The ground they chose for their encampment was a beautiful open plain, having the river in front, and a small creek on the left. We were somewhat surprised to witness the sudden manner in which this plain became covered with their tall conic lodges, rising "like an exhalation" in perfect silence and good order.

For our accommodation, a lodge was spread, enclosing as much space as possible in a semicircular {292} area in such a manner that the skin covering afforded a shade, which was all the shelter needed. In order to enlarge this tent as much as possible, the covering was raised so high upon the poles, that its lower margin did not extend to the ground by a space of several feet. To remedy this the squaws brought bushes from a neighbouring thicket, which they placed around the base of the lodge in such a manner as effectually to exclude the sunshine. We were sorry to find afterwards, that this had been done not more from motives of hospitality, than to aid them in their design of pilfering from our baggage.

These skin lodges, the only habitations of the wandering savages, are carried with them complete in all their marches. Those of the Kaskaias differ in no respect from those we have already described, as used by the Otoes and others of the Missouri Indians. The poles which are six or eight to each lodge, are from twenty to thirty feet in length, and are {293} dragged constantly about in all their movements, so that the trace of a party with lodges is easily distinguished from that of a war-party. When they halt to encamp, the women immediately set up these poles; four of them being tied together by the smaller ends, the larger resting on the ground, are placed so far apart as to include as much space as the covering will surround. The remaining poles are added to strengthen the work, and give it a circular form.

The covering is then made fast by one corner to the end of the last pole which is to be raised, by which means it is spread upon the frame with little difficulty. The structure, when completed, is in the form of a sharp cone. At the summit is a small opening for window, chimney, &c. out of which the lodge-poles project some distance, crossing each other at the point where the four shortest are tied together. This tent seems to be sufficient to protect its occupants from the rain; it must however be greatly inferior in point of comfort, particularly in the winter season, to the spacious mud cabins of the settled Indians.

The poles necessary for the construction of these movable dwellings, are not to be found in any part of the country of the Kaskaias, but are purchased from the Indians of the Missouri, or others inhabiting countries more plentifully supplied with timber. We were informed by Bijeau, that five of these poles are, among the Bad-hearts, equal in value to a horse.

The chief of this band is called the Red Mouse. He is of a large stature, is somewhat past the middle age of life, and no way deficient, in his person and countenance, of those indications of strength, cunning, and ferocity, which form so important a part of greatness in the estimation of the Indians. Immediately after he had dismounted from his horse, on the halting of his party, a small wooden dish was brought {294} him, containing some water. He had received a wound some time before, apparently from an arrow, which had passed through the arm, glancing upon the humerus. Placing the dish on the ground before him, he dipped his hand repeatedly in the water, then seizing a small image of an alligator, profusely ornamented with white and blue beads, he pressed it for some time with all the strength of his disabled arm. This we saw him repeat a great number of times. The alligator appeared to be the "great medicine," on which he relied for the cure of his wound. No dressing or application of any kind was made immediately to the affected part.

As soon as we had placed our baggage in the tent provided for us, we commenced negotiations with Red Mouse, for the purchase of horses. When the articles we proposed to barter were exhibited, he appeared dissatisfied, supposing probably we had still others in reserve, which he would be able by a little obstinacy to extort from us. He accordingly insisted that more of the packs should be opened, and undertook at last to extend his inquiries to our private baggage. This we found it necessary to resist, and a little scuffle ensued, at which many of the Indians, with a throng of women and children who surrounded us, took fright and ran off with the utmost despatch. They appeared all somewhat surprised and intimidated, and the few who remained in our lodge entreated us not to be angry at the insolence they had shown, saying we should frighten their women, and that they had mistaken us for traders. We had good reasons for wishing not to carry our resentment farther than was necessary, and accordingly relinquished the attempt to trade with them; informing them at the same time that we were hungry. Having received us in a friendly manner, we expected they would, according to custom of most Indians, have shown their good-will, by inviting us to a feast. We had, {295} therefore, waited with some impatience for their good cheer so long, that hope began to fail us. It will be recollected, we had for some days been almost in a starving condition; and we perceived that the Indians had very plentiful supplies of jerked meat. In compliance with our repeated requests, the wife of the Red Mouse at length brought us a little half-boiled bison meat, from which we had observed her to select the best pieces and give them to the children. After we had eaten this, we returned the wooden dish, on which it had been brought, at the same time asking her for more. This second demand procured us a little more jerked meat, which came, however, with such an ill grace, that as our hunger was somewhat appeased, we resolved to ask them for no more.

Some one of the party having asked for water, the paunch of a bison was brought, containing three or four quarts, from which we all managed, though with some difficulty, to drink. Little care or labour had been bestowed on the preparation of this primitive vessel. The papillous coat which formed the internal surface of the stomach of the animal, had not been removed, nor had it lost, from long use, its original smell. The organ is suffered to retain its original form as far as is consistent with the uses to which it is applied. One of the orifices is brought nearly in contact with the other, where it is retained by a stick passed through the margin; the depending part is a sack sometimes large enough to contain six or eight gallons of water. It may well be supposed practice is required to enable a person to drink with ease and adroitness from one of these vessels; and the Indians appeared somewhat amused at our awkward attempts, in which we spilt more water in our bosoms, than was conveyed into our mouths.

When filled, these sacks cannot be set upon the ground without suffering the loss of their contents. To remedy this, the Kaskaias carry with them, as an {296} indispensable article of furniture, a sort of tripod, consisting of three light poles, tied together at one end, and sharpened at the other, by which they are driven into the ground, and the water-sack is suspended between them. One of these was placed near the entrance of almost every lodge in this encampment.

We had scarcely finished our scanty repast, when the wife of the Red Mouse showing her trencher, to signify that we were her debtors, began to beset us for presents; as we were, however, little pleased with her hospitality, we treated her demands much as she had done ours. A number of small articles were pilfered from us, and the Indians seemed determined to show us little respect, until they perceived we were putting our guns in order for immediate use; at this they expressed some apprehension, and behaved afterwards with less rudeness.

There were thirty-two lodges, and probably about two hundred and fifty souls, including men, women, and children. Among them we could number only twenty-two armed men; and these kept constantly about us. They were armed exclusively with bows and arrows, and, as we believed, had some fear of us, though we were less than half their number. It was probably owing to our perceiving, or at least appearing to perceive this, that we escaped from them uninjured. They had many horses, probably more than five hundred, and some of them very good.

