Chapter 23

SCIENTIFIC AND ETHICAL ELEMENTS IN RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS

+1154+. It is remarked above[2103] that the sphere of religion is wholly distinct from that of science (including philosophy and art) and from that of constructive ethics (the determination of rules of conduct), while it is true that the three, being coexistent and original departments of human nature, must influence one another, and must tend to coalesce and be fused into a unitary conception of life. This process goes on in different degrees in different times and places, sometimes one department of thought getting the upper hand and sometimes another, but we cannot suppose that it ever ceases entirely. The relation between religion and its two companions may become clear from a brief survey of the facts given by historical records, this term being used to include all trustworthy sources of information.

THE SCIENTIFIC ELEMENT

+1155+. Man is bound by his constitution to inquire into the nature of things, to seek for the facts of the world, including the human soul. This search is made by both religion and science, but their procedures are somewhat different. Religion demands only the fact of an ultimate moral ground of the world; science observes all phenomena and endeavors to connect and organize them by a thread of natural causation or invariable sequence; religion looks behind phenomena to what it regards as its source. This source is reached by some process of reasoning, either by acceptance, on grounds held to be satisfactory, of a divine revelation, or by inference from the facts of the world (as the presence of design or of moral order); but, when it is reached, all other facts of science are treated as irrelevant. If, then, science confines itself to the observation of sequences, the relation between the two cannot be one of permanent hostility, since their material is not the same. They clash when an old nonreligious belief, adopted by religion, is confronted by an antagonistic scientific discovery; the first result is a protest, but the mind demands harmony, and religion always ends by accepting a well-attested scientific conclusion,[2104] and bringing it into harmony with its fundamental beliefs.

+1156+. Certain phases in the relations between religion and science may be distinguished, but an earlier or cruder phase may continue to exist alongside of a later and higher one. There is first the time when science based on a recognition of natural laws does not exist. The existing science is then one of imagination, the fanciful application of crude observations to the explanation of all phenomena. The _verae causae_ are supernatural agencies--science and religion are one. Explanations of phenomena take the form of what we call myths, what the people of the time regard as true histories. There is no place for the conception of miracle; the supernatural agents are all-powerful, one thing is no harder than another, nothing is strange or inexplicable. There is a crude conception of the unity of God and the world.

+1157+. The period of the rise and decline of the great national religions and the rise of monotheistic cults (along with which may be included Confucianism and Buddhism) is characterized by a great development of philosophy (in China, India, and Greece) and a beginning of scientific research properly so called (especially in astronomy, physics, medicine, and chemistry, in Greece and by the Moslems of Persia). There is a revolt against the older conception of unity. Deities are highly personalized, stand outside of the world, and intervene in human affairs at crises. It is the age of miracles--supernatural Powers, by reason of their intimate social relations with their respective communities, are expected to come to their aid in all important matters, and, for most persons, there is no difficulty in holding that they are able to change the course of nature, which is not regarded as being absolutely fixed. In certain philosophical circles, however, this view is rejected, and nature, with its laws, is conceived of as a separate and independent existence, accompanied or not by gods. Science begins to define the nature of deities, and to limit the sphere of their practical activities--this is a precursor of the fall of the old divinities. The old myths are retained, but they are purified, humanized, and allegorized, and in some cases applied, to new persons and events, according to changes in religious construction.

+1158+. The next phase is the recognition by science of the absolute domination of natural law in the world of phenomena. Religion, when it accepts this view, holds fast to the belief in the ultimate personal moral Force, and conceives of this Force as working and expressing and manifesting itself only in phenomena in accordance with natural law--that is, this law is regarded as the expression of the divine will. Science is thus given liberty to investigate phenomena to the fullest extent, and religion is freed from the incumbrance of physical, psychological, and metaphysical theories; the spheres of the two are sharply defined and kept separate. Such a conception is held to differ from "naturalism" or "materialism" in that it recognizes a Power distinct from matter--to differ from what has been called "humanism" (which makes man the sole power in the world), or from positivism (which regards man as the only worthy object of worship), in that it ascribes to the will and activity of divine spirit the high position of humanity as the center and explanation of the life of the world--to differ from pantheism in that for it God is a personal being who enters into relations with a free humanity--and to differ from agnosticism in that it holds that God may be known from his works.

+1159+. Whatever difficulties may attach to this conception are regarded by its adherents as not insuperable. In all religious systems except Buddhism and Positivism the personality of the ultimate ground of the world is looked on as a necessary datum. In the view under consideration it is held that God exists for the world in which he expresses himself, as the world exists for him, its source and end. The world, with all its parts and incidents, is conceived of as a sacred thing, consecrated to God, and ever striving to realize him in itself, and itself in him. Under the guidance of exacter scientific thought the old crude idea of the unity of the divine and the world is thus transformed into the idea of a unity of will and work. In this conception there is no place for myths, and no need is felt for miracles: histories of the external world and of human society are held to rest on observation of facts, and generally the possibility of miracles is not denied, but they are regarded as unnecessary and improbable--they are thought unnecessary because the conception of the divine character and the religious life are not supposed to be dependent on them, and they are thought improbable because they are held to be not supported by experience. This is the attitude of those persons who accept the conclusions of science; there is, however, great difference of opinion in the religious world on this point.[2105]

+1160+. Certain scientific and philosophical positions discard religion as a department of human life. When it is held that man knows nothing and can know nothing but phenomena, or when, if something is assumed behind phenomena, it is regarded as too vague to enter into personal relations with men, religion as a force in life becomes impossible. In these cases the two conceptions must stand side by side as enemies till one or the other is proved, to the satisfaction of men, to be untenable. Meanwhile it appears that one result of scientific investigations has been to delimitate religion by making it clear that, while it belongs as an influence to all life, it cannot include scientific theories as a part of its content--a result that cannot be otherwise than favorable to its development.

THE ETHICAL ELEMENT

+1161+. Conduct has always been associated with religion. Supernatural Powers have been regarded as members of the tribe or other society, divine headmen part of whose function it is to see that the existing customs are observed, these customs being ethical as well as ritual. Even in such low tribes as the Fuegians and the Australians the anger of some Power is supposed to follow violation of law. Instructions to initiates often include moral relations.[2106] The connection of morals with religion in the more advanced peoples is close. In this regard a distinction is to be made between the creation and the adoption and treatment of ethical ideals.

+1162+. Ethical codes are never created by religion but are always adopted by it from current usages and ideas.[2107] Rules respecting the protection of life, property, and the family are found everywhere--they arise out of natural social relations, even the simplest, and grow in definiteness and refinement with the advance of society, so that things at one period lawful, and accepted by religious authorities, are at a later period prohibited.[2108] Kindness to one's fellows is common in the lowest tribes, and in higher civilizations is formulated as a golden rule (Confucius, Book of Tobit, New Testament, and virtually the Egyptian Ptahhotep, the Old Testament Book of Proverbs, Buddha). Truthfulness, fidelity, and justice have been generally recognized as things to be approved--roughly defined and aimed at in rude communities, more exactly defined and more clearly held up as ideals in higher communities. All these virtues are taken up more or less definitely into religious codes.

+1163+. Less praiseworthy customs and ideas also have been indorsed by religious law. Where sexual license prevails it is made a feature in religious ritual and other ceremonies after it has become a part of social usage and law. It is true that it is generally at first naïve, and, being not illegal, is not a violation of rights and not immoral in the sense in which a refined age regards it.[2109] But it tends, even among savages, to become socially bad, and, when it survives into times of higher standards, is a corrupting influence. In this bad form it was sanctioned by religious authorities in Canaan (even at one time among the Hebrews),[2110] Greece, and Syria, and exists to-day in India as an accompaniment of religious worship. The records of religious cruelty are familiar. Wholesale slaughter, persecution, torture have been abundantly practiced in the name of religion.[2111] Many social institutions (such as slavery and polygamy) countenanced by a given age have been adopted in the religious codes of the age. These examples illustrate the fact that religion does not undertake to fix the details of ethical conduct--its rôle is something different. This statement applies to the institution of taboo, as is remarked above[2112]--its ritual rules are not moral, and its moral rules are adopted from social usage. It was influential in the organization of society, but not in the way of adding anything to the moral code. In modern economic and other social questions that have an ethical side the details are left to science; religion contents itself with insisting on moral principles as having divine authority, and these principles, as moral, are already recognized by society.

+1164+. Discrepancy between codes and conduct has always existed--few religious persons live up to the standards that they regard as authoritative. This failure concerns not the sincerity of the religious society in setting up its standard, but the conditions regulating actual conduct.

A natural consequence of the coexistence of religion and ethics in human life has been that each has influenced the other. Advance in the purity and clearness of social ethical ideals has had the effect of modifying not only religious codes but also religious dogmas. The old belief (founded on the conception of social solidarity) that a family, tribe, or nation was punished by the deity for the sin of one of its members vanished before the recognition of individual responsibility. The doctrines of eternal punishment and vicarious expiatory suffering are now rejected by some religious bodies and circles as unjust. When they are maintained, it is on the ground that they are not unjust--the appeal is to an ethical principle. Apart from the fact of maintenance or rejection, the tendency is to try all doctrines by moral standards. If they are rejected and yet stand, or seem to stand, in sacred books, then either the statements of the books are interpreted in accordance with the moral standards, or the ethical authority of the books is set aside.

+1165+. The influence of religion on ethics has been in the way not of modifying codes but of enforcing existing ideas and customs and giving an impulse to moral life. It has commonly furnished supernatural sanctions--rewards and punishments in this life or in the other. How far this conception has been effective in restraining men from actual ill-doing, in furthering good conduct, and in developing inward loyalty to the right, may be a question. To answer this question would require such a collection of facts as has never been made and perhaps cannot be made. We can see that the belief in divine rewards and punishments has sometimes been a real power, sometimes seems to have no effect. The character of the sanctions varies with the growth of refinement, advancing from the crude savage and later ideas of physical pains and pleasures to the conception of moral degradation or salvation. The recognition of rewards and punishments for one's self as incentives to good living is not regarded as immoral if they are not made the chief motive--the prevailing view is that it is legitimate to look for results of action, that, however, devotion to right must always be independent of results that affect only the actor. Whatever the general effect of belief in supernatural sanctions, it must be concluded that the existence of morality in the world is not dependent on this belief. The common social motives for practicing justice and kindness are so strong and so persistent that these virtues must always retain a certain supremacy apart from men's religious creeds. The term 'supernatural' is used above in the more usual sense of 'opposed to natural,' but, according to one religious point of view, all things are the direct work of God, so that there is no difference between 'natural' and 'supernatural,' and the real sanctions of morality are all the conditions of life, external and internal.[2113]

+1166+. The most important elements that religion (though only in its highest form) has introduced into ethics are a grandiose conception of the basis and nature of the moral life, and a tone of tenderness in the attitude toward the deity and toward men. The moral code it regards as the will of God, conscience as the voice of God, morality as obedience to God, all activity as a coworking with God. Nobility is given to the good life by making it a part of the eternal divine purpose of the world. The conception of human life as an essential factor in the constitution and history of the world is common to religion and philosophy, but religion adds the warmth of personal relation with the divine head of the world. Into the philosophical and ethical view of the unity of humanity religion infuses reverence and affection for the individual as being not merely one of the component parts of the mass but a creature of God, the object of his loving care, capable of redemption and union with God. Here again, while there is no addition to the content of the ethical code, there is added intensity of feeling, which may be a spur to action.

+1167+. In the sphere of religion, as in all spheres of human activity, ideas and tendencies are embodied in human personalities by whom they are defined, illustrated, and enforced--not only in founders of religious systems and other great leaders of thought, but in lesser everyday persons who commend religion, each to his limited circle, by purity of life. The special ethical figures contributed to history by religion are those of the martyr and the saint. The martyr is one who bears witness passively to what he regards as truth at the cost of his life; he thus differs from the hero, who is a man of action. The martyr spirit is found elsewhere than in religious history, but it is in this latter that it has played its special ethical rôle--divergencies from established faiths always excite peculiarly sharp hostility. When it is pure loyalty to convictions of truth, it is an ethical force of great moment--a permanent inspiration.[2114] It is less valuable when it springs from the hope of personal advantage, when a controlling consideration is the belief that one goes directly from the stake (as Moslem warriors believed they went from death in battle) to celestial happiness. There arose at times (for example, in the Decian and Diocletian persecutions of the third century, and in Cordova in the ninth century, when there was no persecution) a fanatical desire for the honors of martyrdom that had to be checked by the Church leaders.

+1168+. The saint is related to the virtuous man as holiness to virtue. The difference between them is one not of ethical practice but of motive and sentiment--holiness is virtue consecrated to the deity. The saint, like the martyr, is often an ethical power. When the title is given officially as an ecclesiastical honor, it may or may not carry with it moral excellence. In Brahmanism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam saintship has sometimes been contaminated with physical and ritual ideas and practices, and so far ceases to have ethical value.[2115]

+1169+. The evil influence of the religious point of view on ethical life has been of the general nature already referred to:[2116] embalming and sanctifying outgrown and injurious social institutions; substituting form for spirit; encouraging asceticism; drawing sharp lines of demarcation between men on the basis of religious opinions, and so far creating an antisocial spirit.

+1170+. The development of the sense of obligation to do right (conscience) is due to so many different influences that it is hard to say exactly what part any one of these has taken in the process. But obviously religion has been an important factor in the result so far reached. By its distinct connection of the favor of the deity with conduct it has tended to fix attention on the latter and to strengthen the feeling that righteousness is the sovereign thing. Though such regard for right-doing is at first mainly egoistic, it easily becomes an ideal, reverenced for its own sake, and more powerful because it is identified with a person and colored by the sentiments of gratitude and love that religion calls forth. Religion, especially in the earlier forms of society, though not only in them, has been a pedagogue to lead men to the acknowledgment of the supremacy of the moral law. It differs from other such guides in the tone of mingled humility and enthusiasm that it gives to this fealty.

+1171+. As to the existence of moral evil in the world, religion can only regard it as the work of supernatural Powers. In the savage period the question does not come up--moral evil is taken as a part of the nature of things and is not curiously inquired into. In later times it is ascribed to some malevolent spirit or deity who is either independent of the supreme deity (as in certain half-civilized tribes) or is tolerated by him (Angro Mainyu, Satan), or to a subordinate employed by him (lies put into the mouths of prophets by a deity),[2117] or to a quite separate divine Power, not necessarily malevolent (as in some philosophical theories). Religion may adopt some philosophical explanation--as that evil is only failure to reach the good, or only the lower step to which we look back from a greater height, or an inevitable accompaniment of a scheme of life characterized by struggle and intended to recognize the freedom of the will and to develop moral autonomy--but, from its own resources it can only say that it is a thing inexplicable by man, belonging to a divine plan that the devout soul accepts as right because God has ordained it.

+1172+. The theory of man's native incapacity to do right (total depravity), held by some religious bodies, is antimoral since it denies human freedom. The attempt to modify it by the supposition of divine impartation of moral power is inadequate unless such power is held to be given to every person, and this amounts to an indirect affirmation of freedom and denial of moral impotency. The theory is, however, practically innocuous, being rejected or ignored by the universal consciousness of freedom.

+1173+. To the questions, raised by philosophy, whether the world is essentially good or bad and whether life is worth living, theistic religion gives a simple answer: a perfect God implies a perfect universe; this answer is germinal and confused in early religion, and is definitely stated only in the higher systems. The great theistic sacred books, Jewish, Christian, Mazdean, and Moslem, all teach that though there are present limitations and sufferings, there is to be a happy issue for the faithful out of all distresses, and the Buddhistic view, though nontheistic, is essentially the same as this; as for other persons, they are sometimes included in a final restoration, when moral evil is to disappear, sometimes are excluded from the happy outcome, but in both cases the scheme of the world is regarded as good. Leaving out of view the question as to the exact interpretation of the facts of life, this optimism is ethically useful as giving cheerfulness and enthusiasm to moral life, with power of enduring ills through the conviction of the ultimate triumph of the right. It may pass into a stolid dogmatic ignoring or denial of the existence of evil, and then tends to become inhuman and therefore ethically bad.[2118] It is, however, commonly saved from such an unfortunate result by common sense and the instinct of sympathy. And it is so general a conception and its goal is so remote that it cannot be a strong and permanent moral force for most persons--immediate experiences are as a rule more powerful than remote expectations. But, so far as it is a living faith, religious optimism is in the main a healthy ethical factor in life.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] That is, phenomena regarded as special acts of a superhuman Power; in the larger conception of religion all phenomena are at once natural and divine acts.

[2] In early religion they are usually ghosts, beasts, plants, or inanimate objects; rarely living men. Cf. Marett's remarks on pre-animistic religion in his _Threshold of Religion_.

[3] Appeal to the Powers carries with it a certain sense of oneness with them, in which we may reasonably recognise the germ of the idea of union with God, which is the highest form of religion. This idea is not consciously held by the savage--it takes shape only in highly developed thought (Plato, the New Testament, Christian and other mysticism). If the impulse to religion be thought to be love of life (so Leuba, in the _Monist_, July, 1901), this is substantially desire for safety and happiness.

[4] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 170.

[5] Gen. xxviii, 20-22; Hos. ii; Ezek. xxxvi; and the Psalter passim.

[6] The classic expression of this view is given by Statius (_Th._ 3, 661): _primus in orbe deos fecit timor_. Cf. L. Marillier, in _International Monthly_, ii (1900), 362 ff.

[7] For numerous examples of the belief in supernatural birth see E. S. Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_.

[8] Modern civilised nations, after victories in war, commonly assume that God has thus pronounced in favor of the justice and right of their side, and sing Te Deums.

[9] This vagueness reappears in some systems of late philosophic speculation. On the question whether a sense of the divine exists anterior to conscious experience cf. Marett, _Threshold of Religion_.

[10] This is only a particular application of the general assumption that all human powers exist in germ in the lowest human forms. Discussions of the sense of the infinite are found in the _Gifford Lectures_ of F. Max Müller and Tiele, and in Jastrow's _Study of Religion_. But early man thinks only of the particular objects with which he comes into contact; the later belief in an Infinite is a product of experience and reflection.

[11] Cf. _Année sociologique_, iii (1898-1899), 205 ff.

[12] On the Fuegians cf. R. Fitzroy, in _Voyages of the Adventure and the Beagle_, ii (1831-1836), 179 ff.; on the African Pygmies, A. de Quatrefages, _The Pygmies_ (Eng. tr., 1895), p. 124 ff.; W. Schmidt, _Pygmäenvölker_, p. 231 ff.; on Ceylon, T. H. Parker, _Ancient Ceylon_, iv; and on the Guaranis and Tapuyas (Botocudos) of Brazil, Waitz-Gerland, _Anthropologie_, iii, 418, and the references in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii, 837 f. The Fuegians are said to stand in awe of a "black man" who, they believe, lives in the forest and punishes bad actions. On the people of New Guinea see C. G. Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, chaps. 16, 25, 48, 55.

[13] Such relations exist between men and the vague force variously called mana, manitu, wakonda; but the conception of this force is scientific rather than religious, though it is brought into connection with religious ideas and usages.

[14] The evidence is summed up in G. d'Alviella's _Hibbert Lectures_. Cf. Brinton, _Religion of Primitive Peoples_, p. 30 ff.

[15] The question whether the religious sense exists in the lower animals is discussed by Darwin, _Descent of Man_ (1871), p. 65 ff., 101 f., and others. The question is similar to that respecting conscience; in both cases there is in beasts a germ that appears never to grow beyond a certain point. On the genesis of the moral sense see (besides the works of Aristotle, Spinoza, Kant, and their successors) G. H. Palmer, _The Field of Ethics_; L. T. Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_; E. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_. In regard to religious feeling we observe in certain animals, especially in the domesticated dog, an attitude of dependence and devotion toward the master as a superior Power that is similar to the attitude of man toward a deity, only with more affection and self-surrender. But in the animal, so far as we can judge, the intellectual and ethical conceptions do not come to their full rights--there is no idea of a Power possessing moral qualities and controlling all phenomena. The beast, therefore, is not religious in the proper sense of the term. But between the beast and the first man the difference may have been not great.

[16] The Central Australians, however, have an elaborate marriage law with the simplest political organization and the minimum of religion.

[17] Cf. L. M. Keasbey, in _International Monthly_, i (1900), 355 ff.; I. King, _The Development of Religion_, Introduction.

[18] _Cf._ Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, chap. xi f.

[19] Beasts, plants, and what we call inanimate objects, also are held, in early stages of civilization, to have souls--a natural inference from the belief that these last are alive and that all things have a nature like that of man.

[20] So Semitic _nafs_ 'soul,' _ruh_ 'spirit'; Sanskrit _diman_ 'soul,' 'self'; Greek _psyche_, _pneuma_; Latin _anima_, _spiritus_; possibly English _ghost_ (properly _gost_ 'spirit'); and so in many low tribes. See Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 432 f.; O. Schrader, in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii, 15.