Towards evening the chief withdrew from our lodge, when we observed his squaw prepare some food for him, pounding the jerked meat to a powder with a stone pestle, using a piece of skin instead of a mortar. When reduced to very fine fragments, it is mixed with bison tallow; a little water is added, and the whole boiled together. After he had finished his meal, a council was held between all the men of the band. They met behind the chief's lodge, and we were not greatly pleased to perceive, that they {297} seemed anxious to conceal their meeting from us. At night we determined to collect all our horses, and, placing them as near as we could around our lodge, to watch them during the night; but, upon examination, a few of them only could be found, the remainder, as we believed, having been seized by the Indians. The crowd which had been assembled about us during the day, dispersed as the evening advanced, and at dark all became still in and about the encampment. At this time the chief, whose lodge was near ours, standing at the entrance of his dwelling, harangued with great vehemence, in a voice sufficiently loud and clear to be heard by all his people, who had now retired to their several lodges. As we had no interpreter of their language, we could understand nothing of the import of his speech. Every thing remained quiet during the night, and as soon as the day dawned on the following morning, a loud harangue, similar to that in the evening, was pronounced by the chief, and immediately afterwards the whole camp was in motion. The lodges were taken down, the packs placed upon the horses, and the whole body were in a short time ready to move off. As several of our horses, our kettles, and other articles of the greatest importance to us were missing, we were unwilling to part from our hosts in the hasty and unceremonious manner they seemed to intend. We accordingly summoned the old Indian interpreter, and made our complaint and remonstrance to the chief. He told us our horses had strayed from camp, and that several of his people were then out searching for them, and made other excuses, evidently designed to gain time until his band could move off. Perceiving we had no time to lose, Major Long ordered horses and other articles, corresponding to those we had lost, to be immediately seized. This prompt and well-timed measure produced the desired effect. Their whole camp had been some time in motion; the women {298} and children, with all their baggage, except what we had detained, had moved to a considerable distance; and we found ourselves, at this unpleasant state of the dispute, surrounded by their whole armed force. We observed they had a greater number of arrows in their hands than on the preceding day, and were not without our fears, that they intended to carry the dispute respecting our horses and kettles to greater lengths than we could wish. We were, however, agreeably disappointed, to learn that all our lost property had been found. It was accordingly restored to us, and we parted from the Kaskaias as friends.

The time we spent with this band of savages was so short as to afford little opportunity of becoming acquainted with their manners. Their dress is nearly similar to that of the Pawnees, but consists more exclusively of leather. The women, instead of the robe, wear a loose sort of a frock without sleeves. It has an opening for the neck, just large enough to admit the head, and descends from the shoulders, hanging like a bag about the body, and reaching below the knees. When eagerly engaged in their employments, this inconvenient article of dress is thrown aside, and there remains the squabbish person of the female savage, disfigured only by a small apron of leather worn round the waist. The young females appear to be in some measure exempted from the laborious services performed by the married women, and consequently possess a degree of lightness and elasticity in their persons, which they soon lose after they begin to bear children, and subject themselves to the severe drudgeries of a married life. Their breasts become so flaccid and pendulous, that we have seen them give suck to their children, the mother and the child at the same time standing erect upon the ground. This fact is sufficient to prove that they do not, at least in some instances, wean their children at a very early age.

{299} Like all savages, they suffer themselves to be covered with filth and vermin, notwithstanding which some of the young ones are far from disgusting in their appearance. They have well turned features, aquiline noses, large and regular teeth, and eyes, which though usually rather small, are clear and brilliant. Some of the men of this band have larger and finer teeth than we remember to have seen heretofore among savages. In the general structure of their features, and the complexion of their skins, they resemble the Missouri tribes, being of a clearer and brighter red than many of the eastern Indians. In stature and in symmetry, and elegance of form, they are inferior to the Otoes, Pawnees, and to most of the Missouri Indians who reside in permanent villages. They seemed to have had little intercourse with the whites, as some among them appeared to take great pleasure in exhibiting to their friends the skin of our arms, which they requested us to show for that purpose. It was probably by means of a mistake on the part of one of the interpreters, that we received the intimation that they had never heard before of such a people as that to which we belonged. We saw among them few articles of foreign production; these they had probably received from Spanish traders. In the whole encampment we saw but one kettle, which belonged to the chief, and their great eagerness to steal our tin cups and other similar articles, sufficiently evinced that such things are scarce, and of great value among them. They have some beads, most of which are bestowed in ornamenting the dress of the children; also some pewter and brass rings, worn principally by the women. They are acquainted with the use of tobacco, and smoked with us according to the universal custom of the Indians, but expressed by signs that they found the smoke of unmixed tobacco too strong for them. One of their young men, who was in his ordinary dress when we met the party, visited us soon after we had encamped, {300} dressed in leggings and breech cloth, with a striped worsted vest and a silver-headed bamboo, which he sported among us with the air of a great traveller.

A child was shown us who spoke Spanish, and who was said to be a prisoner from the Spanish settlements; he was not, however, distinguished from the Kaskaias by any difference of colour or of features. He spoke frequently of the Christians, which convinced us that he had at least been among the half civilized Indians of New Mexico, who have some acquaintance with the Spanish language, and have been taught enough of the Christian religion to make use of the sign of the cross.

This band of Kaskaias occupy the country about the sources of the Platte, Arkansa, and Rio Del Norte, and extend their hunting excursions to Red river and the sources of the Brases. The great numbers of images of the alligator, which they wear either as ornaments or as amulets for the cure or prevention of disease and misfortune, afford sufficient proof of their extending their rambles to districts inhabited by that reptile. These images are of carved wood covered with leather, and profusely ornamented with beads. They are suspended about the neck, and we saw several worn in this manner by the children as well as by adults. It was observed likewise, that the rude frames to the looking-glasses, carried by several of the men, were carved so as to approximate towards the same form.

It is perhaps owing to their frequent exposure to the stormy and variable atmosphere of the country about the Rocky Mountains, that these Indians are subjected to numerous attacks of rheumatic and scrofulous diseases. We saw one old woman with a distorted spine, who had probably suffered, when young, from rickets. A young man, of a fine athletic frame, had his neck covered with scrofulous ulcers. While he was with us he was constantly endeavouring to conceal with his robe this afflicting spectacle. He {301} remained but a short time among us, and did not make his second appearance.

An old man came frequently with a diseased leg, informing us by signs, that it had repeatedly formed large abscesses, which had discharged much matter, and afterwards healed. His frequent applications seemed to be made with the hope that we would do something for his relief. The men of this band wear the hair long, and suffer it to hang negligently about the shoulders. Some of them have a braid behind, which is garnished with bits of red cloth, small pieces of tin, &c. and descends nearly to the ground, being sometimes eked out with the hair of a horse's tail. Among the old men were several who had suffered a number of scattering hairs on the face to become of considerable length, a violation of good manners, and a neglect of personal neatness, not often met with among the Indians, and excusable only in the old. In their conduct towards us, they were guilty of more rudeness and incivility than we had been accustomed to meet with among the savages of the Missouri. Soon after we had encamped with them, one of our party who had brought along a roasted rib of a bison which had remained of our breakfast, had produced this bone, and was engaged in eating from it; an Indian who observed this came up, and without ceremony taking the rib out of his hand, carefully scraped off and ate all the meat, and returned the bone.

Though we saw much to admire among this people, we cannot but think they are among some of the most degraded and miserable of the uncivilized Indians on this side of the Rocky Mountains. Their wandering and precarious manner of life, as well as the inhospitable character of the country they inhabit, precludes the possibility of advancement from the profoundest barbarism. As is common among other of the western tribes, they were persevering in offering us their women, but this appeared to be {302} done from mere beastliness and the hope of reward, rather than from any motive of hospitality or a desire to show us respect. We saw among them no article of food except the flesh of the bison; their horses, their arms, lodges, and dogs, are their only wealth.

In their marches they are all on horseback; the men are expert horsemen, and evince great dexterity in throwing the rope, taking in this way many of the wild horses which inhabit some parts of their country. They hunt the bison on horseback with the bow and arrow, being little acquainted with fire arms. One of them who had received a valuable pistol from a member of our party, soon afterwards returned, and wished to barter it for a knife. They begged for tobacco, but did not inquire for whiskey; it is probable they have not yet acquired a relish for intoxicating liquors. In their persons they are all uncommonly filthy, and many of the women spent a great part of their time in catching and eating the lice from the heads of their children.

At eight o'clock on the morning of the 12th of August we took our leave of the Kaskaias, having recovered from them all the articles they had stolen, except a few ropes, halters, and other small affairs, which not being indispensably necessary to us, we chose to relinquish, rather than submit to a longer delay among a people we had so much reason to dislike.

They had shown a disposition so far from friendly towards us, that we were surprised to have escaped without having found it necessary to use our rifles among them; and as we thought it by no means improbable some of their young men might follow us to steal our horses, we moved on rather briskly, intending to travel as far in the course of the day as we conveniently could.

The river valley spread considerably a little below the point where we had encamped. In many places we found the surface a smooth and naked bed of {303} sand; in others, covered by an incrustation of salt, like a thin ice, and manifestly derived from the evaporation of water which had flowed down from the red sandstone hills bounding the valley. These hills were here of moderate elevation, the side towards the river being usually abrupt and naked. The sandstone is fine, of a deep red colour, indistinctly stratified and traversed in various directions by veins filled principally with sulphate of lime.

We had seen among the Indians on the preceding day quantities of salt in large but detached crystalline fragments, greatly resembling the common coarse salt of commerce. It had evidently been collected from some place like the one above mentioned, where it had been deposited from solution in water. When we inquired the particular locality of the Indians, they pointed to the south, and said it was found near the sources of a river heading in that direction.

At the place of our evening encampment, we saw the red-necked avoset (recurvirostra americana), the minute tern (sterna minuta), and several other strand birds which we could not approach near enough to distinguish the species. There is also a very evident similarity between the plants found here and many of those growing in saline soils along the sea coast. We saw here several species of atriplex, chenopodium, salsola, kochia, and anabasis, all delighting in a saline soil, and affording on analysis a greater proportion of soda than most inland plants.

The day had been unusually warm. During all our mid-day halt, protracted, on account of the sultriness of the weather, to an unusual length, the mercury had remained at 100°, the thermometer being suspended in the closest shade we could find. It is to be remarked, however, that in almost every one of the numerous instances when the mercurial column had indicated so high a temperature as in {304} the one just mentioned, a fair exposure could not be had.

We often found it necessary to halt upon the open plain, where the intensity of light and heat were much increased by the reflection of the sun's rays from the sand. The temperature indicated by the thermometer, suspended in the imperfect shade of our tent, or of a small tree, was however somewhat lower than that to which our bodies were exposed; and it will be believed our sufferings from this source were great, both on our marches and while encamped in the middle of the day. Our tent being too small to afford its imperfect shade to the whole party, we sometimes suspended blankets, using, instead of poles, our rifles and gunstocks, but the protection these could afford against the scorching glare of a vertical sun, was found extremely inadequate.

At sunset we crossed what appears to be at some seasons of the year the bed of a large river at least two hundred yards wide, but at this time not a drop of water was found in it. It has a wide valley, and in every respect but the occasional want of water, is a large stream. A little beyond this we encamped for the night, having travelled twenty-eight miles.

August 13th. The course of the river had now become considerably serpentine, so that our route along its valley was of necessity somewhat circuitous. Wishing to avoid the unnecessary travelling thus occasioned, we turned off from the river and ascended the hills, hoping to meet with an Indian trace leading across the country by the most direct route. Our search was however unavailing, only affording us an opportunity of examining a portion of the country remote from the river. This we found much broken with irregular hills, abrupt ravines, and deep valleys. At ten o'clock we met with a small stream of water running towards the river we had left, and crossing it, perceived the trace of a large party of mounted Indians which had ascended {305} the creek within a few hours previous. We supposed they must have been the band of Cumancias spoken of by the Bad-hearts; and, notwithstanding some fears we have had reason to entertain, that they would have treated us no better than the Kaskaias had done, we considered ourselves unfortunate in not having met them. Much confusion and uncertainty attends the limited information hitherto before the public concerning the wandering bands of savages who occupy the country between the frontiers of New Mexico and the United States. Some who have spoken of these Indians, seem to have included several of the erratic hordes already enumerated under the name of Hietans or Cumancias. From their wandering mode of life, it unavoidably happens that the same band is met by hunters and travellers in different parts of the country at different times, consequently they receive different appellations, and the estimate of their numbers becomes much exaggerated. Of this band we have no other information to communicate, than that they appeared, from the tracks of their horses and lodge-poles, to have been rather more numerous than the party of Bad-hearts we had lately met. A recent grave was discovered by one of our hunters at no great distance from the river, in which it was supposed one of this band had been buried. At one end of the grave was erected a pole about ten feet in length, crossed near the top by another two feet long. To the foot of this rude cross was tied a pair of mockasins, newly soled and carefully prepared for the use of the departed in that long journey on the _road of the dead_ to which the good wishes of some friend had accompanied him.