[21] The expression 'to receive the last breath' (_Æneid_, iv, 684 f.), used by us to represent the last pious duty paid to a dying man, was thus originally understood in a strictly literal sense.

[22] So the Delaware Indians (Brinton, _The Lenâpé_, p. 67).

[23] Cf. the name 'shade' (Greeks, Redmen, and others) for the denizens of the Underworld.

[24] Photographs are now looked on by some half-civilized peoples with suspicion and fear as separate personalities that may be operated on by magical methods. A similar feeling exists in regard to the name of a man or a god--it is held to be somehow identical with the person, and for this reason is often concealed from outsiders.

[25] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 402; Fraser, _Golden Bough_, 1st ed., i, 178 f.; article "Blood" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[26] So in the Old Testament, in the later ritual codes: Deut. xii, 23; Lev. xvii, 14; Gen. ix, 4; and so Ps. lxxii, 14; cf. Koran, xcvi, 2 (man created of blood).

[27] _Iliad_, xiv, 518; xvii, 86; cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p. 40 n. (Arabic expression: "Life flows on the spear-point").

[28] R. B. Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 259.

[29] So friendly (fraternal) compacts between individuals are sealed by exchange of blood, whereby the parties to the covenant become one; many examples are given in H. C. Trumbull's _Blood-Covenant_, 2d ed.

[30] In many languages (Semitic, Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, English, German, etc.) the word for 'soul' is used in the sense of 'person' or 'self.' But the conception of "life" was in early times broader than that of "person" or that of "soul."

[31] An incorporeal or immaterial soul has never been conceivable.

[32] For old-German examples see Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, p. 297; for Guiana, E. F. im Thurn, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xi, 368; compare the belief in the hidden soul, spoken of below, and article "Animals" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[33] So the bush-soul or beast-soul among the E[´w]e-speaking peoples of West Africa (A. B. Ellis, _The E[´w]e-speaking Peoples_, p. 103) and in Calabar (Kingsley, _West African Studies_). Spirits (Castrén, _Finnische Mythologie_, p. 186) and demons (as in witchcraft trials) sometimes take the form of beasts. For American Indian examples see Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 294.

[34] See the Egyptian representations of the soul as bird (Ohnefalsch-Richter, _Kypros, the Bible and Homer_, pl. cvi, 2; cix, 4, etc.); Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 183, compare p. 109. Other examples are given by H. Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, 355 ff.; N. W. Thomas, in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, i, 488. On _siren_ and _ker_ as forms of the soul see Miss Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, pp. 139, 197-217. Cf. Hadrian's address to the soul:

Animula vagula blandula Hospes comesque corporis Quae nunc abibis in loca Pallidula rigida nudula Nec ut soles dabis jocos?

[35] The body is spoken of as the person, for example, in _Iliad_, i. 4; Ps. xvi, 9.

[36] Hence various means of preserving the body by mummification, and the fear of mutilation.

[37] On the cult of skulls in the Torres Straits and Borneo see Haddon, _Head-hunters_, chap. xxiv.

[38] J. H. Bernan, _British Guiana_, p. 134.

[39] See Old Testament passim, and lexicons of the various Semitic languages.

[40] An elaborate account of the loci of qualities is given by Plato in the _Timæus_, 69 ff.

[41] On the importance attached to the liver as the seat of life see Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 149 ff.

[42] Diels, _Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_, 2d ed., i, 101 f., quoted in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, article "Brain and Mind."

[43] _Phædo_, 96 B; _Timæus_, 44.

[44] _Tusc. Disp._ i, 9, 19; cf. Plautus, _Aulul._ ii, 1, 30.

[45] Arabic _dima[^g]_ appears to mean 'marrow,' but how early it was employed for 'brain' is uncertain.

[46] Waitz, _Anthropologie_, iii, 225; cf. Roger Williams, _Languages of America_, p. 86.

[47] _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, iv (the Karens).

[48] Cranz, _Greenland_ (Eng. tr.) i, 184.

[49] Examples in Frazer, _Golden Bough_, chap. ii.

[50] § 25.

[51] For folk-tales of the hidden 'external' soul see Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 389 ff.

[52] The coyote (in _Navaho Legends_, by W. Matthews, p. 91) kept his vital soul in the tip of his nose and in the end of his tail.

[53] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xviii, 310.

[54] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 124. Andrew Lang (in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_) holds that this Australian view comes not from ignorance but from the desire to assign a worthy origin to man in distinction from the lower animals. Some tribes in North Queensland think that the latter have not souls, and are born by sexual union, but the human soul, they say, can come only from a spiritual being. Decision on this question must await further information.

[55] Spencer and Gillen, loc. cit.

[56] _Journal of American Folklore_, xvii, 4.

[57] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 530 (the child is the returned soul of an ancestor).

[58] Codrington, _Melanesians_, p. 154 (a spirit child enters a woman); cf. _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, viii, 297 (the Nusairi), and Lyde, in Curtiss, _Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_, p. 115; Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, i, 50, and chap. 3 passim.

[59] A. B. Ellis, _The E[´w]e-speaking Peoples_, p. 15; _The Tshi-speaking Peoples_, p. 18.

[60] For the belief that the soul of the child comes from the shades see _Journal of American Folklore_, xiv, 83. Further, Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, chap. xii; Lang, in article cited above; Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 96.

[61] Possibly a survival of the theory is to be recognized in the custom, prevalent among some peoples, of naming a male child after his grandfather; examples are given in Gray, _Hebrew Proper Names_, p. 2 f. All such theories appear to rest on a dim conception of the vital solidarity of the tribe or clan--the vital force is held to be transmissible; cf. the idea of _mana_, a force inherent in things.

[62] Gen. ii, 7; cf. Ezek. xxxvii, 10.

[63] _Timæus_, 34 f.

[64] _De Sen._ 21, 77; _Tusc. Disp._ v, 13, 38.

[65] The term 'sacred' in early thought has no ethical significance; it involves only the idea that an object is imbued with some superhuman quality, and is therefore dangerous and not to be touched.

[66] On modes of burial, see article "Funérailles" in _La Grande Encyclopédie_. Other considerations, however (hygienic, for example), may have had influence on the treatment of corpses.

[67] In the Talmud the books of the Sacred Scriptures are said to "defile the hands," that is, they are taboo (_Yadaim_, Mishna, 3, 5).

[68] The lower animals also are sometimes credited with more than one soul: so the bear among the Sioux (Charlevoix, _Nouvelle France_, vi, 28; Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_, iii, 229).

[69] Williams, _Fiji_, i, 241; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 434, cf. Brinton, _Lenâpé_, p. 69; Cross, in _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, iv, 310 (Karens); W. Ellis, _Madagascar_, i, 393; A. B. Ellis, _The E[´w]e-speaking Peoples_, p. 114, and _The Tshi-speaking Peoples_, p. 149 ff.; Kingsley, _West African Studies_, p. 200 ff.; Skeat, _Malay Magic_, p. 50.

[70] _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, iv, 310.

[71] Cf. Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 530.

[72] See below, § 46 ff.

[73] See Maspero (1897), _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 108 f.; W. M. Müller in _Encyclopædia Biblica_, article "Egypt"; Petrie, _Religion and Conscience in Ancient Egypt_, pp. 30 ff., 48 ff.; Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 63 f.; Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_, pp. 86 f., 108; Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 234 ff.

[74] R. H. Charles in his _Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian_, p. 153, holds that the Hebrews made a distinction between soul and spirit (the former being "living" only when the latter is present), and that the recognition of this distinction is necessary for the understanding of the Old Testament conception of immortality. His discussion is valuable if not convincing.

[75] 1 Kings xxii, 21 f.

[76] For the New Testament usage see 1 Cor. vi, 17; 2 Cor. iv, 21; xii, 18; Luke ix, 53 (in some MSS.); Rev. xix, 10; John vi, 63. Cf. Grimm, _Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament_, ed. J. H. Thayer, s. vv. _pneuma_ and _psyche_.

[77] Cf. Rohde, _Psyche_, 3d ed., i, 45 n.; ii, 141, n. 2.

[78] In philosophical thought the two are sometimes distinguished: the _anima_ is the principle of life, and the _animus_ of thinking mind (Lucretius, iii, 94-141).

[79] A curious resemblance to the cult of the 'genius' is found in the E[´w]e (Dahomi) custom of consecrating a man's birthday to his "indwelling spirit" (A. B. Ellis, _The E[´w]e-speaking Peoples_, 105). Compare Horace's designation of the genius as 'naturae deus humanae' (_Ep._ ii, 2, 188), and Servius on Verg., _Georg._ i, 302.

[80] So in Plato and Aristotle, and in Brahmanism.

[81] The evidence for this belief is found in hundreds of books that record observations of savage ideas, and it is unnecessary to cite particular examples.

[82] Ellis, _The E[´w]e-speaking Peoples_, p. 108. Cf. Hinde, _The Last of the Masai_, p. 99.

[83] D. Macdonald, _Africana_, i, 58 f.

[84] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, x, 283; cf. Codrington, _Melanesians_, p. 277.

[85] Rink, _Tales of the Eskimo_, p. 36.

[86] See above, § 41.

[87] Thomas Williams, _Fiji_, i, 244. Cf. W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, i, 303.

[88] Gill, _Myths and Songs from the South Pacific_, p. 160.

[89] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix, 118 f.

[90] Jarves, _History of the Sandwich Islands_, p. 42. Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, 2d ed., ii, 22 f., and Codrington, _The Melanesians_ p. 256 ff.

[91] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 530 f.

[92] Kingsley, _Travels_, p. 444.

[93] _Polynesian Researches_, p. 218.

[94] Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, pp. 112, 185.

[95] _Tailtiriya Brahmana_, 3, 11, 8, 5; _Çatapatha Brahmana_, 12, 9, 3, 12. Cf. Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 253.

[96] The same remark holds of later conceptions of the departed soul and of deities.

[97] Mariner, _Tonga_, pp. 328, 343. Gods also die, as in the Egyptian religious creed (Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 111), in Greek myths and folk-beliefs (the grave of Zeus, etc.), and in the Norse myth of the combat of the gods with the giants.

[98] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, chap. xxv.

[99] 1 Sam. xxvii, 11 f.; Ezek. xxxii, 17 f.; Isa. xiv, 9 f. Eccl. iii, 19 f., ix, 5, 6, 10, which are sometimes cited in support of the opposite opinion, belong not to the Jewish popular belief, but to a late academic system which is colored by Greek skeptical philosophy. All other late Jewish books (Apocrypha, New Testament, Talmud) assume the continued existence of the soul in the other world.

[100] See above, § 43.

[101] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 130, 143 ff., 396; Rhys Davids, _Buddhism_, p. 111 ff.; Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthiunskunde_, ii, 161 ff.; Wiedemann, _Egyptian Doctrine of Immortality_; De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, chap. iii.

[102] On the Homeric usage see Rohde, _Psyche_, as cited above, § 43.

[103] Several early Christian writers (Tatian, _Address to the Greeks_, 13; Justin, _Trypho_, cap. vi) held that souls are naturally mortal, but these views did not affect the general Christian position.

[104] Such as Ezek. xviii, 4. This view appears in _Clementine Homilies_, vii, 1.

[105] Cf. W. R. Alger, _Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life_; Harvard Ingersoll Lectures on "The Immortality of Man."

[106] Cf. H. Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, chap. xv; article "Blest, abode of the," in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[107] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, chap. xii f.

[108] Cf. Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, i, 254, and chap. iii.

[109] In _Primitive Culture_, chap. xii.

[110] In _La survivance de l'âme_, passim.

[111] See also the discussion of the subject in Alger, op. cit. (in § 53), p. 62 f. This work contains a bibliography of the future state (by Ezra Abbot) substantially complete up to the year 1862.

[112] Cf. Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, p. 295 f.

[113] M. Kingsley, _Studies_, p. 122; _Travels_, p. 445.

[114] Haddon, _Head-hunters_, p. 179 ff.

[115] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, Index, s.v. _Alcheringa_; id., _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 271.

[116] A. B. Ellis, _Yoruba_, p. 128.

[117] Cf. especially the Central Australian conception.

[118] It is involved in all monistic systems. It appears also to be silently made in the Old Testament: the lower animals, like man, are vivified by the "breath of God" (Ps. civ, 29, 30; cf. Gen. ii, 7; vii, 22), and are destroyed in the flood because of the wickedness of man (Gen. vi, 5-7); cf. also Rom. viii, 22.

[119] So in the Upanishads (but not in the poetic Veda); see Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 227; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 257. Tylor (_Primitive Culture_, ii, 18) points out that in this conception we have a suggestion of the theory of development in organic life.

[120] So the Central Australians (Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 514), the Californian Maidu (Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 246). Cf. the cases in which precautions are taken against a ghost's entering its old earthly abode.

[121] _Rig-Veda_, 15.

[122] Spencer and Gillen, loc. cit. and p. 516 f.

[123] Probably the Greek _ker_ ([Greek: kêr]) and the Teutonic 'nightmare,' French _cauchemar_ (_mara_, an incubus, or succuba), belong in this class of malefic ghosts.

[124] See below, § 92.

[125] Steinmetz, _Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe_, i, 141 ff.

[126] For West Africa see above, § 43, n. 2; for the Norse _fylgja_ ('follower') cf. Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, p. 292 ff.

[127] § 38, n. 2.

[128] A transitional stage is marked by the theory, in a polypsychic system, that one soul remains near the body while another goes to the distant land.

[129] So, perhaps, among the eastern Polynesians (W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, i, 303) and the Navahos (Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 38).

[130] Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, chap. iii, 183 ff.; Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 85; Rink, _Tales of the Eskimo_, p. 40.

[131] _Odyssey_, xi (by the encircling Okeanos); Williams, _Fiji_, p. 192; Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 288 f.; Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, p. 290; _Rig-Veda_, x, 63, 10; ix, 41, 2.

[132] Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 65; Charon; Saussaye, op. cit., p. 290; Rohde, _Psyche_, 3d ed., i, 306. For the story given by Procopius (_De Bell. Goth._ iv, 20) see Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 64 f.

[133] Saussaye, op. cit., p. 291.

[134] _Rig-Veda_, x, 154, 4, 5; Lister in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi, 51 (moon). Cf. Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 64; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 129, 206; Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 284 ff.; Müller, _Amerikanische Urreligionen_, i, 288 ff.; Saussaye, op. cit., p. 291; Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, 232 f.

[135] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 185 f.; Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 78.

[136] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 257; Lawes (on New Guinea), in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, viii, 371; Callaway, _Zulu Nursery Tales_, p. 316; Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 215; Rink, _Tales of the Eskimo_, p. 37; Sir G. S. Robertson, _The Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush_, p. 380 f.

[137] _Æneid_, vi.

[138] _Odyssey_, xi, 489; Isa. xxxviii, 10 ff.; Prov. iii, 16, etc.

[139] 1 Sam. xxviii, 14; Ezek. xxxii, 19-32; Isa. xiv, 9-15; xxxviii, 18. For the early Babylonian conception of the Underworld see the _Descent of Ishtar_ (in Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, chap. xxv); S. H. Langdon, "Babylonian Eschatology," in _Essays in Modern Theology and Related Subjects_ (the C. A. Briggs Memorial).

[140] Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 175.

[141] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 83 ff.

[142] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_; Callaway, _Amazulus_, pp. 12, 151 f.; W. Ellis, _Madagascar_, i, 393 (cf. J. Sibree, _Madagascar_, p. 312); A. B. Ellis, _The E[´w]e_, p. 107 f., and _The Tshi_, p. 156 ff.; M. Kingsley, _Travels_, pp. 461, 480; R. B. Dixon, _The Shasta_, p. 469.

[143] Williams, _Fiji_, p. 194.

[144] Ezek. xxxii, 23, 27; Isa. xiv, 15.

[145] Jastrow, op. cit., p. 601; Ezek. xxxii.

[146] _Iliad_, xxiii, 71.

[147] Jastrow, op. cit., p. 602; _Iliad_, i, 3 ff.; 2 Sam. xxi, 10; Prov. xxx, 17.

[148] Hence special desire for sons, who were the natural persons to perform funeral rites for fathers.

[149] So also Plato, _Gorgias_, 80 (524).

[150] Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 110.

[151] Marillier, _La survivance de l'âme_.

[152] W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, chap. ix.

[153] Marillier, op. cit.

[154] Smith, _Virginia_, p. 36.

[155] Will and Spinden, _The Mandans_ (_Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology_, Harvard University), p. 133.

[156] So among the Betsileos and the Zulus (Marillier, op. cit.)

[157] So in Madagascar. Cf. Ezek. xxxii, 18 ff.; Isa. xiv, 4 ff.

[158] _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, iv, 312 f.

[159] S. St. John, _The Far East_, 2d ed., i, 182 f.; cf., i, 184.

[160] Marillier, op. cit. Here suicide appears to be regarded as a heroic act, and the women in question perish in doing a service to the tribe.

[161] Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 261; Westermarck, _Moral Ideas_, Index, s.v. _Future Life_; Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, ii, 271 ff.; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 83 ff.

[162] Castrén, _Finnische Mythologie_, p. 126; Turner, _Samoa_, p. 259; Lawes, "New Guinea," in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, viii, 370; Rochas, _Nouvelle Calédonie_ (_Bulletin de la Société d'anthropologie_, 1860), p. 280; Lister, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi, 51; Dixon, op. cit., p. 262; Müller, _Amerikanische Urreligionen_, p. 289 (Brazil).

[163] See Westermarck, loc. cit.

[164] Hawkins, _Creek Country_, p. 80.

[165] For details on this point see L. Marillier, _La survivance de l'âme_.

[166] Williams and Calvert, _Fiji_, p. 193 f.

[167] _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 1842, p. 172, and 1852, p. 211; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 530 f.

[168] Sepulchral inscriptions of Tabnit and Eshmunazar, and the inscriptions of Antipatros (_Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum_, vol. i, part i, p. 9 ff.; Lidzbarski, _Handbuch der nordsemitischen Epigraphik_, part ii, pl. iv, 1, 2; part i, p. 117; Rawlinson, _Phoenicia_, p. 394 f.).

[169] Breasted, _Egypt_, p. 173 ff.; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 252; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 336, 380, 443; _Texts of Taoism_, ed. J. Legge, ii, 6 f. (in _Sacred Books of the East_, vol. 40); Legge, _Religions of China_, p. 82; De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, pp. 6, 25, 54, 70 ff., 117; Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 158 ff.; Plato, _Republic_, 614 (story of Er); Book of Enoch passim.

[170] W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, chap. xv; Will and Spinden, _The Mandans_, p. 133; Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 261; _Rig-Veda_, i, 356; vii, 104. Cf. article "Blest, abode of the" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[171] Tartarus is as far below Hades as the earth is below the sky (_Iliad_, viii, 16).

[172] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 379 ff.

[173] Wiedemann, _Egyptian Doctrine of Immortality_, p. 50 f.; Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 183 ff.; Breasted, _History of Egypt_, pp. 64, 173 ff. Different conceptions, however, appear in different stages of eschatological thought. Probably the older view was that all the dead descended to the Underworld. According to another view, the good ascended to heaven and accompanied the sun on his daily voyage over the heavenly ocean.

[174] _Revue archéologique_, 1903, and Reinach, _Orpheus_ (Eng. tr.), p. 88 f.

[175] _Gorgias_, 523-526; _Republic_, x, 614; _Laws_, x, 904 f.; _Phædo_, 113 f.

[176] Isa. lxv, 17-21; lxvi, 24; Enoch, x, 12-22.

[177] Enoch, xxii.

[178] Enoch, civ, 6; xcix, 11.

[179] _Secrets of Enoch_, chaps. vii-x. For the third heaven cf. 2 Cor. xii, 2-4. Varro also (quoted in Augustine, _De Civ. Dei_, vii, 6) assigned the souls of the dead to a celestial space beneath the abode of the gods.

[180] Matt. xxv, 46; 1 Thess. iv, 17; 2 Pet. ii, 4; iii, 13; Rev. xx, 15; xxi, 1; 2 Cor. xii, 2-4.

[181] See, for example, the _Revelation of the Monk of Evesham_, Eng. tr. by V. Paget (New York, 1909).

[182] _Republic_, x, 614.

[183] Herzog-Hauck, _Real-Encyklopädie_, Index, s.v. _Fegfeuer_; _Jewish Encyclopedia_, article "Purgatory."

[184] American Indians (H. C. Yarrow, _Introduction to the Study of Mortuary Customs among the North American Indians_, p. 5 ff.); Egypt (Wilkinson, _The Ancient Egyptians_, chap. x); see article "Funérailles" in _La Grande Encyclopédie_. Grant Allen, in _The Evolution of the Idea of God_, chap. iii, connects the idea of bodily resurrection with the custom of inhumation and the idea of immortality with cremation, but this view is not borne out by known facts.

[185] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2nd ed., i, 262, 278.

[186] The doctrine of reincarnation in India followed on that of Hades, and stood in a certain opposition to it. Cf. Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 204 ff., 530 n. 3; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, pp. 211, 252 ff.