Where we halted at noon were some trees, and several of these were covered with grape vines, loaded with ripe and delicious fruit. The Osage plum was also common, and now beginning to ripen. The temperature of the air inside of our tent, partially shaded by some small trees, was sufficiently {306} high to keep the mercury at 105° Fah. from twelve o'clock to three P. M. A suffocating stillness prevailed in the air, and we could find no relief from the painful glare of light and the intense heat which seemed about to reduce the scanty vegetation to ashes.

In the afternoon a thick grove of timber was descried at a distance below, and on the opposite side of the river. This cheering sight was like the discovery of land to the mariner, reminding us of the comparative comfort and plenty which we had learned to consider inseparable from a forest country, and exciting in us the hope that we should soon exchange our desolate and scorching sands for a more hospitable and more favoured region. As this little grove of trees, appearing to us like the commencement of an immense forest, gave us reason to expect we should soon meet with some small game at least; Mr. Peale, with one man, went forward to hunt. Soon after arriving at the wood, they discovered a flock of turkeys, and the rifleman dismounting to shoot, left his mule for a moment at liberty. The animal, taking a sudden advantage of the opportunity, turned about, and made the best of his way out of the wood, pursued by Mr. Peale. This chase continued about five miles, and ended in putting the mule on the recent trace of the party, which there was no reason to fear he could be induced to quit, until he had rejoined his companions. Mr. P., who was exhausted with the pursuit, followed on but slowly, and neglecting to follow carefully the path of the party, he passed us, after we had turned aside to encamp, still travelling on in the direction of our course. At dark, believing we were still before him, and knowing we must encamp near the river, he betook himself to the sand-bars, which were now naked, occupying the greater part of what was sometimes the bed of the stream. Along these he travelled, occasionally discharging a pistol, and looking {307} about in constant expectation of seeing the blaze of our evening fire, until the moon began to sink behind the hills, when finding the light insufficient to enable him to continue his search, he tied his horse to a tree, and laid down to await the return of daylight.

At camp, guns were discharged, as large a fire kindled as we could find the means of making, and other measures taken to give notice of our situation; and late in the evening, the man whose mule had been the occasion of the accident, joined us, but was unable to give any account of Mr. Peale or the mule, which had, however, arrived before him.

At seven o'clock on the morning following, Aug. 14th, Mr. P. returned to us, having convinced himself, by a careful examination of the river valley, that we were still above. He accordingly retraced his course, until he discovered the smoke of our encampment. He had been much harassed in the night by mosquitos; and bisons having recently occupied the shade of the tree under which he slept, the place afforded as little refreshment for the horse as for himself. Delaying a little to allow him time to make amends for his long absence, we left our camp at a later hour than usual; and moving along a wide and somewhat grassy plain, halted to dine near an old Indian breast-work by the side of a grove of cotton-wood trees, intermixed with a few small-leaved elms. This breast-work is built like that described on the Platte, a few days' march above the Pawnees. We have met with the remains of similar works in almost every grove of trees, about the base of the mountains; near some of them, we have noticed holes dug a few feet into the ground, probably as caches or depositories of provisions; the earth which was raised having been removed to a distance, or thrown into the river, that it might not lead to the discovery of the concealed articles. We have met with large excavations of this kind, having an entrance comparatively small, and so placed as to be {308} easily concealed; made by white hunters to hold their furs, and whatever else they might wish to deposit in safe keeping.

The occurrence of the elm, the phytolacca, the cephalanthus, and other plants not to be met with in a desert of sand, give us the pleasing assurance of a change we have long been expecting to see in the aspect of the country. The blue jay, the purple martin, a deer, and some turkeys, were also seen near this encampment.

The bed of the river is here eight hundred yards wide, but the quantity of water visible is much less than in some places above. The magnetic variation ascertained at this camp was 12° 30′ east.

{309} CHAPTER VI {XIII}

Sand Plains--Mississippi Hawk--Small-leaved Elm--Wild Horses--Hail-storm--Climate--Bisons--Grapes--Red Sand Formation--Gypsum.

August 15th. Extensive tracts of loose sand, so destitute of plants, and so fine as to be driven with the wind, occur in every part of the saline sandstone formation we had as yet seen. They are perhaps invariably the detritus of the sand-rock, deposited in valleys and depressions, where the rapidity of the abrading currents has been checked by permanent obstacles. This loose sand differs in colour from the sandstone, which is almost invariably red; the difference may, however, have been produced simply by the operation of water suspending and removing the light colouring matter, no longer retained by the aggregation of the sandstone. These fields of sand have most frequently an undulating surface, occasioned probably not less by the operation of winds than by the currents of water; a few plum bushes, almost the only woody plants found on them, wherever they take root, form points, about which the sand accumulates, and in this manner permanent elevations are produced. The yucca angustifolia and the shrubby cactus are here rarely seen; the argemone and the night-flowering bartonia have not entirely disappeared, but are not of frequent occurrence.

Our horses had broken loose, and a part of them strayed from camp. This occasioned some unusual delay, and the morning was somewhat advanced when we commenced our ride. The day was bright and cool, comparatively so at least, the mercury in {310} the extreme heat rising to only 95° in the shade of our tent, whereas on several of the preceding days, it had stood at or above 100° in a fairer exposure. A light breeze sprung up from the south-west, and continued during the remainder of the day. Our course led us twice across the bed of the river, which we found one thousand and four hundred paces in width; and without water, except in a few small pools, where it was stagnant. This wide and shallow bed is included between low banks, sometimes sloped gradually, and sometimes, though rarely, perpendicular, and rising scarcely more than four feet from the common level of the bottom of the channel. Drift wood is occasionally seen without these banks, affording evidence that they are at times not only full, but overflowed. If they are ever but partially filled, it is easy to see that what, for a great part of the year, is a naked sand beach, then becomes a broad and majestic river. It must flow with a rapid current, and in floods; its waters cannot be otherwise than of an intense red colour. The immediate valley of the river had now become little less than two miles in width; and had, in some places, a fertile soil. This happens wherever there occur spots having little elevation above the bed of the river, and which have not recently been covered with sand.

Several species of locust were extremely frequent here, filling the air by day with their shrill and deafening cries, and feeding with their bodies great numbers of that beautiful species of hawk, the falco Mississipiensis of Wilson.[59] It afforded us a constant amusement to watch the motions of this greedy devourer in the pursuit of his favourite prey, the locust. The insect being large, and not uncommonly active, is easily taken; the hawk then pauses on the wing, suspending himself in the air, while, with his talons and beak, he tears in pieces and devours his prey.