[187] _Zoroastrian Studies_, p. 236. Prexaspes says that "if the dead rise again" Smerdis maybe the son of Cyrus. He may mean that this is not probable. Smerdis, he would in that case say, is certainly dead, and this pretender can be the son of Cyrus only in case the dead come to life.

[188] Diogenes Laertius in Müller, _Fragmenta Historicorum Gracorum_, i, 289; cf. Plutarch, _Isis and Osiris_, 47, and Herodotus, i, 131-140. See Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii 158 ff.

[189] Occasional reincarnation in human form is found elsewhere. The Mazdeans made it universal.

[190] There is no certain or probable reference to it in the Old Testament before this. Ezek. xxxvii, 1-14, is obviously a figurative prediction of national (not individual) resuscitation, and the obscure passage Isa. xxvi, 19 seems to refer to the reëstablishment of the nation, and in any case is not earlier than the fourth century B.C. and may be later.

[191] Dan. xii; 2 Macc. vii, 14; Enoch, xci, 10; xxii.

[192] 1 Cor. xv, 23; Rom. vi, 4; viii, 11; John vi, 54.

[193] Acts xxiv, 15; John v, 28 f.

[194] Apokatastasis (Col. i, 20; cf. Rom. xi, 32).

[195] Cf. Steinmetz, _Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strase_.

[196] Westermarck, _Moral Ideas_, ii, 234, 245 f.

[197] See below, on necromancy, § 927.

[198] See § 360 ff. (ancestor-worship) and § 350 ff. (divinization of deceased persons).

[199] In Egypt there grew up also an elaborate system of charms for the protection of the dead against hostile animals, especially serpents,--a body of magical texts that finally took the form of the "Book of the Dead" (Breasted, _History of Egypt_, pp. 69, 175; Steindorff, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 153 ff.).

[200] _Çatapatha Brahmana_, xii, 9, 3, 12. Cf. W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, i, 193 f.

[201] Breasted, op. cit., p. 249.

[202] 1 Cor. xv, 29.

[203] 2 Macc. xii, 40 ff. Possibly the custom came to the Jews from Egypt. For later Jewish ideas on this point see _Jewish Encyclopedia_, article "Kaddish."

[204] Smith and Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_, article "Canon of the Liturgy"; Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, article "Prayers for the Dead."

[205] On savage logic cf. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_, chap. iv.

[206] See § 18 ff.

[207] See § 635 ff.

[208] As to the efficiency of such tradition, compare the way in which mechanical processes are transmitted by older workmen to younger, always with the possibility of gradual improvement. In literary activity, also, tradition plays a great part; a young people must serve an apprenticeship before it can produce works of merit.

[209] Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, sec. 35; Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, p. 43 ff.; Pridham, _Ceylon_, i, 454 (Veddas); _United States Exploring Expedition_, i, 124 (Fuegians); Fison and Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, p. 278 (Australian Grounditch); Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas_, p. 328 (Bushmen); Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_, i, 207 (North American Snake tribes); Rivet, in _The American Anthropologist_, 1909 ("The Jivaros of Ecuador").

[210] Cf. I. King, _The Development of Religion_, p. 66 ff.

[211] Even in higher forms of religion, as the Vedic, sacrifice and other ceremonies are supposed to have a magical power over the gods.

[212] This is a part of the belief in the mysterious energy (_mana_) potentially resident in all things.

[213] See, for example, the bird dances described by Haddon (_Head-hunters_, p. 358); compare W. Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 83 al. Dances are now often given for the amusement of the public. Clowns often form a feature of such ceremonies; see Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 230; R. B. Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_ (_Bulletin of American Museum of Natural History_, xvii, part iii, p. 315 ff.).

[214] Howitt, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xvi, 327 ff.

[215] Miss Fletcher, _Indian Ceremonies_, p. 263 n.

[216] Miss Kingsley, _Studies_, p. 126.

[217] E. F. im Thurn, _Indians of Guiana_, vii, iv, 5.

[218] E. F. im Thurn, op. cit., vi.

[219] Of the same simple festive nature as dances are the plays or sports that are not infrequent among savages and half-civilized tribes. In the Areoi dramatic performances priests are ridiculed (W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, p. 187).

[220] Miss Fletcher, "Emblematic Use of the Tree in the Dakotan Group" (in _Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science_, 1896).

[221] So among the hill tribes of North Arracan (_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, ii, 239) and the North American Indians (Featherman, _Races of Mankind_, division iii, part i, p. 37 etc.). Such dances are performed by the Tshi women in the absence of the men (A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi_, p. 226).

[222] See below, § 903, on imitative magic.

[223] Riedel, in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xvii.

[224] Haddon, _Head-hunters_, p. 139.

[225] _Journal of American Folklore_, xvii, 32. Cf. the dance for the benefit of a sick man (R. B. Dixon, "Some Shamans of Northern California," op. cit., xvii, 23 ff.).

[226] _Journal of American Folklore_, iv, 307. Cf. Will and Spinden, _The Mandans_, pp. 129 ff., 143 ff. The gods themselves, also, have their festive dances (W. Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 83), and are sometimes represented as the authors of the sacred chants (ibid. p. 225).

[227] See W. Matthews, loc. cit.

[228] See, further, _Journal of American Folklore_, iii, 257; iv, 129; xii, 81 (basket dances); R. B. Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 183 ff. (numerous and elaborate, and sometimes economic); Robertson, _Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush_, chap. 33; N. W. Thomas, _Australia_, chap. 7. Thomas describes many Australian games, and Dixon (_The Shasta_, p. 441 ff.) Californian games. For stories told by the natives of Guiana see above, § 106.

[229] 2 Sam. vi, 5.

[230] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 133 f., 409 f.

[231] A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi_, p. 226.

[232] So, probably, the Old-Hebrew ark.

[233] See the references in article "Circumambulation" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[234] Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, 3d ed., p. 542. This sexual instinct is carried back by Darwin (_Descent of Man_, chap. xii) to the lower animals.

[235] Cf. Gen. iii, 7. There is no conclusive evidence that the concealment of parts of the body by savages is prompted by modesty (cf. Ratzel, _History of Mankind_, i, 93 ff.), but it may have contributed to the development of this feeling.

[236] Cf. Y. Him, _Origins of Art_, chap. xvi. For the Maori usage see R. Taylor, _New Zealand and its Inhabitants_, chap. xviii.

[237] Cf. Lucien Carr, "Dress and Ornaments of Certain American Indians" (in _Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society_, 1897).

[238] Ratzel, op. cit., Index, s.v. _Tattooing_; Boas, _The Central Eskimo_, p. 561; Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chap. ii. Among some tribes (as the Fijians) untattooed persons are denied entrance into the other world. Naturally the origin of tattoo is by some tribes referred to deities: see Turner, _Samoa_, p. 55 f.; _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix, 100 (New Zealand); xvii, 318 ff. (Queen Charlotte Islands and Alaska). The Ainu hold that it drives away demons (Batchelor, _The Ainu_, p. 22).

[239] Turner, op. cit., p. 141.

[240] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, chap. vi.

[241] Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, p. 31 ff.; cf. chap. i.

[242] Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., chap. vii.

[243] On a possible connection between tattoo marks and stigmata cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 3d ed., p. 334.

[244] See § 23. Blood of men is sometimes drunk, simply to assuage thirst, or as a curative (Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 462, 464).

[245] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, Index, s.v. _Art, decorative_; _Journal of American Folklore_, vol. xviii, no. 69 (April, 1905).

[246] So the dress of the Jewish high priest (Ex. xxviii), that of the Lamas of Tibet (Abbé Huc, _Travels in Tartary, Tibet and China_, ii, chap. ii; Rhys Davids, _Buddhism_, p. 250), and costumes in some Christian bodies.

[247] Of the same nature is Jeremy Taylor's view (_An Apology for authorized and set forms of Liturgy_, Question 1, § 7 ff.) that, as earthly monarchs are not addressed in the language of everyday familiar intercourse, so it is not proper that the deity should be approached with other than choice and dignified words--public prayers should be carefully worded.

[248] Cf. A. C. Haddon, article "Art" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[249] A. de Quatrefages, _The Pygmies_, p. 157.

[250] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, Index, s.v. _Hunting_.

[251] Batchelor, _The Ainu_ (the hunting of the bear); and so many American tribes, and, in part, some half-civilized peoples, as the Arabs of North Africa.

[252] Teit, in _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, ii, 280.

[253] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p. 291 ff.

[254] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 8 (cf. p. 24).

[255] Hollis (op. cit., p. 6 f.) relates that on a certain occasion when his party was driven from its wagons by a swarm of bees, a Nandi man appeared, announced that he was of the bee totem, and volunteered to restore quiet, which he did, going stark naked into the swarm. His success was doubtless due to his knowledge of the habits of bees.

[256] So in the Tsimshian ceremony in eating the first fish caught (Boas, in _Fifth Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science_, vol. lix, p. 51). Cf. the Jewish rule (Ex. xii, 46), which may have had a similar origin.

[257] Teit, in _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, ii, 282. A similar provision is mentioned in Ex. xvi, 16-20.

[258] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 167 f., and _Native Tribes of Northern Australia_, p. 308 etc.; Strehlow, _Die Aranda-und Loritjastämme in Zentralaustralien_, part ii, p. 39 etc.

[259] Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 285 f.

[260] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p. 177 f.

[261] Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. 149.

[262] Seligmann, op. cit., p. 291 ff.

[263] Here again the taboos are precautions against injurious supernatural influences.

[264] He is said also to imitate the cries of animals--that is, he combines natural means with supernatural.

[265] Spencer and Gillen, and Strehlow, loc. cit.

[266] This feeling for the tribal life may be called germinal public spirit. Cf. above, § 103.

[267] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., ii, 238 ff.

[268] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 526.

[269] Frazer (_Golden Bough_, 2d. ed., ii, 43 ff.) refers to B. Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, ii, 311; Strachey, _Historie_, p. 84; Krapf, _Travels_, p. 69 f.; Mone, _Geschichte des Heldenthums im nördlichen Europa_, i, 119. See, further, T. Williams and Calvert, _Fiji_, p. 181 f.; W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, ii, 169.

[270] Ex. xxii, 29 [28]; xiii, 12, 13.

[271] Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., chap. vi.

[272] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxv, 104 ff.

[273] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 78.

[274] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiii, 18; xxvi, 30. Other examples are given by Frazer in his _Golden Bough_, 2d. ed., i, 81 ff., 163; he cites cases of persons (priests and kings) held responsible for rain, and put to death if they failed to supply it.

[275] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 145. On certain Roman ceremonies (that of the lapis manalis and others) that have been supposed to be connected with rain making see Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_, p. 106; W. W. Fowler, _Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_, iii.

[276] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 23.

[277] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 454; Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, i, 52 ff.; ii, 532 ff.

[278] There is, of course, another side to the character of ghosts--sometimes they are friendly.

[279] Ploss, _Das Kind_, 2d ed., i, chap. iv.

[280] Numb. xix.

[281] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 39 ff.

[282] J. J. M. de Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, chap. ii.

[283] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, new ed., p. 321 f.

[284] Josh. vii (story of Achan).

[285] Examples are given in Frazer's _Golden Bough_, loc. cit.

[286] Lev. xiv, 1-9.

[287] Lev. xvi. Cf. the vision (Zech. v, 5 ff.) in which wickedness (or guilt), in the shape of a woman, is represented (in no brotherly spirit) as being transferred from Jewish soil to Shinar (Chaldea).

[288] Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, p. 95 ff.

[289] Later the festival was certainly connected with the driving forth of winter, but its earlier form was, probably, as given above.

[290] W. W. Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, Index, s.v. _Mamurius, Lupercalia_. The beating was supposed also to have fertilizing power; cf. S. Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, i, 100 ff.

[291] Deut. xvi; Ex. xii.

[292] In some savage tribes the older men seem to have nothing to do but arrange ceremonies.

[293] There is a faint survival, perhaps, in the use of incense in churches.

[294] A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart_, ed. E. H. Meyer, Index; J. H. King, _The Supernatural_, i, 111 ff.

[295] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xii, 129 ff. (Andaman Islands); ibid. xxv, 188 (East Africa); Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chap. iii; Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 422 ff.

[296] A. L. Kroeber, in _University of California Publications in American Archæology and Ethnology_, ii, viii; Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, chap. xliii (on homosexual relations).

[297] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 326; iii, 204 ff.; Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, Index, s.v. _Puberty_; Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 55.

[298] See below, under "Taboo."

[299] Emasculation, of course, does not belong here; it is not a custom of initiation proper.

[300] Cf. Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 135.

[301] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxvii, 406 (Omahas). On mutilation as a general religious rite see H. Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, 189, 290, and as punishment, Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, Index, s.v. _Mutilation_.

[302] Roscher, _Lexikon_, articles "Attis," "Kybele." Origen is a noteworthy example in Christian times; cf. Matt. xix, 12.

[303] For details of diffusion, methods, etc., see article "Circumcision" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[304] This is an incision of the penis from the meatus down to the scrotal pouch.

[305] Herodotus, ii, 37.

[306] Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 137 f.

[307] Ploss, _Das Kind_, 2d ed., i, 368 f.

[308] On phallic cults see below, § 388 ff.

[309] Gen. xxiv, 2 f.

[310] A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba_, p. 66.

[311] J. G. Frazer, in the _Independent Review_, iv, 204 ff.

[312] Circumcision of females is the removal of the clitoris and the labia minora; introcision is the enlargement of the vaginal orifice by tearing it downwards; infibulation is the closing of the labia just after circumcision. Cf. Ploss, _Das Weib_, 2d ed., i, chap. v.

[313] Cf. also the great extent to which masturbation prevails among savages. Cf. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, chap. xliii.

[314] A rod is thrust through the glans of the penis; see Roth, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxii, 45 (the palang); cf. Ploss, _Das Weib_, 2d ed., i, chap. xi; J. Macdonald, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx, 116.

[315] Cf. the defloration of young women (by certain officially appointed men) on the occasion of their arriving at the age of puberty; Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 503; Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 93; Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 347.

[316] Gen. xvii. Islam has no divine sanction for circumcision; it is not mentioned in the Koran, doubtless because Mohammed took it for granted as a current usage.

[317] 1 Sam. xvii, 26.

[318] Article "Circumcision (Egyptian)" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, and the literature there cited.

[319] Deut. x, 16; Jer. ix, 25 f.; Rom. ii, 28 f.

[320] Article "Brotherhood (artificial)" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[321] Cf. H. C. Trumbull, _The Blood-Covenant_, passim; W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, new ed., Index, s.v. _Blood Covenant_.

[322] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 422 ff.; cf. Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p. 185 f.

[323] Alice Fletcher, _Indian Ceremonies_, p. 278.

[324] §§ 533, 1095 ff., 1161 ff.

[325] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxv, 295 (South Australia); Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 531 f.

[326] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii, 296 (Queensland); Howitt, loc. cit.; Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 221, 223, and _Native Tribes of Northern Australia_, p. 361.

[327] H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_, chap. ii ff.

[328] The office of sponsor exists in embryonic form in many savage communities; for boys the sponsor is the father or other near relation, for girls an old woman. The duties of savage sponsors usually continue only during the period of initiation.

[329] Westermarck, _Human Marriage_; H. N. Hutchinson, _Marriage Customs in Many Lands_; Ch. Letourneau, _The Evolution of Marriage and of the Family_; Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_; and the references in G. E. Howard's _History of Matrimonial Institutions_, i, chaps. i-iv; cf. Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_.

[330] See below, § 429 ff.

[331] Similar restrictions existed in Greece and Rome. An Athenian citizen was not allowed to marry a foreign woman. In Rome connubium held in the first instance between men and women who were citizens, though it might be extended to include Latins and foreigners. In India marriage came to be controlled by caste. These local and national rules gradually yielded to rules based on degrees of consanguinity. Marriage between near relations was looked on with disfavor in Greece and Rome and by the Hebrews, and the Old Testament law on this point has been adopted (with some variations) by Christian nations. For the Arab customs see W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, chap. iii.

[332] Cf. Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 462 ff.; W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, 1st ed., p. 62 ff.; Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, chaps. v, vi.

[333] In some cases, among the Todas of South India for example, the defloration takes place shortly before the girl reaches the age of puberty (Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 703); more generally it is performed when she reaches this age. This difference of time is not essential as regards the significance of the ceremony.

[334] Cf. Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 224. For the Old Testament Song of Songs see Budde's commentary on that book.

[335] Sacrifices to local or other deities formed a part of marriage ceremonies in Greece and Rome; Hera and Juno were guardians of the sanctity of marriage. No religious ceremony in connection with marriage is mentioned in the Old Testament; a trace of such a ceremony occurs in the book of Tobit (vii, 13).

[336] _The Mystic Rose_, p. 322, etc.

[337] Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, article "Marriage."

[338] The danger might continue into early childhood and have to be guarded against; for a Greek instance see Gardner and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, p. 299.

[339] For details see Ploss, _Das Kind_, and works on antiquities, Hebrew, Greek, and Roman.

[340] Cf. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, i, 72 ff.; iv, 244 ff.

[341] Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 228 ff.; and _The Shasta_, p. 453 ff.; Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 313 ff.; Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 64 f.; D. Kidd, _Savage Childhood_, p. 7; Lev. xii; article "Birth" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[342] See above, § 55 f.

[343] Tylor (_Primitive Culture_, ii, 3 ff.) suggests that such an idea may have been supposed to account for the general resemblance between parents and children.

[344] R. H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_, p. 212.

[345] Haddon, _Head-hunters_, p. 353 ff.

[346] Turner, _Samoa_, chap. iii. In some Christian communities the saint on whose festival day a child is born is adopted as the child's patron saint. In the higher ancient religions there were religious observances in connection with the birth and rearing of children, special divine care being sought; see, for example, the elaborate Roman apparatus of divine guardians.

[347] Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 231; H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_, p. 40 f.

[348] For methods of burial see article "Funérailles" in _La Grande Encyclopédie_.

[349] Robertson, _The Kafirs_, chap. xxxiii; Batchelor, _The Ainu_, chap. xlviii (the goddess of fire is asked to take charge of the spirit of the deceased).

[350] The food and drink (of which only the soul is supposed to be consumed by the deceased) are often utilized by the surviving friends; such funeral feasts have played a considerable part in religious history and survive in some quarters to the present day.

[351] A. B. Ellis, _The E[´w]e_ (Dahomi), chap. viii; A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_, p. 160 f.; Herodotus, iv, 71 f. (Scythians); v, 5 (Thracians). Cf. the Greek Anthesteria and the Roman Parentalia.

[352] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi, 121.

[353] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 498.

[354] For elaborate Sioux ceremonies on the death of a child see Miss Fletcher, _Indian Ceremonies_ (the Shadow or Ghost Lodge).

[355] On the disposal of the corpse, by inhumation, cremation, exposure, etc., see article "Funérailles" cited above; O. Schrader, in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii, 16 ff.

[356] This may be in part a hygienic precaution.

[357] Haddon, _Head-hunters_, p. 91. Cf. G. L. Kittredge, "Disenchantment by Decapitation," in _Journal of American Folklore_, vol. xviii, no. 68 (January, 1905).

[358] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, chap. iii.

[359] Cf. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, chap. xxxvii ff.; Saussaye, _Science of Religion_ (Eng. tr.), chap. xviii; and the references given in these works.

[360] See below, on removal of taboos.

[361] Fraser, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 306 f.

[362] Cf. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, index, s.v. _Homicide_.

[363] See below, § 201; cf. the Athenian Anthesteria and Thargelia.

[364] In Ex. iv, 24 f., Yahweh is about to kill Moses, apparently for neglecting a ritual act.

[365] Examples in Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 429 ff.; cf. Knox, _Religion in Japan_, p. 39.

[366] See the practices described by Rivers, in _The Todas_, Index, s.vv. _Bathing_, _Purification_.

[367] Schneckenburger, _Proselytentaufe_; article "Proselyten" in Herzog, _Real-Encyklopädie_.

[368] In the New Testament baptism is said to be "for the remission of sins" (Acts ii, 38), and is called "bath of regeneration" (Tit. iii, 3); a quasi-magical power is attributed to it in 1 Cor. xv, 29.

[369] For the Mazdean use of urine see _Vendidad_, Fargard v, 160; xvi, 27, etc.; for use of buffalo's dung, Rivers, _The Todas_, pp. 32, 173 f., etc.

[370] Rivers, op. cit., p. 367.

[371] Compare, however, the use of natural pigments for decorative and religious purposes; see above, § 115 ff.

[372] The Toda ceremony of burning a woman's hand in the fifth month of pregnancy, and a child's hand on the occasion of a funeral (Rivers, _The Todas_, pp. 315, 374), may be purificatory, but this is not clear; cf. Frazer, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xi.

[373] Lev. xv, 30; xvi, 15 ff.

[374] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 196.

[375] Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, p. 888 ff.; Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_, p. 375; Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, p. 150 ff.

[376] Lev. xvi.

[377] Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, Index, s.v.

[378] The native name of the festival, _puskita_ (busk), is said to mean 'a fast,' but the ceremonies are largely purificatory; Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p. 177 ff.

[379] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 300 ff.

[380] _Odyssey_, iv, 730.

[381] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, ii, 352; Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 269 f.

[382] H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_, chap. ix; G. Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, pp. 60-78.

[383] Lev. viii; cf. Copleston, _Buddhism_, chap. xviii; Lippert, _Priesterthum_ (see references in the headings to the chapters).

[384] So in some Christian bodies.

[385] The details are given at great length by Westermarck, op. cit., chap. xxxvii, with references to authorities.

[386] It is by nature nonsacred, and so remains so long as it has not been made sacred by the special ceremonies that abound in savage communities. We have here the germ of the dualistic conception of man's constitution--the antagonism between spirit and body.

[387] Hollis, _The Nandi_, pp. 58, 92.

[388] Cf. the danger to a common man of eating a chief's food; see Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 321 f.

[389] Frazer, In _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xv, 94, quoted by Westermarck.

[390] H. Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, § 140.

[391] In Christianity in connection with the eucharistic meal and other observances.

[392] The true principle is stated in Isa. lviii, 3 ff.

[393] Cf. article "Calendar" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[394] For a series of dance seasons see Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 283 ff.; cf. Basset, in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii, 513.

[395] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 94 ff.

[396] Hollis, _The Masai_, Index, s.v. _Moon_.

[397] Rivers, _The Todas_, Index, s.v. _Moon_.

[398] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii, 835.

[399] 1 Sam. xx, 6 (clan festival); Isa. i, 13; Numb. xxviii, 11.

[400] Hastings, op. cit., ii, 555.

[401] Lev. xxiii, 33; Ps. lxxxi, 4 [3]. On the Sabbath as perhaps full-moon day, see below, § 608.

[402] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 449 ff.

[403] Buckley, in Saussaye's _Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_, 2d ed., p. 83.

[404] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 677 ff.

[405] Lev. xxiii, 23 f.; Numb. xxix, 1 ff. The Hebrew text of Ezek. xl, 1, makes the year begin on the tenth day of some month unnamed; but the Hebrew is probably to be corrected after the Greek. Cf. Nowack, _Hebräische Archäologie_, ii, 158 f.

[406] Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 278.

[407] Cf. A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_ (1898), p. 55.

[408] J. W. Fewkes, "The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi" (in _The American Anthropologist_, xi).

[409] Prescott, _Peru_, i, 104, 127.

[410] A Saracen cult is described in _Nili opera quædam_ (Paris, 1639), pp. 28, 117.

[411] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 100; Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 593 ff.; cf. Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. xviii f.; Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, iii, 132 f.

[412] For some fasting observances in astral cults see Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, ii, 312 f.

[413] As food is the most pressing need.

[414] Judg. ix, 27; Neh. viii, 10.

[415] A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_ (1898), Index, s.vv.; Gardner and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, pp. 287 f., 290, 292.

[416] Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, pp. 95 ff., 157 ff., 268 ff., 114, 124 ff., 241 ff.; cf. article "Mars" in Roscher, _Lexikon_, col. 2416 f.

[417] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 453 ff.

[418] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 78 f.

[419] A Babylonian festival of this sort (Sakea) is mentioned by Athenæus (in _Deipnosophistæ_, xiv, 639) on the authority of Berosus, and "Sakea" has been identified with "zakmuk," the Babylonian New Year's Day (cf. the story in Esth. vi); but the details of the festival and of the Persian Sakæa (Strabo, xi, 8) are obscure.

[420] Lev. xxiii.

[421] see above, § 128.

[422] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 46 f.

[423] Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p. 177 ff.

[424] Cf. the ceremony of the pharmakos in the festival of the Thargelia (Miss Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, p. 95 ff.).

[425] Frazer, _Golden Bough_ 2d ed., ii, 337 ff.

[426] This period has been generally held to be calendary. Its calendary reality is denied by Legge (in _Recueil des travaux_, xxxi) and Foucart (in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, article "Calendar [Egyptian]").

[427] A noteworthy instance of this persistence appears in the history of the Bene-Israel, a body of Jews living in the Bombay Presidency (article "Bene-Israel" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_); they preserve the Jewish religious festivals, but under Indian names.

[428] See above, §§ 4, 7.

[429] The word "fetish" (from Portuguese _feitiço_, 'artificial', then 'idol, charm,'), devised originally as a name of charms used by the natives of the West African coast, is often employed as a general name for early religious practices. Its proper use is in the sense of a dead object, as a piece of clay or a twig, in which, it is held, a spirit dwells. The fetish is often practically a god, often a household god; the interesting thing about it is that the spirit, generally a tutelary spirit, can enter the object or depart at will, may be brought in by appropriate ceremonies, and may be dismissed when it is no longer considered useful.

[430] Algonkin _manito_ or _manitu_ (W. Jones, in _Journal of American Folklore_, xviii, 190); Iroquois _orenda_; Siouan _wakonda_; Chickasa _hullo_ (_Journal of American Folklore_, xx, 57); cf. the Masai _n'gai_, 'the unknown, incomprehensible' (Hinde, _The Last of the Masai_, p. 99), connected with storms and the telegraph. Other names perhaps exist.

[431] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, Index, s.v. _Mana_.

[432] W. Jones, op. cit.

[433] It has therefore been compared to the modern idea of force as inherent in matter.

[434] The American _manitu_ is an appellation of a personal supernatural being. The Siouan _wakonda_ is invoked in prayer (Miss Fletcher, _The Tree in the Dakotan Group_).

[435] Judg. xiv, 19; 1 Sam. xix, 23; Ezek. xxxix, 29. Fury also is said to be poured out. Cf. Mark v, 30, where power ([Greek: dynamis]) is said to go out of Jesus.

[436] Cf. the Greek _energeia_ and _entelecheia_.

[437] Cf. I. King, _The Development of Religion_, chap. vi.

[438] Examples in J. H. King, _The Supernatural_. Cf. T. S. Knowlson, _Origins of Popular Superstitions_, etc.; T. Keightley, _Fairy Mythology_.

[439] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, 3d ed., ii, 229 ff.: article "Animals" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[440] This may have been simply the transference to them of human custom, or it may also have been suggested by the obvious social organization of such animals as bees, ants, goats, deer, monkeys.

[441] Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 21, 26.

[442] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, p. 27.

[443] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, (new ed., see p. 106) p. 128 f.

[444] A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, i, 117 ff.

[445] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 389, 401. Some Australians believed in an original gradual transformation of animals and plants into human beings.

[446] On the conception of animals as ancestors see below, § 449 f.

[447] A demon may be defined as a supernatural being with whom, for various reasons, men have not formed friendly relations. Cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, new ed., p. 119 ff., on the Arabian jinn; De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, p. 13 ff., for the Chinese belief in demonic animals. On the origin, names, and functions of demons and on exorcismal ceremonies connected with them see below, § 690 ff., and above, § 138 ff.

[448] So the Eskimo, the Ainu, the Redmen, and modern Arabs in Africa; many other instances are cited by Frazer in his _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., ii, 386 ff.

[449] Examples are found in many folk-stories of savages everywhere.

[450] For other sacred animals see N. W. Thomas, article "Animals" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[451] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 238.

[452] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., ii, 430 ff.; Thomas, article "Animals" cited above; Shortland, _Traditions of New Zealand_, iv; Marsden, _Sumatra_, p. 292; Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, i, 34; v, 652; Waitz, _Anthropologie_, iii, 190; Callaway, _Amazulus_, p. 196; A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi_, p. 150; Mouhot, _Indo-China_, i, 252; J. Wasiljev, _Heidnische Gebräuche der Wotyaks_, pp. 26, 78, etc.; G. de la Vega, _Comentarios Reales_, bk. i, chap. ix, etc. (Peru); Miss Kingsley, _Travels_, p. 492.

[453] Turner, op. cit., p. 242; Castrén, _Finnische Mythologie_, pp. 106, 160, 189, etc.; Parkman, _Jesuits in North America_ (1906), pp. 61 f., 66; Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, pp. 3, 105, 127, 161, 175, 272; cf. Acosta, _Historia de las Indias_, bk. v, chap. iv.

[454] So Zeus and bull, Artemis and bear, Aphrodite and dove, and many other examples. In such cases it is generally useless to try to discover a resemblance between the character of the god and that of the associated animal. There is simply, as a rule, a coalescence of cults, or an absorption of the earlier cult in the later.

[455] The particular conditions that induced this cult in Egypt escape us. See the works on Egyptian religion by Maspero, Wiedemann, Erman, Steindorff, and others.

[456] On the curious attitude of medieval Europe toward animals as legally responsible beings see E. P. Evans, _The Criminal Prosecution and Capital Punishment of Animals_.

[457] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, chap. x. Two superhuman creators are said to have transformed themselves into lizards (ibid. p. 389 ff.).

[458] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, p. 35 ff.

[459] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, pp. 80, 223; Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 263.

[460] Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 269; cf. article "Animals" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia Of Religion and Ethics_.

[461] See above, § 253, for the Egyptian cult.

[462] References to Stow's _Native Races of South Africa_ and Merensky's _Beiträge_ are given in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, i, 522.

[463] Cushing, in _The Century Magazine_, 1883; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 243 f.

[464] Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, ii, 213.

[465] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 527, 539; Crooke, op. cit.; Fewkes, "The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi," p. 17 ff.

[466] For a fanciful connection between the sun-myth and the spider see Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chap. xxiii.

[467] A somewhat vague Naga (snake) being of this sort is noted (Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 539). The relation between the Australian supernatural being Bunjil (or Punjil) and the eagle-hawk is not clear. Cf. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, Index; Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, Index.

[468] See below, § 635 f.

[469] A special form of man's relations with animals is considered below under "Totemism."

[470] For example, in Sumatra, offerings are made to the "soul of the rice"; there is fear of frightening the rice-spirit, and ceremonies are performed in its honor; see Wilken, _Het Animisme bij de Volken van den Indischen Archipel_; Kruyt, _De Rijstmoeder van den Indischen Archipel_, 389. It has been suggested that the prohibition of yeast in the Hebrew mazzot (unleavened bread) festival may have come originally from fear of frightening the spirit of the grain. It may have been, however, merely the retention of an old custom (if the grain was eaten originally without yeast), which later (as sometimes happened in the case of old customs) was made sacred by its age, was adopted into the religious code, and so became obligatory.

[471] This conception survives in the expressions "spirit of wine," etc., and Cassio's "invisible spirit of wine" easily passes into a "devil."

[472] This distinction is made in a somewhat formal way by the Ainu, a very rude people (Batchelor, _The Ainu_, chap. xxxiii).

[473] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p. 132 f.

[474] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, Index, s.vv. _totems_, _ancestors_.

[475] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 112, 116. Many other plant totems are mentioned by Frazer in his _Totemism and Exogamy_.

[476] Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 32, 39, 43, 72.

[477] This relation was not necessarily totemic--it may have been of a general character, of which totemism is a special form.

[478] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 179 ff.

[479] Cf. articles "Asylum" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, and _Jewish Encyclopedia_.

[480] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., pp. 133, 195; Hopkins, in _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, xxx (1910), 4, p. 352.

[481] Miss Godden, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxvi, 186 ff.

[482] W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, new ed., ii, 85 ff.; cf. Hopkins, "Mythological Aspects of Trees, etc.," in _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, September, 1910.

[483] _Rig-Veda_, ix al.; Muir, _Original Sanskrit Texts_, v; Hillebrandt, _Vedische Mythologie_, i, 450; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 112 ff.

[484] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 114 ff.; Tiele-Gehrich, _Geschichte der Religion im Alterium_, ii, ii, p. 234 ff.

[485] Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_ and _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_; Frazer, _Golden Bough_, Index, s.v. _Corn-spirit_.

[486] Cf. below, § 751 ff.

[487] The connection between such posts and the North-Semitic goddess Ashera is uncertain.

[488] Ward, _Seal-cylinders of Western Asia_.

[489] Cf. the suggestion of A. Réville (in his _Prolégomènes de l'histoire des religions_) that images arose in part from natural woods bearing a fancied resemblance to the human form.

[490] Boas, _The Kwakiutl_; Swanton, "Seattle Totem Pole," in _Journal of American Folklore_ vol. xviii, no. 69 (April, 1905).

[491] See below, "Totemism," § 449 f.

[492] Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, ii, 115 ff.

[493] Pausanias, x, 31, 4; Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Meleagros."

[494] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 391 ff.

[495] Gen. iii; cf. Hopkins, in _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, September, 1910. Whether the golden apples of the Hesperides had the life-giving quality is doubtful.

[496] This appears from a comparison of Gen. iii, 3 with ii, 17.

[497] Gen. iii, 5, 22.

[498] He is, perhaps, a diminished and conventionalized form of the old chaos dragon.

[499] On the various names and characters of this cosmic tree see Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, p. 347 ff.

[500] _Rig-Veda_, x, 81, 4.

[501] 2 Sam. v, 24.

[502] Judg. ix, 37.

[503] See below, § 935 ff.

[504] This is the case with all spirits that social needs do not force man to give names to.

[505] Rhys Davids, _Buddhist India_, p. 232.

[506] See above, § 252 f.

[507] Ex. iii, 2 ff.; Deut. xxxiii, 16; Acts vii, 30, 35.

[508] See _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, xxx, 353 f., for possible examples.

[509] A list of such titles is given by C. Boetticher in his _Baumkultus der Hellenen und Römer_, chap. iv.

[510] Dionysos is a bull-god as well as a tree-god.

[511] _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 12.

[512] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 533.

[513] On the Soma cult see above, § 270.

[514] § 271.

[515] Lev. xvi.

[516] Gruppe, _Culte und Mythen_; Roscher, _Lexikon_. Cf. the developed cults of Vishnu and Çiva.

[517] On Osiris and Isis see below, § 728 f.

[518] Some instances of worship are given in Frazer's _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 181, 189, 191. Frazer sometimes uses the term 'tree worship' where all that is meant is respect for trees as powerful things.

[519] See § 253 ff.

[520] See _Revue de l'histoire des religions_, 1881.

[521] So in Central Australia (Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 123 f., 137).

[522] The rock whence came the stones thrown by Deucalion and Pyrrha (the origin of the human race) also gave birth to Agdistis _mugitibus editis multis_, according to Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, v, 5. Mithra's birth from a rock (Roscher, _Lexikon_) is perhaps a bit of late poetical or philosophical imagery.

[523] For various powers of stones, involving many human interests, see indexes in Tylor's _Primitive Culture_, Frazer's _Golden Bough_, and Hartland's _Primitive Paternity_, s.v. _Stone_ or _Stones_.

[524] Festus, p. 2; see the remarks of Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_; Aust, _Religion der Römer_, p. 121; and Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 232 f. On the relation between the lapis and Juppiter Elicius, see Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_, p. 106; cf. Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Iuppiter," col. 606 ff.

[525] See above, § 97 ff.

[526] On processes of capturing a god in order to inclose him in an object, or of transferring a god from one object to another, see W. Crooke, "The Binding of a God," in _Folklore_, viii.

[527] In pre-Islamic Arabia many gods were represented by stones, the stone being generally identified with the deity; so Al-Lât, Dhu ash-Shara (Dusares), and the deities represented by the stones in the Meccan Kaaba.

[528] Livy, xxix, 10 f.

[529] 1 Sam. iv.

[530] Head, _Historia Numorum_, p. 661.

[531] Tacitus, _Hist._ ii, 3; it was conical in shape.

[532] Fowler, _Roman Festivals_ p. 230 ff.; cf. above, the "lapis manalis," § 289.

[533] Herodian, v, 3, 10.

[534] Pausanias, vii, 22. Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 160 ff.

[535] H. Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, 335; Saussaye, _Manual of the Science of Religion_ (Eng. tr.), p. 85 ff.

[536] Gen. xxviii, 18; cf. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p. 203 f.

[537] Hos. iii, 4.

[538] The reference in Jer. ii, 27, Hab. ii, 19 (stones as parents and teachers), seems to be to the cult of foreign deities, represented by images.

[539] On the interpretation of the masseba as a phallus or a kteis see below, §§ 400, 406.

[540] And so in Assyrian and Arabic.

[541] There is no Greek etymology for _baitulos_, and if it came from without, a Semitic origin is the most probable.

[542] Eusebius, _Praeparatio Evangelica_, i, 10, 18.

[543] _Hist. Nat._, bk. xxxvii, chap. 51.

[544] Cf. F. Lenormant, in _Revue de l'histoire des religions_, iii, 31 ff.; Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, p. 775 f.

[545] For Phoenician customs see Pietschmann, _Phönisier_, p. 204 ff.

[546] Cf. Deut. x, 2; Ex. xxv, 16; 2 Chr. v, 10, where the stone in the ark seems to have become two stone tables on which the decalogue was written by the finger of Yahweh--an example, if the view mentioned above be correct, of the transformation of a thing originally divine in itself into an accessory of a god.

[547] Cf. Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, s.v. _Kaaba_; Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, pp. 99, 171.

[548] On the relation between the stone heaps and the Hermes pillars cf. Welcker, _Griechische Götterlehre_, ii, 455, and Roscher, _Lexikon_, i, 2, col. 2382. With Hermes as guide of travelers cf. the Egyptian Khem (Min), of Coptos, as protector of wanderers in the desert, and perhaps Eshmun in the Sardinian trilingual inscription (see Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Esmun"; _Orientalische Studien Nöldeke gewidmet_).

[549] See below, § 1080.

[550] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., pp. 202, 341; cf. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_, chap. xi; article "Altar" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[551] Lev. xvi, 19.

[552] For some methods of such introduction see W. Crooke, in _Folklore_, viii.

[553] Herodotus, ii, 44; he identifies Melkart with Herakles.

[554] 1 Kings, vii, 15-22; Ezek. xl, 49.

[555] Perrot and Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art_, vol. iii; cf. Pletschmann, _Phönizier_, p. 203 ff.; Rawlinson, _Phoenicia_, p. 338.

[556] Cf. below, § 399 ff.

[557] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p. 487 ff.

[558] Strabo, iii, 5, 5.

[559] Those of Solomon's temple are described as being 27 feet in height, and without stairways. Cf. the structures connected with the Hierapolis temple (Lucian, _De Syria Dea_, 28).

[560] Desire for height appears also in the Egyptian pyramid and the Babylonian ziggurat, but both these had means of ascent to the higher levels. Cf. below, § 1085.

[561] Maspero, _Egyptian Archæology_, p. 100 ff.

[562] The movement from aniconic to anthropomorphic forms is seen in the image of the Ephesian Artemis, the upper half human, the lower half a pillar (Roscher, _Lexikon_, i, 1, cols. 588, 595).

[563] Examples in Tylor's _Primitive Culture_, 2d ed., ii, 170 f.; cf. his _Early History of Mankind_, chap. vi.

[564] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 188, etc.

[565] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, index, s.v. _Mountains_; article "Bengal" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 260; Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 48.

[566] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 358 ff., 537, and _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, September, 1910.

[567] On a general relation between gods and local hills see Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 444.

[568] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 541, 638; cf. Isa. xiv, 13. Many Babylonian temples, considered as abodes of gods, were called "mountains."

[569] Hopkins, in _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, loc. cit., where the mythical mountains of the Mahabharata are described.

[570] _Iliad_ viii, 2 al.

[571] Bastian, "Vorstellungen von Wasser und Feuer," in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, i; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, 2d ed., ii, 209 ff., 274 ff.; W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, lecture v.

[572] Polybius, vii, 9.

[573] Num. v.

[574] Job vii, 12.

[575] Herodotus, vi, 76.

[576] _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, x, 179; Bell, _Maldive Islands_, p. 73.

[577] In Titus iii, 5, the reference seems to be to baptism.

[578] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, p. 10 f.; cf. the German Lorelei.

[579] Frazer (in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_) sees a river-god in the figure mentioned in Gen. xxxii, 24.

[580] Cf. John v, 4 (in some MSS.).

[581] This is W. R. Smith's contention in _Religion of the Semites_, lecture v. See his account of Semitic water-gods in general.

[582] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 345 f. Cf. the Roman lapis manalis; see above, § 136.

[583] A large number of examples are given by Frazer in his _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 81 f., al.

[584] Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 17; Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 189 f.

[585] One signification (not a probable one) proposed for the name Yahweh is, 'he who causes (rain) to fall.'

[586] Examples of such gods, in Africa, America, and Asia, are given in Tylor's _Primitive Culture_, ii, 259 ff.

[587] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 99 ff.

[588] So in the _Secrets of Enoch_ (ed. R. H. Charles), chaps. iv-vi, the treasuries of rain and dew in the lowest heaven are guarded by angels.

[589] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, Index, s.vv.

[590] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 37; Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. 8; Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 56 f.; R. Taylor, _New Zealand and its Inhabitants_, p. 130; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 168, n. 1; Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Prometheus." Accounts of the original production or the theft of fire are found in savage mythology the world over; see Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chaps. xxv-xxvii; Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p. 379; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 277 ff.; O. T. Mason, _Origins of Invention_, chap. iii.

[591] So among the Todas (Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 437) and the Nandi (Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 85).

[592] On an identification of Agni with fire see Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 158 ff.

[593] See Chap. VI.