We were also fortunate in capturing a tortoise, {311} resembling the T. geographica of Le Sueur.[60] The upper part of its shell was large enough to contain near a quart of water, and was taken to supply the place of one of our tin cups recently lost, while the animal itself was committed to the mess kettle. Wolves, jackals, and vultures, occurred in unusual numbers, and the carcasses of several bisons recently killed had been seen. We could also distinguish the recent marks of a hunting party of Indians, the tracks of horses and of men being still fresh in the sand. At four P. M., several bisons were discovered at a distance, and as we were in the greatest want of provisions, we halted, and sent the hunters in pursuit; and being soon apprized of their success, the requisite preparations were made for jerking the meat. Near our camp was a scattering grove of small-leaved elms. This tree (the U. alata, N.) is not known in the Eastern states; but it is common in many parts of Tennessee, Missouri, and Arkansa. When found in forests intermixed with other trees, it is usually of a smaller size than the ulmus americana, and is distinguished from it by the smallness of the leaves and the whiteness of the trunk. On the borders of the open country, where large trees often occur entirely isolated, the ulmus alata has proportionally a more dense and flattened top than any other tree we have seen. When standing entirely alone, it rarely attains an elevation of more than thirty or thirty-five feet; but its top lying close to the ground, is spread over an area of sixty or seventy feet in diameter, and is externally so close and smooth as to resemble, when seen from a distance, a small grassy hillock.

Near our camp was a circular breast-work, constructed like those already mentioned, and large enough to contain eighty or an hundred men. We were not particularly pleased at meeting these works so frequently as we had done of late, as they indicate the country where they are found, to be one {312} particularly exposed to the depredations of Indian war-parties.

August 16. The greater part of the flesh of the bison killed on the preceding evening had been dried and smoked in the course of the night, so that we had now no fear of suffering immediately from hunger, having as much jerked meat as was sufficient to last several days.

The sky continued clear, but the wind was high, and the drifting of the sand occasioned much annoyance. The heat of the atmosphere became more intolerable, on account of the showers of burning sand, driven against us with such force as to penetrate every part of our dress, and proving so afflictive to our eyes, that it was with the utmost difficulty we could see to guide our horses. The sand is carried from the bed of the river, which is here a naked beach of more than half a mile wide, and piled in immense drifts along the bank. Some of these heaps we have seen covering all but a small portion of the upper branches of what appeared like large trees. Notwithstanding we were now three hundred miles distant from the sources of the river, we found very little water; and that being stagnant, and so much frequented by bisons and other animals, was so loathsome both to sight and smell, that nothing but the most uncontrollable thirst could have induced us to taste it.

At a short distance below the place of our encampment, we passed the confluence of a considerable creek entering from the south-west. Though like all the streams of this thirsty region, its waters were entirely hid in the sand; yet it is evidently the bed of a large tributary, and from its direction, we conclude it can be no other than the one on which the Kaskaias informed us they had encamped the night before we met them. Its name, if it have any, among the Indians or Spaniards, we have not yet learned.[61]

We had, for some days, observed a few wild horses, {313} and they, as well as the bisons, were now becoming numerous. In the habits of the wild horse, we find little unlike what is seen in the domestic animal, though he becomes the most timorous and watchful of the inhabitants of the wilderness. They show a similar attachment to each other's society, though the males are occasionally found at a distance from the herds. It would appear, from the paths we have seen, that they sometimes perform long journeys, and it may be worthy of remark, that along these paths are frequently found very large piles of horse-dung, of different ages, affording sufficient evidence that this animal, in a wild state, has, in common with some others, an inclination to drop his excrement where another has done so before him. This propensity is sometimes faintly discovered in the domestic horse.

As we were about to halt for dinner, a bison who had lingered near our path was killed; but the flesh was found in too ill a condition to be eaten, as is the case with all the bulls at this season.

Soon after we had mounted our horses in the afternoon, a violent thunder-storm came on from the north-west; hail fell in such quantities, as to cover the surface of the ground, and some of the hail-stones which we examined, were near an inch in diameter. Falling with a strong wind, these heavy masses struck upon our bodies with great violence; our horses, as they had done on a similar occasion before, refused to move, except before the wind. Some of the mules turned off from our course, and had run more than half a mile before they could be overtaken. For ourselves, we found some protection, by wrapping our blankets loosely around our bodies, and waited for the cessation of the storm, not without calling to mind some instances on record of hail-stones which have destroyed the lives of men and animals.

It is not improbable, that a climate of a portion of country within the range of the immediate influence {314} of the Rocky Mountains, may be more subject to hail-storms in summer, than any other parts of North America in the same latitude. The radiation of heat from so extensive a surface of naked sand, lying along the base of this vast range of snowy mountains, must produce great local inequalities of temperature. The diminished pressure of the atmosphere, and the consequent rapidity of evaporation, in these elevated regions, may also be supposed to have an important influence on the weather. We have not spent sufficient time in the country, near the eastern range of the Rocky Mountains, to enable us to speak with confidence of the character of its climate. It is, however, sufficiently manifest, that in summer it must be extremely variable, as we have found it; the thermometer often indicating an increase of near fifty degrees of temperature between sunrise and the middle of the day. These rapid alternations of heat and cold must be supposed to mark a climate little favourable to health, though we may safely assert that this portion of the country is exempt from the operation of those causes which produce so deleterious an atmosphere in the lower and more fertile portions of the Mississippi basin. If the wide plains of the Platte, the Upper Arkansa, and the Red river of Louisiana should ever become the seat of a permanent civilized population, the diseases most incident to such a population will probably be fevers, attended with pulmonary and pleuritic inflammations, rheumatism, scrofula, and consumption.[62] It is true, that few, if any, instances of pulmonary consumption occur among the Indians of this region; the same remark is probably as true of the original native population of New York and New England.

Though much rain fell during this storm, it was so rapidly absorbed by the soil, that but little running water was to be seen. The bed of the river was found smooth and unobstructed, and afforded us for several days the most convenient path for travelling. As we {315} descended, we found it expand in some places to a width of near two miles. Bisons became astonishingly numerous; and in the middle of the day countless thousands of them were seen coming in from every quarter to the stagnant pools which filled the most depressed places in the channel of the river. The water of these was of course too filthy to be used in cooking our meat, and though sometimes compelled to drink it, we found little alleviation to our thirst. At our encampments, we were able to supply ourselves with water of a better quality by digging in the sand, where we scarce ever failed to meet with a supply at a few feet from the surface.