[594] Shahrastani (12th century), _Kitab al-Milal wa'l-Nihal_, a sketch of religions and philosophical sects, Moslem and other (Germ. tr. by Haarbrücker, p. 298 f.).

[595] Hopkins observes (_Religions of India_, p. 105) that originally fire (Agni), in distinction from sun and lightning, is the fire of sacrifice. Cf. Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 157.

[596] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 437; cf. the ceremony described on page 290 f.

[597] A. M. Tozzer, _Comparative Study of the Mayas and the Lacandones_, p. 133.

[598] Prescott, _Peru_, i, 106 f.

[599] Plutarch, _Aristides_, 20.

[600] The Hebrew expression, rendered in the English version "cause to pass through fire," means simply 'devote by fire.'

[601] Ex. xix, 18; Ezek. i, 4; Ps. xviii, 9 [604]; _Rig-Veda_, iii, 26, 7 (Indra).

[602] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 437. In Gen. i, 3, light appears before the creation of the heavenly bodies.

[603] So in Carinthia, the Tyrol, and neighboring districts (Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart_, p. 86).

[604] Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. xix.

[605] See below, § 662, etc.

[606] Ps. xviii, 11 [10]; civ, 3 f.

[607] _Iliad_, xxiii, 194 ff.

[608] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, chap. xviii; Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 595.

[609] W. Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, pp. 80, 223.

[610] Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 55; Taylor, _New Zealand_, p. 119; Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 279; cf. Turner, _Samoa_, p. 283.

[611] Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 55 (the present sun is the daughter of a man sun).

[612] See examples in Tylor's _Primitive Culture_, i, 290 ff.

[613] On the position of the sun and moon in the later cults see below, Chap. VI.

[614] Teit, op. cit., p. 54.

[615] See the elaborate Pawnee history of gods (Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_).

[616] See Chap. VI f.

[617] On the genesial (urano-chthonic) conception of the world in Polynesia see Tautain, in _Anthropologie_, vii (1896).

[618] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 113.

[619] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 363; ii, 262.

[620] Ps. xxix, 3; xviii, 14, 15 [13, 14].

[621] _Iliad_, viii, 76 f.; xxi, 198, etc. The thunderbolt of Zeus is said in Hesiod, _Theogonia_, 140 f., to be forged by the Cyclops.

[622] Bastian, _Beiträge_; H. Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_ and _Principles of Ethics_; Grant Allen, _Evolution of the Idea of God_; Waitz-Gerland, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_; Lippert, _Allgemeine Geschichte des Priesterthums_; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_; Codrington, _The Melanesians_; Frazer, _Golden Bough_; Wilken, _Handleiding voor de Vergelykende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_; Steinmetz, _Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe_; Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, Index, s.vv. _Kings_, _Man-gods_; Religions of Egypt (Maspero, Meyer, Wiedemann, Breasted, Steindorff), Babylonia (Jastrow), India (Barth, Hopkins), China (De Groot), Greece (Gruppe), Rome (Auer), etc.

[623] _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 139 ff.

[624] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 448.

[625] Monier-Williams, _Religious Life and Thought in India_, p. 259. See the cases mentioned by Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 522 n.

[626] For the documents see Breasted, _Ancient Records of Egypt_.

[627] Rawlinson, _Egypt_, ii, 40 f., 84; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens_, p. 252.

[628] When in a compound name the name of a god stands first, the determinative may refer simply to the god; it is evidence for the man only when it stands immediately before the nondivine element of the royal name. The inscriptions are given in Schrader, _Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek_, III, i; Thureau-Dangin, _Sumerisch-Akkadische Königsinschriften_. In the Code of Hammurabi (ca. 2000 B.C.) the king in one place (col. 5, ll. 4, 5) calls himself "the Shamash of Babylon," but this is of course a figure of speech; the code is given him by Shamash, the god of justice, and he assumes to be no less just than the god whom he here represents.

[629] For a different view see S. H. Langdon, article "Babylonian Eschatology" in _Essays in Modern Theology and Related Subjects_ (the C. A. Briggs memorial volume).

[630] Cf. the Chinese and Japanese views mentioned above. Among the Mongols there seems to be no trace of such a cult (Buckley, in Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_, 2d ed.), but a similar one is found in Tibet in Lamaism.

[631] Ex. xxii, 28 [27]. Cursing the deity (that is, the national or the local god) is mentioned several times in the Old Testament. Eli's sons committed this offense (1 Sam. iii, 13, corrected text), and Job feared that his sons might have been guilty of it (Job i, 5, where the old Jewish scribes, _causa reverentiae_, have changed "curse" into "bless,"--so also in i, 11; ii, 5, 9).

[632] _Adonis Attis Osiris_, p. 15 ff.

[633] 2 Sam. xiv, 17.

[634] Isa. ix, 6 [5].

[635] Ps. lviii, 1 [2]; lxxxii, 1, 6. This last passage, however, is understood in John x, 34 f., to refer to Jewish men. The Hebrew text of Ps. xiv, 7 [6], is corrupt.

[636] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_. This is the philosophical form of the dogma. The root of the conception is to be found, doubtless, in the old (savage) view that the chief of the tribe has quasi-divine attributes.

[637] Knox, _Religion in Japan_, p. 64.

[638] In _Alexander_, 28. In the case of Alexander the influence of Egypt is apparent, and it may be suspected that this influence affected the later Greek and Roman custom.

[639] Appian, _De Rebus Syriacis_, lxv.

[640] Acts xii, 22.

[641] Boissier, _La religion romaine_ (1878), i, 131 ff.

[642] Suetonius, _Caligula_, xxii.

[643] On the demand for a universal religion in the Roman Empire, and the preparation in the earlier cults for the worship of the emperors, see J. Iverach's article "Cæsarism" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_; Boissier, op. cit., bk. i, chap. ii.

[644] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, bk. iv, chap. iii.

[645] See the story of the power and fall of a great muni in Lassen's _Anthologia Sanscritica_.

[646] So, many Christian and Moslem saints have been wonder-workers without being divinized.

[647] Monier-Williams, _Brahmanism and Hinduism_, p. 510 f.

[648] _Fortnightly Review_, 1872.

[649] Stair, _Samoa_, p. 221; article "Bengal" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_ (Brahmans often become evil spirits).

[650] _The Todas_, pp. 193, 203, 446.

[651] _The E[´w]e-speaking Peoples_, p. 88 ff.

[652] Breasted, _Records of Ancient Egypt_.

[653] § 357.

[654] Here, as in the case of the divinization of living men (§ 347 n., above), outside suggestion is probable.

[655] Cf. article "Cæsarism" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[656] Boissier, _La religion romaine_, i, 182. An illustration of religious ideas in the third century is afforded by the enrollment of Caracalla among the heroes, a divinizing decree of the Senate having been extorted by the turbulent and mercenary soldiery (Dio Cassius, ed. Boissevain [Eng. tr. by H. B. Foster], lxxix, 9).

[657] A. Müller, _Islam_, i, 494; W. Muir, _The Caliphate_, p. 553 ff.

[658] In Isa. lxiii, 16, 'Abraham' appears to be a synonym of 'Israel,' and the reference then is to the nonrecognition of certain Jews by the national leaders.

[659] The narratives of the Pentateuch; Herodotus, v, 66; Pausanias, i, 5, 1.

[660] Article "Romulus" in Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[661] See below, § 652.

[662] Herodotus, v, 66 al.

[663] Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, pp. 163, 170, 206.

[664] The Ojibwa god Manabozho (described in Schoolcraft's _Algic Researches_) by some inadvertence got the name 'Hiawatha,' and so appears in Longfellow's poem. The real Hiawatha was a distinguished Iroquois statesman (supposed to be of the fifteenth century), the founder of the Iroquois League, honored as a patriot, but never worshiped as a god. See H. Hale, _Iroquois Book of Rites_, Index, s.v. _Hiawatha_; Beauchamp, in _Journal of American Folklore_, October, 1891.

[665] F. Pfister, _Der Reliquienkult im Altertum_.

[666] Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i; Grant Allen, _Evolution of the Idea of God_. See below, § 631 ff.

[667] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, Index, s.v. _Dead_; Grant Allen, op. cit.; article "Ancestor-worship" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[668] Cf. above, Chap. II.

[669] Steinmetz (_Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe_, p. 280 ff.) has attempted a collection and interpretation of the usages of nearly two hundred tribes, but his reckoning is not satisfactory--his enumeration is not complete, and the facts are not sufficiently well certified. He concludes that cases of fear are twice as numerous as those of love.

[670] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, chap. xiv.

[671] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes Of Central Australia_, pp. 516 f., 520 f.

[672] Cf. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 271 f.

[673] The conception of such meals as physical and spiritual communion with the dead was a later development.

[674] The buffoonery that was sometimes practiced at Roman funerals seems to have come from the natural love of fun, here particularly, also, through the reaction from the oppressive solemnity of the occasion.

[675] Howitt and Fison, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, p. 246 ff.

[676] Taylor, _New Zealand_, pp. 104, 108.

[677] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 194, 253 f.; Powell, _Wanderings_, p. 170.

[678] Ellis, _Madagascar_, i, 23, 423.

[679] Callaway, _The Amazulu_, pp. 145, 151.

[680] A. B. Ellis, _The E[´w]e_, p. 102 f.

[681] Steinmetz, _Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe_. A. L. Kroeber (in _Journal of American Folklore_, 1904) gives an account of a 'ghost-dance' in Northwest California, the object of which was said to be that the dead might return, though the details are obscure.

[682] Some such custom seems to be referred to in Deut. xxvi, 14.

[683] Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas_.

[684] Mariner, _Tonga_, p. 149.

[685] Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, p. 162 f.; Goldziher, in _Revue de l'histoire des religions_, x. So the Egyptian fellahin to-day.

[686] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 219 f.; Bonney, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii, 122 ff.; Haddon, _Head-hunters_, pp. 91 f., 183; G. Allen, _Evolution of the Idea of God_, chap. iii.

[687] Sir G. S. Robertson, _The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush_, pp. 645 ff., 615 ff., 414 f.

[688] Breasted, _Egypt_, p. 421, etc.

[689] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 604 f.

[690] Deut. xxvi, 14; Hos. ix, 4; Ezek. xxiv, 17 (revised text); Isa. viii, 19; 1 Sam. xxviii, 13.

[691] _Rig-Veda_, x, 15; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 143 f.

[692] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 91 ff.

[693] _Odyssey_, xi, 74 ff.; cf. xxiv, 63 ff.

[694] _Odyssey_, x, 519 ff.; xi, 25 ff.

[695] Stengel and Oehmichen, _Die griechischen Sakralaltertümer_, p. 99 f.

[696] Gardner and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, p. 158 ff.; Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, Index, s.v. _Heros_; Deneken, article "Heros" in Roscher, _Lexikon_. Lists of heroes are given by F. Pfister, in _Der Reliquienkult im Altertum_.

[697] Thucydides, v, 11; Pausanias, i, 32. For other examples, and for the details of the cult, see Stengel and Oehmichen, _Die griechischen Sakralaltertümer_, p. 96 ff.

[698] Similar functions are performed by saints in some Buddhist, Christian, and Moslem communities.

[699] Pauly-Wissowa, _Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_; Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, chap. ii, and the references in these works. On the _Keres_ as ghosts see Crusius, in Roscher's _Lexikon_, s.v. _Keren_, and Harrison, op. cit., chap. v.

[700] Ovid, _Fasti_, v, 439 ff., _manes exite paterni_; cf. the Greek proverbial expression [Greek: thyraze kares] (Suidas, s.v. [Greek: thyraze]).

[701] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, chap. iii.

[702] Aston, _Shinto_; Knox, _Religion in Japan_, p. 66 f.

[703] 1 Sam. xxviii.

[704] Cf. also the Teutonic valkyrs and nornas.

[705] See above, § 359. The wide prevalence of the theory in ancient times is indicated by its adoption in the Græco-Jewish _Wisdom of Solomon_ (of the first century B.C.), chap. xiv, and by some Roman writers.

[706] § 262 ff.

[707] For example, in Australia, Fiji, New Guinea, and India.

[708] Greece, Rome (Lupercalia), Egypt, and apparently in Israel (Ex. xxxii, 6; Numb. xxv).

[709] In carnivals and many less elaborate customs.

[710] See above, § 34.

[711] It was observable in the lower animals, but in their case was not regarded as religiously important. See below, § 419, for the connection of animals with phallic cults.

[712] § 158 ff.

[713] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii, 361.

[714] See Ratzel, _History of Mankind_; Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_; Müller, _Amerikanische Urreligionen_; Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_; Codrington, _The Melanesians_; W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_; Hartland, article "Bantu" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_; Callaway, _Amazulus_; Featherman, _Races of Mankind_; Grünwedel, "Lamaismus" in _Die orientalischen Religionen_ (I, iii, 1 of _Die Kultur der Gegenwart_); Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 149; Matthews, Dorsey, Teit, Boas, Hill-Tout, opp. cit. (on American Indians).

[715] § 34.

[716] A. B. Ellis, _Yoruba_ and _E[´w]e_. Ellis does not say that the cult exists in Ashanti, where we should expect it to be found; its absence there is not accounted for. On phallic worship in Congo see H. H. Johnston, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii.

[717] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 453, 470.

[718] Cf. Crooke, article "Bengal" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[719] Griffis, _Religions of Japan_; Aston, _Shinto_; Buckley, in Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_, 2d ed.; Florens, in _Die Kultur der Gegenwart_.

[720] Herodotus, ii, 48 f.

[721] _Isis and Osiris_, 51.

[722] An example of naïve popular festivities is given in Herodotus, ii, 60.

[723] The Gilgamesh epic (Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 477); Amos ii, 7; Deut. xxiii, 17 f.; Herodotus, i, 199; Strabo, xvi, 1, 20; Epistle of Jeremy, 42 f.; Lucian, _De Syria Dea_, 6 ff. But Hos. ii, Ezek. xvi, xxiii, Isa. lvii, 8, are descriptions of Hebrew addiction to foreign idolatrous cults.

[724] Isa. lvii, 8: "Thou didst love their bed, the yad thou sawest." The renderings in the English Revised Version are not possible.

[725] Lucian, op. cit., 28, cf. 16.

[726] The Aramean Atargatis, properly Attar-Ate, is substantially identical with Ashtart and Ishtar.

[727] Lucian, _De Syria Dea_, 15.

[728] J. P. Peters, _Nippur_, Index, s.v. _Phallic symbols_; Bliss and Macalister, _Excavations in Palestine_, p. 136; Macalister, _Bible Side-lights_, p. 72 f.

[729] These objects (Hebrew _masseba_) are denounced by the prophets because they were connected with the Canaanite non-Yahwistic worship. The same thing is true of the sacred wooden post (the _ashera_) that stood by shrines; Deut. xvi, 21 f., etc.

[730] Roscher, _Lexikon_, s.v. _Priapos._ Diodorus Siculus, iv, 6, mentions also Ithyphallos and Tychon.

[731] Roscher, _Lexikon_.

[732] S. Seligmann, _Der böse Bück und Verwandtes_, ii, 191 ff.

[733] Diodorus Siculus, i, 88.

[734] Roscher, _Lexikon_, s.v. _Indigitamenta_. _Muto_ is 'phallos.'

[735] So Augustine, _De Civitate Dei_, iv, II, 34 al.

[736] S. Seligmann, _Der böse Blick und Verwandtes_, ii, 196 ff.

[737] Cf. Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 490, n. 4.

[738] On the yoni as amulet see Seligmann, _Der böse Blick und Verwandtes_, ii, 203.

[739] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii, 491 f., and the references there to Gait's _Assam_ and other works.

[740] III Rawlinson, pl. i, no. 12155, and IV Rawlinson, col. 2, II. 25-28. The androgynous sense is maintained by G. A. Barton, in _Journal Of the American Oriental Society_, xxi, second half, p. 185 ff. Other renderings of the first inscription are given by Thureau-Dangin in _Revue d'Assyriologie_, iv, and Radau, _Early Babylonian History_, p. 125.

[741] Text in Craig, _Assyrian and Babylonian Religious Texts_, i, pl. vii, obv. 6, and by Meek, in _American Journal of Semitic Languages_, xxvi; translation in Jastrow's _Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens_, i, 544 f., and discussion by him in article "The 'Bearded' Venus" in _Revue archéologique_, 1911, i.

[742] See for Lenormant's view _Gazette archéologique_, 1876 and 1879, and Jastrow's criticism in the article cited in the preceding note.

[743] Lajard, _Recherches sur le culte de Vénus_. He is followed by A. Jeremias, _The Old Testament in the Light of the Ancient East_ (Eng. tr.), i, 123.

[744] _Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum_, l, i, p. 13.

[745] 1 Sam. xii, 28; Deut. xxviii, 10. The angel in whom is Yahweh's name (Ex. xxiii, 21) has the authority of the deity.

[746] Cf. Dillmann, in _Monatsbericht der Akademie der Wissenschaften_ (Berlin, 1881). The feminine form given to Baal in Rom. xi, 3 f., may refer to the disparaging term 'shame' (Heb. _boshet_, for which the Greek would be _aischun[=e]_) often substituted by the late editors of the Old Testament for Baal. Saul's son Ishbaal ('man of Baal') is called Ishbosheth, Jonathan's son Meribbaal is called Mephibosheth, etc.

[747] Dillmann (loc. cit.) combines _sham[=e]_ with Ashtart, as if the sense were 'the heavenly Ashtart of Baal'--an impossible rendering; but he also interprets the phrase to mean 'Ashtart the consort of the heavenly Baal.' Halévy, _Mélanges_, p. 33; Ed. Meyer, in Roscher's _Lexikon_, article "Astarte."

[748] _Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum_, i, i, no. 195; i, ii, no. 1, al. Tanit appears to be identical in character and cult with Ashtart.

[749] See below, § 411 f.: cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p. 478.

[750] A similar interpretation is given by Bæthgen in his _Semitische Religionsgeschichte_, p. 267 f. His "monistic" view, however, that various deities were regarded as manifestations of the supreme deity is not tenable.

[751] Servius, Commentary on Vergil, _Æn._ ii, 632; Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, iii, 8 on the same passage.

[752] There are manuscript variations in the text of Servius, but these do not affect the sense derived from the two authors, and need not be considered here.

[753] Cf. Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_ p. 428 ff.

[754] Servius, "they call her"; Macrobius, "Aristophanes calls her." But who this Aristophanes is, or where he so calls her, we are not informed.

[755] So Jastrow, in the article cited above. Remarking on the statement of Lydus (in _De Mensibus_, ii, 10) that the Pamphylians formerly worshiped a bearded Venus, he calls attention to the Carian priestess of Athene (Herodotus, i, 175; viii, 104), who, when misfortune was impending, had (or grew) a great beard--a mark of power, but presumably not a genuine growth. Exactly what this story means it is hard to say.

[756] Pausanias, vii, 17; Amobius, v, 5.

[757] Roscher, _Lexikon_, articles "Agdistis," "Attis"; Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, p.219 f.; H. Hepding, _Attis_; cf. Pseudo-Lucian, _De Syria Dea_, 15 (Attis assumes female form and dress).

[758] This practice seems to be an exaggerated form of the savage custom of self-wounding in honor of the dead (to obtain their favor), interpreted in developed cults as a sacrifice to the deity or as a means of union with him.

[759] On the wide diffusion of cults of mother-goddesses see below, §§ 729, 734, 762, etc.

[760] Cf. Pseudo-Lucian, _De Syria Dea_ 15; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alteriums_, 2d ed., i, 649, 651; Lagrange, _Études sur les religions sémitiques_, 2d ed., p. 241; Hepding, _Attis_, p. 162.

[761] See above, § 411.

[762] In Theophrastus, _Characters_, article 16 (Roscher, _Lexikon_, 8. v. _Hermaphroditos_).

[763] Roscher, article cited.

[764] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 447, 492.

[765] H. Ellis, _Psychology of Sex_, i, passim.

[766] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, chap. xliii.

[767] Cf. § 251 ff.

[768] Dulaure, _Des divinités génératrices_. Cf. Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, chap. ii.

[769] See below, Chap. XI.

[770] J. F. McLennan, _Studies in Ancient History_; Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_; A. Lang, _Social Origins_; A. E. Crawley, in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_; N. W. Thomas, ibid.

[771] Fraser (_Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 135), thinks it possible that exogamy of totemic clans is always exogamy in decay.

[772] L. H. Morgan (the discoverer of the system), _Ancient Society_; W. H. R. Rivers in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_.

[773] For the supposition of promiscuity are Morgan (op. cit., p. 54), Spencer and Gillen (_Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 100 ff.), and others; against are Westermarck (_Human Marriage_, chap. iv), Crawley (_The Mystic Rose_, p. 479 ff.), and others.

[774] Cf. Morgan, op. cit., p. 27, and part ii, chap. i.

[775] Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 269 ff.

[776] Gen. xx, 12; the rule was later abrogated (Ezek. xxii, 11; Lev. xviii, 9).

[777] J. F. McLennan, _Studies in Ancient History_, first series, p. 90 ff.; second series, chap. vii.