On the 17th,[63] we halted in the middle of the day to hunt, as, although we had killed several bisons on our marches of the preceding days, none of them had been found in good condition. The flesh of the bulls, in the months of August and September, is poor and ill flavoured; but these are much more easily killed than the cows, being less vigilant, and sometimes suffering themselves to be overtaken by the hunter, without attempting to escape. As the herds of cows were now seen in great numbers, we halted, while the hunters went out and killed several. Our camp was placed on the south-west side of the river, under a low bluff, which separates the half-wooded valley from the open and elevated plains. The small elms along this valley were bending under the weight of innumerable grape vines, now loaded with ripe fruit, the purple clusters crowded in such profusion as almost to give a colouring to the landscape. On the opposite side of the river was a range of low sand hills, fringed with vines, rising not more than a foot or eighteen inches from the surface. On examination, we found these hillocks had been produced exclusively by the agency of the grape vines, arresting the sand as it was borne along by the wind, until such quantities had been accumulated as to bury every part of the plant, except the end of the branches. Many of these were so loaded with {316} fruit, as to present nothing to the eye but a series of clusters, so closely arranged as to conceal every part of the stem. The fruit of these vines is incomparably finer than that of any other native or exotic which we have met with in the United States. The burying of the greater part of the trunk, with its larger branches, produces the effect of pruning, inasmuch as it prevents the unfolding of leaves and flowers on the parts below the surface, while the protruded ends of the branches enjoy an increased degree of light and heat from the reflection of the sand. It is owing, undoubtedly, to these causes, that the grapes in question are so far superior to the fruit of same vine in ordinary circumstances. The treatment here employed by nature, to bring to perfection the fruit of the vine may be imitated; but without the same peculiarities of soil and exposure, and with difficulty be carried to the same magnificent extent. Here are hundreds of acres, covered with a movable surface of sand, and abounding in vines, which, left to the agency of the sun and the winds, are, by their operation, placed in more favourable circumstances than it is in the power of man, to so great an extent, to afford. We indulged ourselves to excess, if excess could be committed in the use of such delicious and salutary fruit, and invited by the cleanness of the sand, and a refreshing shade, we threw ourselves down, and slept away, with unusual zest, a few of the hours of a summer afternoon.

Our hunters had been as successful as could be wished, and at evening we assembled around a full feast of "marrow-bones;" a treat whose value must for ever remain unknown to those who have not tried the adventurous life of the hunter. We were often surprised to witness in ourselves a proof of the facility with which a part at least of the habits of the savage could be adopted. Having been in several instances compelled to practise a tedious abstinence, the return of plenty found us well disposed to make amends for these temporary privations; and we lingered, {317} almost involuntarily, at every meal, as if determined not only to supply the deficiency of the past, but to secure such ample supplies as would enable us to defy the future.

The grapes and plums, so abundant in this portion of the country, are eaten by turkies and black bears, and the plums by wolves or jackals, as we conclude, from observing plumstones in the excrement of one of those animals. It is difficult to conceive whence such numbers of predatory animals and birds, as exist in every part of the country where the bisons are present, can derive sufficient supplies for the sustenance of life; and it is indeed sufficiently evident, their existence is but a protraction of the sufferings of famine.

The great flowering hibiscus is here a conspicuous and highly ornamental plant among the scattering trees in the low grounds. The occurrence of the black walnut, for the first time since we left the Missouri, indicates a soil somewhat adapted to the purposes of agriculture. Portions of the river valley, which are not covered with loose sands, have a red soil, resulting from the disintegration of the prevailing rocks (red sandstone and gypsum) intermixed with clay, and are covered with a dense growth of fine and nutritious grasses. Extensive tracts of the great woodless plain, at a distance from the river, appear to be based upon a more compact variety of sandstone, which is usually of a dark gray colour, and less pervious to water than the red. For this reason some copious springs are found upon it, and a soil by no means destitute of fertility, yielding sustenance to inconceivable numbers of herbivorous animals, and through them to innumerable birds and beasts of prey. It must be supposed, however, that the herds of bisons daily seen about the river, range over a much greater extent of country than was comprised within our limited views. The want of water in many places may compel them to resort {318} frequently to the river in dry weather; though at other times they may be dispersed in the high plains.

August 18th. In speaking of a country whose geography is so little known as that of the region S. W. of the Arkansa, we feel very sensibly the want of ascertained and fixed points of reference. Were we to designate the locality of a mineral, or any other interesting object, as found twenty or thirty days' journey from the Rocky Mountains, we should do nearly all in our power; yet this sort of information would probably be thought vague and useless. The smaller rivers of this region have as yet received no names from white hunters; if they have names among the Indians, these are unknown to us. There are no mountains, hills, or other remarkable objects to serve as points of departure, nearer than the Rocky Mountains and the Arkansa. The river itself, which we supposed to be the Red river of Natchitoches, is a permanent landmark; but it is a line and not a point; and aids us only in one direction, in our attempts to designate locality. The map accompanying this work was projected in conformity to the results of numerous astronomical observations for latitude and longitude; but many of these observations were made at places which are not, and at present cannot be known by any names we might attempt to fix upon them.[64] More extensive and minute examination than we have been able to bestow might establish something like a sectional division, founded on the distribution of certain remarkable plants. The great cylindric cactus, the ligneous rooted cucumis, the small-leaved elm, might be used in such an attempt; but it is easy to see that the advantages resulting from it, would be for the most part imaginary.

Discussions of this sort have been much insisted on of late, and may be important as aiding in the geography of climates and soils, but can afford little assistance to topography.

{319} The geognostic features of the region under consideration, afford some foundation for a natural division, but this division must be so extremely general as to afford little satisfaction. We could only distinguish the red sandstone, the argillaceous sandstone, and the trap districts, and though each of these have distinctive characters not easy to be mistaken, they are so irregular in form and position, as to be in no degree adapted to aid in the description and identifying of particular places. On the contrary, it is to be regretted there are no established points to which we might refer, in communicating what we have observed of the position of these formations, and indicating the particular localities of some of the valuable minerals they contain.

The red sandstone, apparently the most extensive of the rocky formations of this region, has, wherever it occurs, indications of the presence of muriate of soda, and almost as commonly discloses veins and beds of sulphate of lime. The substance last mentioned had been growing more and more abundant since we left the region of the trap rocks at the sources of the river. It was now so frequent as to be conspicuous in all the exposed portions of the sand-rock, and was often seen from a distance of several miles. It occurs under various forms, sometimes we meet with the most beautiful selenite, disposed in broad reticulating veins, traversing the sandstone; the granular and fibrous varieties, whose snowy whiteness contrasts strongly with the deep red and brown of the sandstone, are sometimes seen in thin horizontal lamina, or scattered about the surface, sometimes included in larger masses of the common amorphous plaister-stone. This last is usually of a colour approaching to white, but the exposed surfaces are more or less tinged with the colouring matter of the sand-rock, and all the varieties are so soft as to disintegrate rapidly when exposed to the air. Recent surfaces show no ferruginous tinge; {320} or rather, we would say, this colour does not appear to have been contemporaneous to the formation of the sulphate of lime, but derived from the cement of the sandstone, and to have penetrated no farther than it has been carried by the impetration of water.