[778] L. H. Morgan, _Ancient Society_, p. 424 ff.; Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, i, 164 ff.

[779] Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, chaps. xiv-xvi; Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 222. Cf. Darwin, _Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication_, ii, 103 f.

[780] J. J. Atkinson, _Primal Law_ (in volume with Lang's _Social Origins_, p. 210 ff.).

[781] E. Durkheim, in _Année sociologique_, i, 1-70.

[782] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 75 ff.

[783] See references in § 426.

[784] H. Ellis, _Psychology of Sex_, i, 36 f.; Crawley, in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_.

[785] See above, § 431.

[786] See above, § 429, and compare Howard, _History of Matrimonial Institutions_, i, 121 ff.

[787] Details are given in Frazer's _Totemism and Exogamy_.

[788] Cf. below, § 442.

[789] On two supposed human totems, Laughing Boys and Nursing Mothers, see Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, i, 160, 253; ii, 520 f.

[790] § 436.

[791] So, apparently, among the Nandi (Hollis, _The Nandi_, pp. 6, 61).

[792] As among the Australian Arunta (Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 116, 125 ff.).

[793] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii, 136; iii, 321; Boas, _The Kwakiutl_, p. 328 ff.

[794] Haddon and Rivers, _Expedition to Torres Straits_, v, 158 ff.; Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, pp. 51, 320.

[795] Fraser, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii, 200; iii, 40, 227, 267, 281, 322.

[796] Swanton, _Tlingit Myths_ (_Bulletin 39_, Bureau of American Ethnology).

[797] See below, § 544 ff.

[798] For the details of totemic customs reference may be made, once for all, to Frazer's encyclopedic _Totemism and Exogamy_.

[799] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 415, 423, etc.

[800] Rivers, _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix; _Man_, viii.

[801] Brinton, _The Lenâpé_, p. 39.

[802] E. F. im Thurn, _Indians of Guiana_, p. 184.

[803] For the Mandingos of Senegambia see _Revue d'ethnographie_, v, 81, cited in Frazer's _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii, 544.

[804] Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 95.

[805] Swanton, _Tlingit Myths_, and _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, v, 231; Boas, _The Kwakiutl_, pp. 323, 336 f.

[806] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p. 679; in the Louisiade group belief in direct descent is said to exist (p. 743).

[807] Cf. the remarks of Boas in the Introduction to Teit's _Thompson River Indians_.

[808] On the other hand, the Kurnai, who are not totemic, refrain, apparently, from eating their sex-patrons.

[809] This report was made in 1841, before the natives had come in contact with the whites.

[810] In the Banks Islands the restrictions of eating relate to the patrons of individual persons; see _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix, 165 f.

[811] Rivers, _The Todas_, Index, s.v. _Food, restriction on_.

[812] Cf. Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 239, note 169; Franciscan Fathers, _Ethnologic Dictionary_ p. 507.

[813] Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 77.

[814] Cf. A. M. Tozzer, _Comparative Study of the Mayas and the Lacandones_ (of Yucatan), and the literature given in articles "America, South" and "Brazil" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[815] J. W. Fewkes is of opinion that the great Snake dance (an economic function) was formerly conducted by the Snake clan (_Sixteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, p. 304).

[816] The choice of the object is determined by local conditions that are not known to us. Sometimes, probably, the object is the one most important for the welfare of the community; sometimes it may have come from accident. See below, § 554 ff.

[817] The artificial objects that are regarded, in a few cases, as totems are probably of late origin, the product of reflection, and thus differing from the old totems, which arise in an unreflective time. However, the artificial totems are doubtless sometimes looked on as powerful; in some cases they may be little more than badges.

[818] This is Frazer's definition (in his _Totemism_ p. 1), supplemented by the words "not worshiped." Cf., on the whole subject, Tylor, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxviii, 144; F. Boas, in _American Journal of Psychology_, xxi; A. A. Goldenweiser, "Totemism," in _Journal of American Folklore_, xxiii (1910).

[819] For a preciser definition of totemism see below, § 520.

[820] The details are given in Frazer's _Totemism and Exogamy_.

[821] Certain Arunta traditions appear to point to a time when the totem was freely eaten. The bird-mates of the clans may be regarded as secondary totems--perhaps a survival from a time when a clan might have more than one totem.

[822] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 173, 318.

[823] The clan-names may formerly have been totemic, but data for the decision of this point are lacking.

[824] So Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 173.

[825] Cf. H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_, pp. 1, 121 ff.; Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, pp. 41 f., 45, 350, 454 ff.; Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, ii, 28 ff.; Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, i, 183 ff., 188 ff.

[826] C. G. Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, chaps. xxxv, 1.

[827] Such a belief is said to exist in the Aru archipelago (Papuan) west of New Guinea. There the family, and not the clan, is the social unit; every family has its badge or crest.

[828] Melanesia is here taken to include the Bismarck Archipelago (New Britain, New Ireland, and adjacent islands) and the islands lying to the eastward as far as the 180th meridian of longitude, though in this area there is in some places Polynesian influence.

[829] So Reverend George Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, p. 28.

[830] This usage is reported for Florida Island.

[831] On the question whether these gods are a development out of totem animals see below, § 577.

[832] On the relation of this idea to Frazer's theory of "conceptional totemism" see below, § 548.

[833] It might then seem that the deity was originally the animal; see below, § 577.

[834] As to the significance of this fact cf. below, § 529 ff.

[835] W. H. Furness, 3d, _The Island of Stone-Money_.

[836] On the large theistic material of the Pelews see Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, pp. 386, 428 ff., with references to J. Kubary, "Die Religion der Pelauer" (in A. Bastian's _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_).

[837] Cf. below, § 577.

[838] Exogamy is said to exist in the atoll Lua Niua, in the Lord Howe group; the population is described as Polynesian (Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, p. 414 ff.); Dr. Brown thinks it probable that exogamous classes formerly existed in Samoa, to which place the Lua Niua people, he holds, are ultimately to be traced.

[839] Certain septs (among the Telugus and others) are named from inanimate (some times artificial) objects.

[840] The usages mentioned in article "Burma" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, iii, 24, do not necessarily show totemism.

[841] The Iroquois stock occupied an immense territory, partly in Canada, partly in the region now including the states of New York, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and the Carolinas.

[842] Cf. Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p. 24 ff.

[843] The Wyandots, who were allied to the Iroquois, dwelt in the district north of Lake Ontario.

[844] The Algonkins formerly ranged over a large territory extending along the Atlantic coast as far south as North Carolina and reaching westward to the Mississippi.

[845] It was from the Ojibwas that our word 'totem' was taken.

[846] A similar rôle, somewhat vague, is assigned to two supernatural beings in Australia (Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 388; cf. p. 246).

[847] Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p. 177 ff. It was expiatory, and was accompanied by a moral reconstruction of society, a new beginning, with old scores wiped out. Cf. the Cherokee Green Corn dance (see article "Cherokees" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_).

[848] Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. xviii. The Pawnee had a fairly well-developed pantheon, and a civil government based on rank (chiefs, warriors, priests, magicians). They lived in endogamous villages; in every village there was a sacred bundle, and all the people of the village were considered to be descendants of the original owner of the bundle.

[849] Will and Spinden, _The Mandans_ (_Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology_, Harvard University, vol. iii, 1906), p. 129 ff.

[850] J. W. Fewkes, _The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi_ (reprint from _The American Anthropologist_, vol. xi, 1898), with bibliography.

[851] Fewkes, _Journal of American Ethnology and Archæology_, iv, and _Journal of American Folklore_, iv.

[852] The stocks or groups are, going from north to south: the Déné or Athabascans (middle of Alaska and running east and west); the Tlingit (Southern Alaska); the Haidas (Queen Charlotte Islands and adjacent islands); the Tsimshians (valleys of the Nass and Skeena rivers and adjacent islands); the Kwakiutl (coast of British Columbia, from Gardiner Channel to Cape Mudge, but not the west coast of Vancouver Island); the Nootkas (west coast of Vancouver Island); the Salish (eastern part of Vancouver Island, and parts of British Columbia, Washington, Idaho, and Montana); the Kootenay (near Kootenay Lake and adjoining parts of the United States). See the authorities cited by Frazer in _Totemism and Exogamy_.

[853] § 445 f.

[854] Cf. the divergent native accounts of the Melanesian _buto_ (Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 31 ff.).

[855] In North America, in the Iroquois, Algonkin, Maskoki (Creek), and Siouan stocks; in Central America and South America; in Borneo and East Africa; and elsewhere.

[856] R. B. Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_ (Central California), p. 223; id., _The Shasta_ (Northern California and Oregon), p. 451; id., _The Chimariko Indians_ (west of the Shasta, on Trinity River), p. 301; A. L. Kroeber, article "California" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[857] Article "Bantu" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[858] Hollis, _The Masai_, Index, and _The Nandi_, p. 5 f.

[859] A hint of an earlier usage is given in a legend which relates that totemic clans were ordained by a king to the end that certain sorts of food might be taboo to certain families, and thus animals might have a better chance to multiply.

[860] See the volumes of A. B. Ellis on these countries (chapters on "Gods" and on "Government").

[861] A. van Gennep, _Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar_, p. 314.

[862] On this point see below, § 522 ff.

[863] For the details see W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_ (includes the Hebrews); Joseph Jacobs, "Are there Totem-clans in the Old Testament?" (in _Archæological Review_, vol. iii); A. Lang, _Custom and Myth_ (on the Greek _genos_), and _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, i, 266 ff.; ii, 226; S. Reinach, _Cultes, mythes et religions_ (Greek and Celtic); Gardner and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, p. 68 ff., etc.; Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 84 f.; G. L. Gomme, "Totemism in Britain" (in _Archæological Review_, vol. iii); N. W. Thomas, "La survivance du culte totémique des animaux et les rites agraires dans le pays de Galles" (in _Revue de l'histoire des religions_, vol. xxxviii).

[864] Names are omitted that appear to belong only to individuals or to places.

[865] G. B. Gray, _Hebrew Proper Names_, p. 86 ff.

[866] Strabo, _Geographica_, xiii, 588.

[867] Herodotus, ii, 37, 42; Diodorus Siculus, _Bibliotheke Historike_, i, 70.

[868] Lev. xi; Deut. xiv.

[869] Stengel and Oehmichen, _Die griechischen Sakralaltertümer_, p. 27.

[870] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 241 f.

[871] Cæsar, _De Bello Gallico_, v, 12.

[872] Herodotus, ii, 42.

[873] Pausanias, i, 24, 4. On the death of the god cf. Frazer, _The Dying God_.

[874] Herodotus, ii, 39 ff., W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., additional note G; the Roman Lupercalia.

[875] Diodorus Siculus, i, 86 (Egypt); cf. Pliny, _Historia Naturalis_, x, 4 f.

[876] W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, chap. viii (Semites).

[877] See above, §§ 441 ff., 466, and below, § 526; Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, Index, s.vv. _Animals_ and _Totems_.

[878] See above, § 443 ff.

[879] So, also, in Northeastern Asia, in the Japan archipelago (the Ainu), and in low African tribes.

[880] Where sexual license before marriage prevails, young girls are allowed to go to these houses.

[881] H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_.

[882] G. Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, p. 60 ff.

[883] Mary Kingsley, _West African Studies_, p. 384, and _Travels in West Africa_, p. 532 ff.; Ellis, _Yoruba_, p. 110.

[884] H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_, p. 164 ff.

[885] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, i, 495 ff.

[886] Frazer, loc. cit. Cf. A. Lang, _Secret of the Totem_, p. 138.

[887] _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vi, i, 32 ff., 43 ff.

[888] So worship was offered to the Roman _genius_ (Horace, _Carm._ iii, 17; _Epist._ i, 7, 94).

[889] A. B. Ellis, _E[´w]e_, p. 105; _Tshi_, p. 156; _Yoruba_, chap. vii.

[890] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 78 f. So the [Greek: kourotrophos] (Farnell, in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_).

[891] W. H. Dall, _Alaska and its Resources_, p. 145, cited by Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii, 442 f.

[892] The acquisition of a supernatural inspirer by a shaman is analogous to this custom, but belongs in a somewhat different category: see below, § 540.

[893] Miss Alice Fletcher, "Indian Ceremonies" (in _Report of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology_, Harvard University, 1883).

[894] F. Boas, _The Kwakiutl_, p. 393 f.

[895] Cf. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii, 450 ff.

[896] This process is similar to the gradual reduction of the European independent barons to the position of royal officers.

[897] See below, § 633 f.

[898] As, for example, by the Marathas of the Bombay Presidency (Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii, 276 ff.).

[899] Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock), _Prehistoric Times_, 2d ed., p. 598, and 6th ed., p. 610; id., _Origin of Civilisation_ (1902), p. 275 ff.; and his _Marriage, Totemism, and Religion_.

[900] Herbert Spencer, _Fortnightly Review_, 1870, and _Principles of Sociology_ i, § 171.

[901] This view is provisionally indorsed by E. B. Tylor, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxviii.

[902] One such case is mentioned in Codrington's _Melanesians_, p. 33.

[903] Frazer, _Golden Bough_ (1890), ii, 332 ff. This theory has since been abandoned by Frazer (_Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 54 f.).

[904] Frazer, _Fortnightly Review_, July and September, 1905, pp. 154-172 (reprinted in _Totemism and Exogamy_, i); _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii, 89 ff.; iv, 57 ff.

[905] Rivers, "Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia" (in _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix [1909], 172); Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 59 ff.

[906] This is the theory adopted by Frazer in his latest work on the subject.

[907] The widespread belief that birth may be independent of the union of the sexes does not, of course, carry with it an explanation of totemism.

[908] Lippert, _Die Religionen der europäischen Culturvölker_, p. 12; G. A. Wilken, "Het Animisme bij de Volken van den Indischen Archipel," in _De Indische Gids_, 1884 (cf. Tylor, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxviii, 1899); G. M. Theal, _Records of South-eastern Africa_, vii, and _History and Ethnography of South Africa_, i. 90.

[909] F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History Of Religion_, 1st ed., p. 101.

[910] F. M. Müller, _Anthropological Religion_, p. 121 ff.; Pikler and Somló, _Ursprung des Totemismu_, p. 7 ff.; A. K. Keane, _Ethnology_, p. 10; cf. G. M. Theal, _History and Ethnography Of South Africa_, i, 17.

[911] A. C. Haddon, in _Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science_, 1902.

[912] A. Lang, _The Secret of the Totem_, chap. vi.

[913] Lists are given in Frazer's _Totemism and Exogamy_.

[914] Lang, _The Secret of the Totem_, loc. cit.; Theal, _History and Ethnography of South Africa_, i, 92.

[915] Cf. A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 154.

[916] Frazer, in _Fortnightly Review_, 1899 (this theory was afterwards abandoned by him); B. Spencer, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxviii (1899).

[917] Cf. Durkheim, in _Année sociologique_, v.

[918] Durkheim, in _Année sociologique_, v.

[919] See below, § 577.

[920] Frazer, in his _Totemism_ (this view is now given up by him); F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_, Index; S. Reinach, _Cultes, mythes et religions_, i, 86 ff.; Hahn, _Die Haustiere_, pp. 28 ff., 42, and his _Demeter und Baubo_, p. 19 ff. (domestication of cattle and use of milk as food connected with moon-cult). Cf. H. Ling Roth, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xvi, 102 ff.

[921] The totem belongs not to a tribe (Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_, p. 114 f.) but to a clan.

[922] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 19.

[923] W. E. Roth, quoted in Frazer's _Totemism and Exogamy_, i, 532.

[924] See above, § 529 ff.

[925] W. E. Roth, _North Queensland Ethnography_; Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 226 ff.

[926] See below, § 635 ff.; cf. A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, ii, 197, etc.; S. Relnach, _Orpheus_ (Eng. tr.), p. 81 ff.; Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 30 ff.

[927] Haddon, in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tyler_, 183 ff.

[928] Rivers, in _Man_, viii (1908).

[929] Cf. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 31 ff. The Bushman god Cagn, who has the form of a mantis, and the Hindu monkey-god Hanuman seem to have no connection with totemism.

[930] Cf. the remarks of Haddon, op. cit.

[931] So Zeus and other Greek gods.

[932] See below, § 1041 ff.

[933] See below, § 635.

[934] The moral perfection of the individual is an ideal that has arisen out of social relations; it is demanded by the deity because the moral standard of a deity is that of his human society.

[935] In international relations this tendency appears in the demand for arbitration.

[936] N. W. Thomas, article "Taboo" in _Encyclopædia Britannica_, 11th ed.; Codrington, _The Melanesians_; Thomson, _Story of New Zealand_; A. van Gennep, _Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar_; Wallace, _Malay Archipelago_, p. 149 f.; J. G. Frazer, _Early History of the Kingship_; Marett, "Is Taboo a Negative Magic?" (in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_).

[937] Cf. the Chickasa _hullo_, said to mean 'mysterious' (Speck, in _Journal of American Folklore_, xx, 57).

[938] The danger from such objects is referred to a supernatural presence, whose attitude toward human beings may be doubtful; only, when the phenomenon observed is thought to be nonnatural and is afflictive (as in the case of death, for example), this attitude is judged to be hostile.

[939] Purely economic and other social considerations are sometimes combined with the mana conception.

[940] The physical unity produced by contact may be brought about, according to savage philosophy, in other ways.

[941] Ploss-Bartels, _Das Weib_, i, 591; cf. E. S. Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_; Avesta, _Vendidad_, xv, 8.

[942] Article "Birth" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[943] Ploss-Bartels, _Das Weib_, ii, 345 ff.

[944] Lev. xii. In the modern Parsi usage a woman after giving birth is secluded forty days.

[945] On the relation between birth customs and systems of relationship (patrilineal and matrilineal) see the references in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii, 636.

[946] Numb. xix, 11 ff. For the Mazdean rules see Tiele-Gehrich, _Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_, ii, 340 ff.

[947] Sanitary purposes may have entered into such customs.

[948] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, chap. xxiii, p. 138, etc.; Turner, _Samoa_, p. 145 f.; Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, p. 253.

[949] Ellis, _The E[´w]e-speaking Peoples_, p. 160.

[950] Cicero, _De Legibus_, ii, 26 (Athens); _Roman_ _Digests_, xlvii, 12; _Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum_, i, 13 (Phoenician); and so among many savage and half-civilized peoples.

[951] Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, chap. iii.

[952] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p. 140.

[953] Ploss-Bartels, _Das Weib_, i, 296, 302, 374, 618.

[954] Frazer, article "Taboo" in _Encyclopædia Britannica_, 9th ed.

[955] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p. 466; Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 52 ff.

[956] G. Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, p. 241; W. H. Furness, 3d, _The Island of Stone-Money_, p. 38 f.

[957] Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 399 ff.

[958] A physiological basis for this view seems to lie outside the resources of savage observation, but prohibition of intercourse just after childbirth may have a humanitarian basis.

[959] G. Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, pp. 68, 80, 200; Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p. 292; W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, additional note C.

[960] Cf. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, ii, 406 ff.; Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, Index, s.v. _Chastity_.

[961] See below, § 895 ff.; Westermarck, op. cit., i, 620 ff.

[962] Ezek. xliv, 19. The term "sanctify" of the English Version means 'make ritually sacred,' not to be touched. Cf. Shortland, _Southern Districts of New Zealand_, p. 293 f.; Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, p. 106 f.

[963] For Jewish rules see Lev. xxi. The onerous restrictions on the Roman flamen dialis and his wife are given in Frazer's _Golden Bough_ (see Index, s.v. _Flamen dialis_) and the authorities cited by him.

[964] The prohibition of the products of the grapevine to the Nazirite (Numb. vi, 3 f.) seems to have been originally part of the attempt to follow the old pastoral life, in contrast with the Canaanite agricultural life; later it received a religious coloring. The prohibition might begin at the moment of the child's conception (Judg. xiii, 4, 14).

[965] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 299 ff.

[966] Turner, _Samoa_.

[967] Alexander, _Short History of the Hawaiian People_.

[968] R. Taylor, _New Zealand_, chap. viii.

[969] Furness, _Home Life of the Borneo Head-hunters_, p. 160 ff.

[970] C. S. Hurgronje, _The Achehnese_, p. 262 ff.

[971] T. C. Hodson, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi.

[972] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 215 ff.

[973] Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, pp. 50, 96 ff.; Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 106 ff.

[974] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 76 f.

[975] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii; Frazer, op. cit., iii, 80.

[976] T. C. Hodson, "The Genna amongst the Tribes of Assam" (in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi).

[977] Lev. xxiii; Numb. xxviii f.

[978] Stengel and Oehmichen, _Griechische Sakralaltertümer_, p. 170.

[979] Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 365 ff.

[980] Numb. xxviii, 26.

[981] The Thargelia; Harrison, op. cit., chap. iii.

[982] Mariner, _Tonga_, p. 483

[983] W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, iv, 388, etc.

[984] Cf. Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 448 ff.

[985] Cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, additional note C.

[986] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 405 ff.

[987] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 288, 354.