We left our encampment at 5 o'clock, the morning fair; thermometer at 62°. Our courses regulated entirely by the direction of the river, were north fifty-five east, eleven miles; then north, ten east, seven miles; in all eighteen miles before dinner.[65] The average direction of our courses for some days had been rather to the north, than south of east. This did not coincide entirely with our previous ideas of the direction of Red river, and much less of the Faux Ouachitta, or False Washita,[66] which being the largest of the upper branches of the Red river from the north, we believed, might be the stream we were descending. From observations taken at several points along the river we had ascertained, that we must travel three or four days' journey to the south, in order to arrive at the parallel of the confluence of the Kiamesha with the Red river,[67] and we were constantly expecting a change in the direction of our courses. The confident assurance of the Kaskaias, that we were on the Red river, and but a few days march above the village of the Pawnee Piquas, tended to quiet the suspicions we began to feel on this subject. We had now travelled, since meeting the Indians, a greater distance than we could suppose they had intended to indicate by the admeasurement of ten "lodge days," but we were conscious our communications with them had been made through inadequate interpreters, and it was not without reason, we began to fear we might have received erroneous impressions. In the afternoon, however, the river inclined more {321} to the direction we wished to travel, and we had several courses to the south of east. At sunset we pitched our tent on the north side of the river, and dug a well in the sand, which afforded a sufficient supply of wholesome, though brackish, water. Throughout the night the roaring of immense herds of bisons, and the solemn notes of the hooting owl were heard, intermixed with the desolate cries of the jackal and the screech-owl. The mulberry, and the guilandina, growing near our camp, with many of the plants and birds we had been accustomed to see in the frontier settlements of the United States, reminded us of the comforts of home and the cheering scenes of civilized society, giving us at the same time the assurance that we were about to arrive at the point where we should take leave of the desert.

Saturday, August 19th. The mercury at sunrise stood at 71°. The morning was calm, and the sky tinged with that intense and beautiful blue which marks many of our summer skies, and is seen with greater pleasure by those who know that home or a good tavern is near, than by such as have no prospect of shelter save what a tent or a blanket can afford. We were now looking with much impatience for something to indicate an approach towards the village of the Pawnee Piqua, but instead of this the traces of Indians seemed to become less and less frequent. Notwithstanding the astonishing numbers of bison, deer, antelopes, and other animals, the country is less strewed with bones than almost any we have seen; affording an evidence that it is not a favourite hunting ground of any tribe of Indians. The animals also appear wholly unaccustomed to the sight of men. The bisons and wolves move slowly off to the right and left, leaving a lane for the party to pass, but those on the windward side often linger for a long time, almost within the reach of our rifles, regarding us with little appearance of alarm. We had now nothing to suffer either from the apprehension {322} or reality of hunger, and could have been content that the distance between ourselves and the settlements should have been much greater than we supposed it to be.

In the afternoon, finding the course of the river again bending towards the north, and becoming more and more circuitous, we turned off on the right hand side, and choosing an east course, travelled across the hills, not doubting but we should soon arrive again at the river. We found the country at a distance from the bed of the river, somewhat elevated and broken, but upon climbing some of the highest hills, we again saw the landscape of the unbounded and unvaried grassy plain spread out before us. All the inequalities of the surface have evidently been produced by the excavating operation of currents of water, and they are consequently most considerable near the channels of the large streams. This remark is applicable to the vallies of all the large rivers in the central portions of the great horizontal formation west of the Alleghanies. We find accordingly, that on the Ohio, the Missouri, the Platte, the Konzas, and many of the rivers tributary to the Mississippi, the surface becomes broken in proportion as we proceed from the interior towards the bed of the river, and all the hills bear convincing evidence that they have received their existence and their form from the action of the currents of water which have removed the soil and other matters formerly occupying the vallies and elevating the whole surface of the country nearly to a common level. Regarding in this view the extensive vallies of the Mississippi and its tributaries, we naturally inquire how great a length of time must have been spent in the production of such an effect, the cause operating as it now does. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that where tributaries of the rivers in question are bounded on both sides, as they often are, by perpendicular cliffs of sandstone or limestone {323} in horizontal strata, the seams and markings on one side correspond with those on the other, indicating the stratifications to have been originally continuous.

A ride of a few miles in a direction passing obliquely from the river, brought us to a point which overlooked a large extent of the surrounding country. From this we could distinguish the winding course of a small stream, uniting numerous tributaries from the ridge we occupied, and pursuing its course towards the south-east, along a narrow and well-wooded valley. The dense and verdant foliage of the poplars and elms contrasted strongly with the bright red of the sandstone cliffs, which rose on both sides, far surpassing the elevation of the tallest trees, and disclosing here and there masses of sulphate of lime of a snowy whiteness.[68] Looking back upon the broad valley of the river we had left, the eye rested upon insulated portions of the sandy bed disclosed by the inflections of its course or the opening of ravines, and resembling pools of blood, rather than wastes of sand. We had been so long accustomed to the red sands, that the intensity of the colouring ceased to excite any attention until a distant view afforded us the opportunity of contrasting it with the general aspect of the country.

The elevated plains we found covered with a plenteous but close-fed crop of grasses, and occupied by extensive marmot villages. The red soil is usually fine and little intermixed with gravel and pebbles, but too sandy to retain moisture enough for the purposes of agriculture. The luxuriance and fineness of the grasses, as well as the astonishing number and good condition of the herbivorous animals of this region, clearly indicate its value for the purposes of pasturage. There can be little doubt that more valuable and productive grasses than the native species can with little trouble be introduced. This may easily be effected by burning the prairies at a proper season of the year, and sowing the seeds {324} of any of the more hardy cultivated gramina. Some of the perennial plants common in the prairies will undoubtedly be found difficult to exterminate, their strong roots penetrating to a great depth and enveloping the rudiments of new shoots placed beyond the reach of a fire on the surface. The soil of the more fertile plains is penetrated with such numbers of these as to present more resistance to the plough than the oldest cultivated pastures.