[988] For details see Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, bk. iii, chap. viii f.

[989] Hollis, _The Nandi_ p. 95 f.

[990] Rhys Davids, _Buddhism_ (in _Non-Christian Religious Systems_), p. 140 f. Thus, as the author remarks, uposatha is a weekly festival; and there is an approach to a true seven-day week.

[991] Alexander, _Short History of the Hawaiian People_.

[992] Details of the week are given in the article "Calendar" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, with references to authorities.

[993] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 79; Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, pp. 370 ff., 375.

[994] See the noteworthy Yoruban rest day, the first day of the five-day week (A. B. Ellis, _Yoruba_).

[995] For the literature on the sabbath see Herzog-Hauck, _Real-Encyklopädie_; Jastrow, in _American Journal of Theology_ for 1898; Cheyne, _Encyclopædia Biblica_; Hastings, _Dictionary of the Bible_; _Jewish Encyclopedia_; F. Bohn, _Der Sabbat im Alten Testament_; Benzinger, _Hebräische Archäologie_; Nowack, _Hebräsche Archäologie_; C. H. Toy, "The Earliest Form of the Sabbath," in _Journal of Biblical Literature_ for 1899 (in which, so far as appears, the view that the Hebrew sabbath is a taboo day is stated for the first time).

[996] Any taboo day might be the occasion of placative ceremonies; but this is not a distinctive feature of the day.

[997] T. G. Pinches, in _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archæology_, xxvi, 51 ff.; Zimmern, in _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, lviii, 199 ff., 458 ff.; J. Meinhold, _Sabbat und Woche im Alten Testament_. There is no good reason to doubt that this Babylonian term is formally identical with Hebrew _shabat_.

[998] 2 Kings iv, 23; Amos viii, 5; Isa. i, 13.

[999] Exod. xxiii, 6.

[1000] Deut. v, 12 ff.; Exod. xx, 8 ff.; the term 'holy' here means set apart ritually, that is, taboo.

[1001] Ezek. xx, 12 f., 16, 20 f., 24; Isa. lviii, 13 f.; cf. article "Sabbath" in _Jewish Encyclopedia_.

[1002] The Hebrew stem _shabat_ means 'to cease,' a signification that accords well with the character of a taboo day. But this sense has not been certainly found for the Babylonian stem, and the original force of the term _sabbath_ may be left undecided.

[1003] Exod. xxiii, 12.

[1004] Chabas, _Le calendrier des jours fastes et néfastes_; Maspero, _Études égyptiennes_, i, 28 ff.; Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, chap. x.

[1005] IV Rawlinson, plates, 32 f.; Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 373 ff.

[1006] Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 763 ff.

[1007] Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 365 ff.; Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, Index. The Romans, with their thoroughness where public religion was concerned, divided all the days of the year into the three classes, _dies festi_ (festive, for worship), _dies profesti_ (for ordinary business), and _dies intercisi_ (mixed, partly for religion, partly for ordinary affairs).

[1008] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, iii, 29 (Burma).

[1009] J. H. King, _The Supernatural_, Index, s.v. _Luck_.

[1010] Many examples are given in Westermarck's _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, chap. xxxvii f.; cf. above, § 204 ff., on fasting.

[1011] Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 630 ff.

[1012] E. A. Gait, article "Caste" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1013] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 321.

[1014] Taboo thus helps the growth of civil law (especially of penal codes) by its collection of offenses, though only on condition of retiring from the field. Cf. Frazer, _Psyche's Task_, p. 17 ff.

[1015] Lev. xiv, 48-53.

[1016] Lev. xii.

[1017] So in many popular festivals; see Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 453 ff.; Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, chap. xlii.

[1018] Examples are given in Crawley's _Mystic Rose_, pp. 223, 480 ff., chap. x ff.

[1019] Tylor, _Early History of Mankind_, 3d ed., p. 129 ff.; Hubert and Mauss, in _Année sociologique_, vii; Frazer, _Early History of the Kingship_, lecture ii, especially p. 52 ff. (he defines taboo as "negative magic," magic, that is, employed to avoid malefic influences); cf. Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, chap. ix, for the transmission of sex characteristics.

[1020] Cf. R. R. Marett, "Is Taboo a Negative Magic?" (reply to Frazer), in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_.

[1021] Cf. Marett, op. cit.

[1022] R. Taylor, _New Zealand_, chap. viii; Alexander, _Short History of the Hawaiian People_.

[1023] Shortland, _Maori Religion_.

[1024] Exod. xxiii, 10 f.

[1025] Livy, i, 31.

[1026] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 215 ff.; George Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, p. 273 ff.

[1027] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, Index, s.v. _Taboo_.

[1028] H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_, i, 98.

[1029] On _permontong_ see W. H. Furness, 3d, _Home Life of the Borneo Head-hunters_, p. 160 ff.

[1030] Manu, v, 62.

[1031] Miss Alice Fletcher, _Indian Ceremonies_, p. 297 f.

[1032] Miss Mary Kingsley, _Travels_, Index.

[1033] T. C. Hodson, "Genna amongst the Tribes of Assam," in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi (1906).

[1034] Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, Index.

[1035] Boas, in _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, and _Bulletin XV_, American Museum of Natural History.

[1036] Lev. xii-xv.

[1037] Deut. xiv; Lev. xi; Diogenes Laertius, _Pythagoras_, xvii.

[1038] On _tabu_ (or _tapu_) see E. Tregear, _Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary_; W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, iv, 385.

[1039] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 215.

[1040] A. van Gennep, _Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar_.

[1041] R. H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_, p. 211.

[1042] The taboo sense proper is not found in [Greek: agios (agos), enagês], and Latin _sacer_ which rather mean what is accursed, detestable on account of wrong committed.

[1043] Sacred books "defile the hands."

[1044] Cf. articles "Taboo" in _Encyclopædia Britannica_, 9th ed. (by Frazer) and 11th ed. (by Thomas).

[1045] The relation between totemism and man's attitude toward beasts and plants is discussed above, §§ 524 ff., 564 ff.

[1046] A. B. Ellis, _Yoruba_, p. 167.

[1047] Alexander, _Short History of the Hawaiian People_, chap. xxii.

[1048] On the question whether a germinal sense of moral obligation is found in the lower animals see above, § 12.

[1049] Naturally, the origin of all the particular taboos escapes us; it depends in most cases on unknown conditions.

[1050] 1 Cor. xi, 27-30.

[1051] On the social organization of law cf. Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 108; article "Aryan Religion" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1052] See above, § 240 ff.

[1053] In a cannibal community, for example, the gods will be cannibal; see A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, new ed., i, 6, 263 f.

[1054] Rawlinson, _History of Ancient Egypt_, i, 414 f.; ff., 85, 506; Breasted, _History of Egypt_, pp. 46, 575; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 368, 502; ibid., p. 538 f.

[1055] They sometimes coalesce in functions with ghosts and spirits.

[1056] Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 19 ff.

[1057] L. Farrand, "Traditions of the Chilcotin Indians" in _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_ (vol. ii of _Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History_), i, 14 ff.; Farrand and Kahnweiler, "Traditions of the Quinault Indians," ibid., iii, 111; Boas, _Indianische Sagen_, p. 194 ff.; C. Hill-Tout, articles in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, vols. xxxiv, xxxv, xxxvii.

[1058] Boas, Introduction to Teit's _Thompson River Indians_, p. 16, and "Reports on the Indians of British Columbia" in _Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science_, vols. lix, lx, lxi, lxiv, lxv. A tricksy character is ascribed to Loki in some of the Norse stories (Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, p. 263). Loki, however, as he appears in the literature, is a highly complex figure.

[1059] See Boas's Introduction in Teit's _Thompson River Indians_.

[1060] R. B. Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 263.

[1061] A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 264 f.; Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, 1st ed., ii, 4 f.

[1062] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 123 ff.

[1063] W. Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, pp. 69 ff., 73 ff.

[1064] See Brinton, _Myth of the New World_ and _American Hero-Myths_; _Journal of American Folklore_, passim. On the 'Hiawatha' myth see Hale, _Iroquois Book of Rites_, p. 180 ff., and Beauchamp, in _Journal of American Folklore_, October, 1891.

[1065] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 28, 167, and Index, s.v. _Qat_.

[1066] He is called also the "Big Raven," belonging under this title in the cycle of raven myths of the North Pacific Ocean (both in Asia and in America); see Jochelson, in _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vi, i, 17 f.

[1067] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 98 f.; Callaway, _The Amazulu_, p. 1 ff.; cf. the Japanese mythical emperor Jimmu (Knox, _Development of Religion in Japan_, pp. 46, 63).

[1068] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, Index, s.v.; Gen. iv; articles in Roscher's _Lexikon_, s.vv.; Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, Index, s.vv.

[1069] It is noteworthy that among the numerous ætiological myths there seems to be no attempt to account for the origin of language. Language was thought of as so simple and natural a thing that no explanation of its beginnings was necessary. Adam, in Gen. ii, is able, as a matter of course, to give names to the animals. In early myths beasts have the power of speech. In a Nandi folk-story (Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 113) what excites the wonder of the thunder and the elephant is not man's capacity of speech, but the fact that he can turn over when asleep without first getting up.

[1070] For female deities the title "grandmother" occurs (Batchelor, _The Ainu_ [1901], p. 578). The devil's grandmother figures in Teutonic folk-stories; see _Journal of American Folklore_, xiii, 278 ff.; Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 1st ed., i, 336.

[1071] Attempts to prove a primitive monotheism usually fail to take this distinction into account.

[1072] Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 488 ff.

[1073] Boas, Introduction to Teit's _Thompson River Indians_, p. 7.

[1074] Callaway, _The Amazulu_, p. 1 ff.

[1075] Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, p. 101 ff.

[1076] A. B. Ellis, _Tshi_, chaps. v-vii; _E[´w]e_, chap. v; _Yoruba_, chap. iii. Cf. C. Partridge, _Cross River Natives_ (South Nigeria), p. 282 ff.

[1077] W. Crooke, _The Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_ (1907), chap. ii.

[1078] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 537 f.

[1079] Rivers, _The Todas_, chap. xix.

[1080] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 35 ff.

[1081] Jochelson, in _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vi, i, 36-43.

[1082] Aston, _Shinto_, Index, s.v. _Kami_; Knox, _Religion in Japan_, p. 27 ff.

[1083] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 255; cf. ii, 337.

[1084] Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. xix; Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 34 f.

[1085] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 532.

[1086] Spence, in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii, 835.

[1087] A. B. Ellis, _E[´w]e_ (Dahomi), p. 104.

[1088] On the ascription of divinity to men in great civilized religious systems see above, § 351 ff.

[1089] Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 120 ff.; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens_, p. 31 ff.; Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 109; Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_, pp. 21 f., 39.

[1090] Cf. W. von Baudissin, _Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_, i, 28 f.

[1091] R. Smend, _Alttestamentliche Religionsgeschichte_, p. 33 f. In regard to the original home of Yahweh and the diffusion of his cult among other peoples than the Hebrews exact information is lacking.

[1092] Pietschmann, _Phönizier_, pp. 170 f., 182 ff.

[1093] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, i, 664.

[1094] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, Index, s.vv.; articles in Roscher's _Lexikon_; "Eshmun" in _Orientalische Studien Nöldeke gewidmet_.

[1095] See, for example, Pausanias, i, 37, 3 (Zeus Meilichios); ii, 19, 3 (Apollo Lykios); iii, 13, 2 (Kore Soteira--Persephone, the protectress); v, 25, 6 f. (Heracles); viii, 12, 1 (Zeus Charmon).

[1096] Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, p. 15 ff.; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 90.

[1097] Sir C. R. Markham, _The Incas of Peru_, p. 104.

[1098] L. Spence, _The Mythologies of Ancient Mexico and Peru_, p. 24 f.

[1099] See above, § 647.

[1100] Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Heros," col. 2473 ff.

[1101] _Works and Days_, 155 ff.

[1102] He appears to be usually beneficent; but, like all the dead, he might sometimes be maleficent.

[1103] But these origins, going far back into prehistoric times, are obscure.

[1104] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 132.

[1105] Tregear, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix, 97 ff.; Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, p. 164.

[1106] Alexander, _Short History of the Hawaiian People_.

[1107] E. H. Gomes, _Southern Departments of Borneo_.

[1108] Skeat, _Malay Magic_, chap. iv; Skeat and Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_, ii, 245 ff.

[1109] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 529 f.; Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, i, chap. ii.

[1110] Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 264. The related Nandi worship the sun (Asista) mainly, but have also a thunder-god (Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 40 f.).

[1111] Hollis, op. cit., p. 279.

[1112] With them, as everywhere else, there is occasional discrimination in the functions of magicians, different men healing or inflicting different sicknesses; cf. article "Bantu" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1113] A. B. Ellis, _E[´w]e_, chap. v; _Tshi_, chap. v; _Yoruba_, p. 45.

[1114] Jochelson, in _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vi, i, 33 ff., 27 ff.

[1115] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, chap. li.

[1116] Herodotus, iv, 94.

[1117] Demetrius Klementz, article "Buriats" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1118] Brinton, _The Lenâpé_, p. 65 ff.; Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. xviii ff. On gods of air and winds see J. H. Keane, in article "Air and Gods of the Air" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1119] Hastings, op. cit., i, 382 ff., and ii, 837.

[1120] Brinton, _American Hero-Myths_, chap. iv; A. M. Tozzer, _Comparative Study of the Mayas and the Lacandones_ (of Yucatan), pp. 80, 93 ff.; H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States of North America_, ii, chap. xx ff.

[1121] J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen_, p. 577 ff.; Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, chap. xiv; L. Spence, _Mythologies of Ancient Mexico and Peru_; E. Seler, _Gesammelte Abhandlungen_. For earlier authorities see Winsor, _Narrative and Critical History Of America_, vol. i, chaps. iii, iv.

[1122] J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen_, p. 313 ff.; Prescott, _Peru_, i, 91 ff.; C. R. Markham, _The Incas of Peru_, chap. viii; and see preceding note.

[1123] Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, ii, 81, note 2; p. 82, notes 1 and 2.

[1124] Usener, _Götternamen_ p. 122 ff.; L. R. Farnell, "The Place of the 'Sonder-Götter' in Greek Polytheism" (in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_).

[1125] Farnell, op. cit.; cf. T. R. Glover, _Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Empire_, p. 12.

[1126] Roscher, _Lexikon_, s.v.

[1127] Augustine, _De Civitate Dei_, vii, 22; cf. bks. vi, vii, passim.

[1128] Cf. Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, pp. 15, 145 ff.

[1129] Judg. viii, 33.

[1130] The name occurs only once, in 2 Kings, i, 2. It is incorrectly adopted in the English Version of the New Testament.

[1131] Found only in the Synoptic Gospels, Mk. iii, 22; Matt. x, 25; xii, 24, 27; Luke xi, 15, 18, 19.

[1132] Isa. lxiii, 15.

[1133] On these Semitic titles see articles "Baal" and "Baalzebub" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_; article "Beelzebul" in Cheyne, _Encyclopædia Biblica_; various articles in Brown, Driver, Briggs, _Hebrew and English Lexicons_.

[1134] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, chap. x; Furness, _Home life of the Borneo Head-hunters_, p. 64 f.; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 530, note 2; De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, p. 129 f.

[1135] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 18 f.; Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_, pp. 67, 163 ff.

[1136] On "manitu" see _Handbook of American Indians_, s.v. (and cf. article "Wakonda"); W. Jones, in _Journal of American Folklore_, xviii, 183 ff. On "nagual" see Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States of North America_, iii, 458; Brinton, in _Journal of American Folklore_, viii, 249.

[1137] _Journal of American Folklore_, viii, 115.

[1138] Cf. M. H. Kingsley, _West African Studies_, p. 132 f.

[1139] Roscher, _Lexikon_, i, 2, col. 1616.

[1140] Cf. article "Daimon" in Roscher, op. cit.

[1141] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 91 ff.; Dan. x, 20; xi, 1; xii, 1; Matt. xviii, 10.

[1142] Examples are given above, § 255 f.

[1143] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, chap. x.

[1144] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 150 f., 158 f., 168 f.; Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 7, 52.

[1145] Here again a distinction must be made between animals simply sacred and those that are specifically totemic.

[1146] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 248 f., 253 ff.

[1147] Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, chaps. xii f.

[1148] So the Samoan Tangaloa (Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, 3d ed., ii, 344 f.).

[1149] St. John, _The Far East_, i, 180.

[1150] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 528 ff.

[1151] A. B. Ellis, _Yoruba_, pp. 38 ff., 56 ff.; cf. M. H. Kingsley, _West African Studies_, p. 117 ff.

[1152] Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, preface to new edition.

[1153] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 34.

[1154] Article "Brazil" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1155] G. Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, p. 1 ff.; Taylor, _New Zealand_, chap. vi; cf., for Polynesia, W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, chap. xiii. The abstract ideas reported by Taylor are remarkable: from conception came increase, from this came swelling, then, in order, thought, remembrance, desire; or, from nothing came increase and so forth; or, the word brought forth night, the night ending in death. The significance of this scheme (supposing it to be correctly stated) has not been explained. The rôle assigned to "desire" in the Rig-Veda creation-hymn (x, 129) is the product of learned reflection (cf. Schopenhauer's "blind will"), and sounds strange in the mouth of New Zealand savages.

[1156] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 308 ff.

[1157] Williams and Calvert, _Fiji_, p. 193 f.

[1158] Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, p. 15; Castrén, _Finnische Mythologie_, p. 1.

[1159] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_ (English and German editions), Index, s.vv. _Allatu, Nergal_; id., _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 368 ff.; Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 217; Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_, p. 94 ff.; Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, pp. 171 ff., 169 ff.; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 144 f.; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 128 ff.; Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthianskunde_, ii, 163 (but the old Persian god of the Underworld, if there was one, was absorbed, in Zoroastrianism, by Ahura Mazda); Jackson, in Geiger and Kuhn's _Grundriss der iranischen Philologie_, ii, 652, § 52; Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, ii, 513 ff.; iii, chap. v; Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 187 ff.; Aust, _Religion der Römer_, p. 52; Rohde, _Psyche_, 3d ed. i, 205, ff.; articles on Hades, Plutos, Hermes, Dionysos, Nergal, and related deities, in Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[1160] Cf. Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 356 f., 372 f.; F. Schwally, _Das Leben nach dem Tode_, p. 65 ff.; R. H. Charles, _Eschatology_, p. 18 f. For the Arabs see Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, iii, 22 ff., 42 ff.; Nöldeke, article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_; for the Phoenicians, Pietschmann, _Phönizier_, p. 191 f.

[1161] Ps. cxxxix.

[1162] See article "Celts" in Hastings, op. cit.; Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_, 2d ed.; Usener, _Götternamen_; article "Aryan Religion" in Hastings, op. cit., p. 38 f. and passim.

[1163] Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 264. The neighboring Nandi, according to Hollis (_The Nandi_, p. 41), have a similar pair.

[1164] A. C. Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_ (_Bulletin of the American Museum Of Natural History_, xviii, iii), p. 263. For other such conceptions see Tylor's discussion in _Primitive Culture_, ii, 320 ff.

[1165] Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 63; H. Hale, _Iroquois Book of Rites_, p. 74.

[1166] A possible exception is the Khond myth of the struggle between the sun-god (Boora Pennu), the giver of all good things, and the earth-goddess (Tari), the author of evil things (Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 529 f.; Macpherson, _India_, p. 84); but the origin of this myth is uncertain.

[1167] 1 Kings xxii, 19-23.

[1168] Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens_, p. 71 f.; Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, pp. 172, 177.

[1169] R. Taylor, _New Zealand_, pp. 114 ff., 132; Jean A. Owen, _The Story of Hawaii_, p. 70 f.

[1170] Mills, in _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, xx, 31 ff.; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 123 ff.

[1171] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 21 ff., 121 ff.

[1172] Zech. iii, 1-3; Job i, ii.

[1173] 1 Chr. xxi, 1.

[1174] 2 Cor. iv, 4.

[1175] The Greek _daimon_, properly simply a deity, received its opprobrious sense when Jews and Christians identified foreign deities with the enemies of the supreme God.

[1176] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 318 ff.

[1177] Great gods also send suffering, but only when they are angered by men's acts, as by disrespect to a priest (Apollo, in _Iliad_, i) or to a sacred thing (Yahweh, 1 Sam. vi, 19; 2 Sam. vi, 7). In the high spiritual religions suffering is treated as educative, or is accepted as involving some good purpose unknown to men.

[1178] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p. 126 f.

[1179] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 260 ff.; O. Weber, _Dämonenbeschwörung bei den Babyloniern und Assyriern_ (in _Der Alte Orient_, 1906).

[1180] The Ethiopic Book of Enoch (ed. R. H. Charles), chaps. liii, vi-x; the Slavonic Enoch, or Secrets of Enoch (ed. R. H. Charles), chap. xxxi. For the later Jewish view (in Talmud and Midrash) see _Jewish Encyclopedia_, article "Satan."

[1181] The "demons" of 1 Cor. x, 20 (King James version, "devils") are foreign deities.