We had continued our march until near sunset, expecting constantly to come in view of the river, which we were persuaded must soon make a great bend to the south, but perceiving the night would overtake us in the plains, we began to search for a place to encamp. The bison paths in this country are as frequent and almost as conspicuous as the roads in the most populous parts of the United States. These converge from all directions to the places where water is to be found, and by following their guidance we were soon led to a spot where was found a small spring dripping from the side of a cliff of sandstone. The water collected in a little basin at the foot of the cliff, and flowing a few rods down a narrow ravine, disappeared in the sand. Having established our camp, we travelled down this ravine, searching for plants, while any daylight remained. The rocks were beautifully exposed, but exhibited no appearance unlike what we had been accustomed to see along the river--the red indistinctly stratified sand-rock, spotted and veined with plaster-stone and selenite. About the shelvings and crevices of the rocks, the slender corolla of the œnothera macrocarpa, and the purple blossoms of the pentstemon bradburis, lay withering together, while the fading leaves and the ripening fruit seemed to proclaim the summer near its end.

On the morning following we resumed our march, altering our course from S. E. to N. E. The want of water in the hills compelled us again to seek the river. Falling in with a large bison path, which we {325} knew would conduct us by the easiest and most direct route, we travelled about fifteen miles, and encamped at noon on the bank of the river. In returning to the low grounds, we passed some grassy pastures, carpeted with the densest and finest verdure, and sprinkled with herds of deer, antelopes, and bisons. In some places the ground was covered with a purple mat of the aculeate leaves and branches of a procumbent eryngo; here rose the tall and graceful head of the centaurea speciosa,[69] there, in more retiring beauty, crept a humble dalea, or an ascending petalostemum.

As we approached the river, we discovered a fine herd of bisons, in the grove where we intended to place our camp, some lying down in the shade, others standing in the pool of water, which extended along under the bank. Dismounting from our horses, and approaching under cover of the bushes, we shot two of the fattest, but before we had time to reload our pieces, after the second fire, we perceived a bull running towards us, evidently with the design to make battle; we, however, gave him the slip, by escaping into the thick bushes, and he turned off to follow the retiring herd.

It is only in the seasons of their loves, that any danger is to be apprehended from the strength and ferocity of the bison. At all other times, whether wounded or not, their efforts are to the last directed solely towards an escape from their pursuers; and at this time it does not appear that their rage is provoked, particularly by an attack upon themselves, but their unusual intrepidity is directed indiscriminately against all suspicious intruders.

We had now for some days been excessively annoyed with large swarms of blowing-flies, which had prevented our carrying fresh game along with us for more than a single day. It had been our custom at meals, to place our boiled or roasted bison-meat on the grass or the broken boughs of a tree, in the middle {326} of our circle; but this practice we now found it inexpedient to continue, as, before we could finish our repast, our table often became white with the eggs deposited by these flies. We were commonly induced to dispense with our roast meats, unless we chose to superintend the cooking ourselves, and afterwards to devote the exertions of one hand to keep away the flies, while with the other we helped ourselves to what we wished to eat. Our more common practice was to confine ourselves to the single dish of hunter's soup, suffering the meat to remain immersed in the kettle until we were ready to transfer it to our mouths.

Gnats had been rather frequent, and we began to feel once more the persecutions of the ticks, the most tormenting of the insects of this country.

The little pool near our tent afforded all the water that could be found within a very considerable distance. The bisons came in from every direction to drink, and we almost regretted that our presence frighted away the suffering animals with their thirst unslaked.

August 21st. The day was warm and somewhat rainy. Soon after leaving our camp we saw three black bears, and killed one of them. This is the first animal of the kind we have eaten since we left the Missouri; and the flesh, though now not in the best condition, we found deserving the high encomiums commonly lavished upon it. Experienced hunters prefer it to the bison, and indeed to almost every thing except the tail of the beaver.

Black bears had been frequent in the country passed since the 15th. At this season they feed principally upon grapes, plums, the berries of the cornus alba, and C. circinata, and the acorns of a small scrubby oak, common about the sand hills.

They are also fond of the flesh of animals; and it is not uncommon to see them disputing with the wolves and buzzards, for their share of the carcasses {327} of bisons and other animals, which have been left by the hunters or have died of disease. Grapes had evidently been very abundant here, but had been devoured, and the vines torn in pieces by the bears and turkies.

In the middle of the day we found the heat more oppressive, with the mercury at 96°, than we had known it in many instances when the thermometer had indicated a higher temperature by six or eight degrees. This sultry calm, was, however, soon succeeded by thunder-showers, attended with their ordinary effects upon the atmosphere. In the afternoon the country we passed was swarming with innumerable herds of bison, wild horses, deer, elk, &c. while great numbers of minute sand-pipers, yellow-shanked snipes, killdeer plovers, (charadrius vociferus,) and telltale godwits about the river, seemed to indicate the vicinity of larger bodies of water than we had been accustomed of late to see. During the afternoon and the night there was a continual and rapid alternation of bright calm and cloudless skies, with sudden and violent thunder-storms. Our horizon was a little obscured on both sides by the hills and the scattered trees which skirted along the sides of the valley. As we looked out of our tent to observe the progress of the night, we found sometimes a pitchy darkness veiling every object; at others, by the clear light of the stars and the constant flashing from some unseen cloud, we could distinguish all the features of the surrounding scene: our horses grazing quietly about our tent, and the famished jackal prowling near, to seize the fragments of our plentiful supper. The thunder was almost incessant, but its low and distant mutterings were at times so blended with the roaring of the bisons, that more experienced ears than ours might have found a difficulty in distinguishing between them. At a late hour in the night some disturbance was perceived among the horses, occasioned by a herd of wild horses, who had {328} come in, and struck up a hasty acquaintance with their enslaved fellow brutes.

As it was near daylight, we forbore to do any thing to frighten away the intruders, hoping, as soon as the light should be sufficient, to have an opportunity to prove our skill in the operation of "creasing." A method sometimes adopted by hunters for taking the wild horses, is to shoot the animal through the neck, using the requisite care not to injure the spine. There is a particular part of the neck through which a horse may receive a rifle ball without sustaining any permanent injury; the blow is, however, sufficient to produce a temporary suspension of the powers of life, during which the animal is easily taken: this is called creasing, and requires for its successful performance a very considerable degree of skill and precision in the use of the rifle. A valuable but rather refractory mule belonging to our party, escaped from the cantonment near Council Bluffs, a few days before we left that place. He was pursued by two men through the prairies of the Papillon, across the Elk Horn, and finally to the Platte, where, as they saw no prospect of taking him by other means, they resolved upon creasing. The ball, however, swerved an inch or two from its aim, and broke the neck of the animal.