[1182] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 416, 492 ff.

[1183] Herzog-Hauck, _Real-Encyklopädie_, articles "Ophiten," "Kainiten."

[1184] J. Menant, _Les Yésidis_ (in _Annales du Musée Guimet_); Isya Joseph, _Yesidi Texts_ (reprinted from _American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures_, xxv (1909), no. 2 f.). Cf. the idea of restoration in Col. i, 20.

[1185] So the Christian Satan.

[1186] When, in the reports of travelers and other observers, demons are said to be placated, examination shows that these beings are gods who happen to be mischievous. Of this character, for example, appear to be the "demons" mentioned in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii, 122.

[1187] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 39 ff.

[1188] But see below, § 704.

[1189] Baethgen, _Beiträge zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_; Wellhausen, _Skissen_, iii, 25; Nöldeke, in _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, 1886, 1888, and article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_; Pinches, article "Gad," and Driver, article "Meni," in Hastings, _Dictionary of the Bible_; Cheyne, article "Fortune" in _Encyclopædia Biblica_; Commentaries of Delitzsch, Duhm, Marti, Skinner, and Box on Isa. lxv, 11.

[1190] Lane, _Arabic-English Lexicon_, s.v. The Old Testament title "Rock" given to Yahweh (Deut. xxxii, 18, "the Rock that begat thee") is figurative, but may go back to a divine rock.

[1191] On the Hebrew place-name (Job i, 1) and perhaps personal name (Gen. xxxvi, 28) U[s.] (Uz), which seems to be formally identical with 'Au[d.], see W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, 1st ed., p. 260 f., and his _Religion of the Semites_, p. 43; Wellhausen, _Skissen_, iii; Nöldeke, in _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, xl, 183 f.

[1192] _Maniya_, plural _manây[=a]_.

[1193] Isa. lxv, 11; III Rawlinson, 66.

[1194] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 420, 428 (the tablets of fate given to Kingu and snatched from him by Marduk); R. F. Harper, _Assyrian and Babylonian Literature_, p. 304 f. (Marduk seizes the tablets of fate from Zu); Ps. cxxxix, 16; Dan. vii, 10; Rev. v, 1, and other passages.

[1195] As far as the forms are concerned, a concrete sense for _man[=a]t_, _manu_, _meni_, seems possible; cf. Wright, _Arabic Grammar_, 2d ed., i, § 231; Barth, _Semitische Nominalbüdungen_, p. 163 ff.; Delitzsch, _Assyrian Grammar_, p. 158 ff.

[1196] The etymologies in Gen. xxx, 11 ff. are popular. In "Baal-Gad" (Josh. xi, 17) _Gad_ may be the name of a place; cf. Stade, _Geschichte des Volkes Israel_, i, 271, note.

[1197] Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_, chap. iii. For a list of other Egyptian gods of abstractions, such as eternity, life, Joy, see Wiedemann, "Religion of Egypt," in Hastings, _Dictionary of the Bible_, v, 191.

[1198] Boissier, _La religion romaine_, i, 4 ff.; Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 46 ff.; Usener, _Götternamen_, p. 364 ff. (cf. Farnell, in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_); Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, pp. 190 f., 341; Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, p. 169 ff.

[1199] Cf. above, § 679, note.

[1200] Not all of these had public cults.

[1201] See articles in Roscher's _Lexicon_ ("Eros," "Moira," and similar terms); on Phoibos, cf. L. Deubner, in _Athenische Mittheilungen_, 1903.

[1202] Cicero, _De Natura Deorum_, ii, 25.

[1203] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 135 f.; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, pp. 191, 243 ff.; Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, p. 115 ff.

[1204] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 34 ff.; A. V. Williams Jackson, _Iranische Religion_ (in Geiger and Kuhn's _Grundriss der iranischen Philologie_, ii, 637).

[1205] The six are: Vohumanah (Good Thought or Good Mind), Khshathra Vairya (Best or Wished-for Righteous Realm or Law), Spenta Armaiti (Holy Harmony), Asha Vahista (Perfect Righteousness or Piety), Haurvatat (Well-being), Ameretat (Immortality).

[1206] On these and certain minor divinized conceptions of time see Spiegel, op. cit., ii, 4-17. On the Hindu personification of time see Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 244 ff. In these and similar cases time, containing all things, is conceived of as the producer of all things, and the line between personification and hypostatization is not always clearly defined. For the influence of astrology on the deification of time, see Cumont, _Les religions orientates parmi les peuples romains_, chap. vii (on astrology and magic), p. 212 f., paragraph on new deities, and notes thereto. Hubert, "La représentation du temps dans la religion et la magie" (in _Mélanges de l'histoire des religions_), p. 190, distinguishes between the notation of favorable and unfavorable times (and the nonchronological character of mythical histories) and the calendar, which counts moments continuously.

[1207] On a supposed relation between the Amesha-spentas and the Vedic Adityas see Roth, in _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, vi, 69 f.; Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, p. 44; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 134 f. Cf. also L. H. Gray (on the derivation of the Amshaspands from material gods), in _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, vii (1904), 345.

[1208] Cf. J. B. Carter, _De Deorum Romanorum Cognominibus_.

[1209] Cf. Boissier, _La religion romaine_, i, 9.

[1210] Cf. Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, v, 442 ff.

[1211] They survive in later times to some extent in the form of patron and other local saints, Christian and Moslem.

[1212] Cf. Bloomfield's classification of deities (_Religion of the Veda_, p. 96) partly according to the degree of clearness with which characters belonging to physical nature appear: "translucent" gods are those whose origin in nature is obvious; "transparent" gods are half-personified nature objects.

[1213] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 285 ff.

[1214] See above, § 328 ff.

[1215] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 561 ff., and _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 182; Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 348; Roth, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi, 125; Boas, _The Kwakiutl_, p. 410 f.

[1216] Cf. Batchelor, _The Ainu_ (1901), p. 63 f.

[1217] Cf. Aston, _Shinto_, p. 35.

[1218] J. G. Müller, _Amerikanische Urreligionen_, p. 58, and Index, s.v. _Sonnendienst_; Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 33; Brinton, _The Lenâpé_, p. 65 (cf. his _American Hero-Myths_, p. 230); Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p. 216 f.

[1219] Prescott, _Mexico_, i, 57 ff.; id., _Peru_, i, 92 ff.; E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i, 463, 550 ff.; C. R. Markham, _The Incas of Peru_, pp. 63, 67, 104 ff.

[1220] _Records of the Past_, first series, ii, 129 ff.; viii, 105 ff.

[1221] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 71.

[1222] A. B. Ellis, _E[´w]e_, p. 65.

[1223] Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, pp. 30, 32, 29, cf. p. 23; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 86; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 40 ff.

[1224] _Yashi_, x, 67.

[1225] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 529 f.

[1226] § 710.

[1227] W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, i, 12 ff.; _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, xviii, 373 ff. (the Lurka Coles); Hopkins, _Religions of India_ (Dravidians, Kolarians); and for a modern, more civilized cult see Hopkins, op. cit., p. 480, note 3; Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i, 546 ff.

[1228] Turner, _Samoa_, Index, s.v. _Moon_; Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, pp. 86, 226.

[1229] See above, § 328 ff.; cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 290 f.

[1230] Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_, pp. 88, 91.

[1231] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 356 ff., 457.

[1232] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, p. 5 (cf. J. Edkins, _Religion in China_, p. 105 ff.).

[1233] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 204, 266, 526.

[1234] Judg. v, 20; Isa. xxiv, 21 ff.; Job xxxviii, 7; Enoch xviii, 12; xxi, 1 (cf. Rev. ix, 1); cf. Neh. ix, 6. See Baudissin, _Semitische Religionsgeschichte_, i, 118 ff.; article "Astronomy and Astrology" in Hastings, _Dictionary of the Bible_.

[1235] 2 Kings xxiii, 5.

[1236] The corrupt and obscure passage Amos v, 26, cannot be cited as proving a cult of a deity Kaiwan (Masoretic text Kiyyun, Eng. R.V. "shrine") identical with Assyrian kaiwan or kaiman, the planet Saturn; there is no evidence that this planet was worshiped in Assyria.

[1237] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, i, 660.

[1238] Cf. W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, chap. vi, note 8; Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, loc. cit.

[1239] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 70 ff.

[1240] Cf. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, Index, s.vv. _Stern_ and _Sternbilder_.

[1241] Cumont, _Les religions orientales parmi les peuples romains_, chap. vii.

[1242] The Franciscan Fathers, _Ethnologic Dictionary of the Navaho Language_, Index, s.v.; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 293 f.

[1243] This is the full development of what had doubtless been felt vaguely from the beginning of religious history.

[1244] On Kronos and the Titans cf. article "Kronos" in Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[1245] Cælus (or Cælum) was sometimes called the son of Æther and Dies (Cicero, _De Natura Deorum_, iii, 17, 24).

[1246] Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens_ (and cf. his _Geschichte des Altertums_, 2d ed.); Maspero, _Dawn of Civilisation_; Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, and article "Religion of Egypt" in Hastings, _Dictionary of the Bible_, vol. v; Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_; Breasted, _History of Egypt_.

[1247] Breasted, op. cit., pp. 36, 46; id., _Ancient Records of Egypt_, under the various kings.

[1248] So Ed. Meyer, in article "Horos" in Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[1249] So Steindorff, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 26 f.

[1250] Cf. Steindorff, op. cit., p. 30 f.

[1251] _Records of the Past_, vi, 105 ff.; Steindorff, op. cit., p. 107 ff.

[1252] See, for example, the hymn in _Records of the Past_, viii, 105 ff.

[1253] He was, therefore, doubtless a god of fertility.

[1254] _Records of the Past_, ii, 129 ff. The names of other deities also were combined with that of Ra.

[1255] Egyptian civilization, as appears from recent explorations, began far back of Menes; cf. Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, 2d ed., vol. i, part ii, § 169.

[1256] Cf. Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 58; Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, bk. iii, chap. v.

[1257] Plutarch, _Isis and Osiris_, 18; Frazer, loc. cit.; Breasted, op. cit., p. 171 f.

[1258] His identification by some ancient theologians with the sun (Frazer, op. cit., p. 351 f.) or with the moon (Plutarch, op. cit., 41) is an illustration of the late tendency to identify any great god with a heavenly body.

[1259] Such is the wording given by Proclus. The form in Plutarch (_Isis and Osiris_, 9) is substantially the same: "I am all that has been and that is and that shall be, and my veil no mortal has lifted." See Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Nit," col. 436. Doubts have been cast on the reality of the alleged inscription.

[1260] Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 131.

[1261] So Ed. Meyer, in Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Isis," col. 360.

[1262] Steindorff, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 107 ff.

[1263] See Drexler, in Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Isis," col. 424 ff.

[1264] Barth, _The Religions of India_ (Eng. tr.); Hopkins, _Religions of India_; Hillebrandt, _Vedische Mythologie_; Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_. See the bibliography in Hopkins, op. cit., p. 573 ff.

[1265] _Rig-Veda_, viii, 41, 1. 7; i, 23, 5 (_[r.]ta_, 'order').

[1266] _Rig-Veda_, x, 121.

[1267] Early imagination apparently connected the future social life of gods and men not with the calm sky, but with the upper region that was the scene of constant and awful movements. But the ground of the choice of Indra as lord of heaven rests in the obscurity of primeval times.

[1268] For economic reasons a rain-god must generally be prominent and popular.

[1269] § 703.

[1270] The history of this distinction between Dyaus and Varuna is lost in the obscurity of the beginnings.

[1271] This conception appears in germinal form in _Rig-Veda_, v, 84, vi, 515, but is not there or elsewhere developed.

[1272] Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, § 20.

[1273] Cf. Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, article "Bengal," p. 491 ff., and the references there given to authorities.

[1274] One form of Çaktism is described (in Hastings, loc. cit.) as being the general worship of the Mothers of the universe represented as the wives of the gods.

[1275] _Rig-Veda_, x, 64, 92, 135, 21, 52, 14.

[1276] Ibid., x, 14; ix, 113. However, this title is given to Varuna also (x, 14): Yama and Varuna are the two kings whom the dead man sees when he reaches heaven.

[1277] Ibid., x, 10, 13, 14 (cf. Atharva-Veda, xviii, 13).

[1278] Hillebrandt, _Vedische Mythologie_, i, 394 ff., but only for the Indo-Iranian period.

[1279] _Rig-Veda_, x, 64.

[1280] Cf. Müller, _Lectures on the Science of Language_, second series, p. 534 f.; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 314; Bergaigne, _La religion védique_, ii, 94, note 3; Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chap. xxii. Cf. the Egyptian conception of Osiris (Maspero, _Dawn of Civilisation_, p. 195).

[1281] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 80; other examples are given in W. Ellis's _Polynesian Researches_, i, chap. v, and Tylor, op. cit., ii, 312 ff.

[1282] Ellis, loc. cit.; Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. 6.

[1283] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 128 ff.; Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, § 77; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, Index, s.v. _Yama_; and see the references in these works to other authors.

[1284] _Jewish Encyclopædia_, articles "Adam" and "Adam Kadmon"; _Koran_, ii, 29 ff.; cf. 1 Cor. xv, 45 ff.

[1285] See above. §§ 67 ff., 82.

[1286] On the relation between the two "first ancestors," Yama and Manu, cf. Bloomfield, op. cit., p. 140 f.

[1287] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 379 ff.

[1288] Tiele-Gehrich, _Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_, vol. ii, part i.

[1289] See above, § 703. Cf. articles by L. H. Mills in _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, vols. xx and xxi; L. H. Gray, in _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, vii (1904), p. 345.

[1290] _Records of the Past_, vols. v, ix.

[1291] Many lesser divine beings are mentioned by Spiegel (in _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 66 ff.); the advance to a real monotheistic cult was not achieved in Persia without many generations of struggle.

[1292] Cf. the similar process in the Arabian treatment of the jinn (W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, new ed., p. 122 f.).

[1293] Cf. A. V. Williams Jackson, _Zoroaster_, and his sketch in Geiger and Kuhn's _Grundriss der iranischen Philologie_; D. Menant, _Zoroaster d'après la tradition parsie_, in _Annales du Musée Guimet_, vol xxx.

[1294] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, chaps. i and iii; pp. 62 ff., 112 f., 129 f.

[1295] With this conception we may compare the similar principles in the Vedic and Mazdean systems.

[1296] The all-controlling order, as is remarked above, is that of the universe, which furnishes the norm for human life; but in the universe the grandest object is heaven.

[1297] Legge, in _Sacred Books of the East_, xxxix, xl; De Groot, _Religious System of China_, and his smaller works, _Religion of the Chinese_ and _Development of Religion in China_.

[1298] W. E. Griffis, _Religions of Japan_; E. Buckley, in Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_, 2d ed.; Aston, _Shinto_; Knox, _Development of Religion in Japan_; Longford, _The Story of Old Japan_, chap. ii.

[1299] Whether the worship of ancestors, now so important an element of the national life, is native or borrowed is uncertain.

[1300] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, new ed., p. 13 ff.

[1301] Compare Baethgen, _Beiträge sur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_, p. 262 f.

[1302] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_; id., _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria_; Jeremias, in Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_; Zimmern, article "Babylonians and Assyrians" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, i, part ii, 2d book. In our survey of Babylonian deities the question of Sumerian influence may be left out of the account.

[1303] Compare Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 481; id., _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 23, 45, 121.

[1304] Ezek. viii, 16.

[1305] Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 82. The Babylonian and Assyrian triads were loosely constructed, and had, apparently, no significance for the local and royal cults. In this regard they differed from the Egyptian triads and enneads, which were highly elaborated and organised (Maspero, _Dawn of Civilisation_, p. 104 ff.; Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 56.; Steindorff, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 29).

[1306] Cf. article "Astarte" (by Ed. Meyer) in Roscher, _Lexikon_.

[1307] For the cuneiform material see Delitzsch, _Assyrisches Handwörterbuch_, and, for various etymologies proposed for the name, Barton, _Semitic Origins_, p. 102 ff.; Haupt, in _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, xxviii, 112 ff.; Barton, ibid., xxxi, 355 ff. The frequent expression _ilani u ishtarâti_, 'gods and goddesses,' suggests that the original sense of _ishtar_ is simply 'a deity'; it is not probable that a proper name would become a common noun and have a plural; cf. the treatment of the title _ilu_, 'a god.'

[1308] As the title _bel_, 'lord,' became the proper name of a particular god, so the title _ishtar_, 'mistress,' 'lady,' might become the proper name of a particular goddess; in neither case is the detailed history of the process known to us.

[1309] They were probably local "lords"; in Moab Ashtar was combined with a deity called Kemosh, of whom nothing is known except that he was a Moabite national god (cf. G. F. Moore, article "Chemosh" in _Encyclopædia Biblica_). For a different view of Ashtar and Athtar see Barton, _Semitic Origins_, Index, s.vv. _Chemosh_, _Athtar_; he regards these deities as transformations of the mother-goddess Ashtart.

[1310] Baethgen, _Beiträge zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_, p. 66 ff.; Jeremias, "Syrien und Phönizien" (in Saussaye's _Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_).

[1311] Rawlinson, _History of Phoenicia_; Pietschmann, _Geschichte der Phönizier_; Jeremias, op. cit.

[1312] Article "Esmun" in Roscher's _Lexikon_; article in _Orientalische Studien Nöldeke gewidmet_. Of the vague group known as the Kabiri (the 'great ones,' seven in number, with Eshmun as eighth) we have little information; on the diffusion of their cult in Grecian lands see Roscher, op. cit., article "Megaloi Theoi."

[1313] Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, pp. 21 ff., 45 ff.; W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, chap. vi, note 8; chap. viii, note 2; article "Dusares" in the _Anthropological Essays presented to F. W. Putnam_.

[1314] Mordmann, _Himyarische Inschriften_; Mordmann and Müller, _Sabäische Denkmäler_; Barton, _Semitic Origins_, p. 127 ff.

[1315] His original seat is uncertain; by some scholars he is regarded as an old North Semitic deity, but the grounds for this view are not convincing. The occurrences of the name outside of the Hebrew region throw little or no light on his origin. Cf. Delitzsch, _Paradies_; Baudissin, _Studien sur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_; Barton, _Semitic Origins_, chap. vii.

[1316] On his position in the seventh century cf. W. F. Bade, in _Transactions of the American Philological Association_, 1908.

[1317] For the Old Testament statements see C. G. Montefiore, _Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Hebrews_ (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), Index, s.v. _Yahweh_.

[1318] He was thus supreme for the particular tribe, though not universal; cf. article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1319] Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_; Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_; articles on the various deities in Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[1320] Formally the names Dyaus, Zeus, and Ju (in Jupiter) are identical; and to these may probably be added the Teutonic Tiu (Tyr).

[1321] In early thought the sky (like the earth) is in itself a powerful thing, a personality, and the god who is later supposed to inhabit and control it is a definite figure, like, for example, a tree-god.

[1322] From the ancient notices of Kronos it is hardly possible to fix definitely the relation between him and Zeus. It is probable that he represents an older cult that was largely displaced by that of Zeus. The custom of human sacrifice in his cult led to the identification of him with the Phoenician (Carthaginian) Melek (Moloch), and his name has been interpreted (from [Greek: krainô]) as meaning 'king' (= melek); but this resemblance does not prove a Semitic origin for him. Whether his rôle as king of the Age of Gold was anything more than a late construction is not clear.

[1323] The etymology of his name is doubtful.

[1324] On his titles "earth-shaker" and "earth-upholder" cf. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_ p. 1139, note 2.

[1325] Possibly he was originally the ocean itself conceived of as a living and powerful thing, as Zeus (and so Varuna and Ahura Mazda) was originally the physical sky; Okeanos is a great god (_Iliad_, xiv, 201; Hesiod, _Theogony_, 133).

[1326] By many writers he is considered to have been originally a wind-god; but wind, though it might suggest swiftness (and, with some forcing, thievishness), cannot account for his other endowments.

[1327] Gen. xxx, 37 ff.; xxxi, 9; Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, p. 196; Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, ii, 17-19.

[1328] _Odyssey_, xv, 319 f. Lang lays too much stress on this fact (_Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, 1st ed., ii, 257).

[1329] Gruppe (_Griechische Mythologie_, p. 1384) thinks (on grounds not clear) that he was originally of Crete.

[1330] So Gruppe, op. cit.

[1331] _Homeric Hymn to Pan._

[1332] Servius on Vergil, _Eclogue_ ii, 31.

[1333] Roscher, in _Lexikon_, article "Pan," col. 1405, and in _Festschrift für Joh. Overbeck_, p. 56 ff. On the influence of the Egyptian cult of the goat-god of Mendes on the conception of Pan see Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Pan," cols. 1373, 1382.

[1334] Mannhardt, _Antike Wald und Feldkulte_, p. 135 f.; Roscher, op. cit., col. 1406; Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, v, 431, and many others. To this etymology Gruppe (op. cit., p. 1385) objects that such a name for a deity is not probable for primitive savage times; he offers nothing in its place.

[1335] Plutarch, _De Defectu Oraculorum_, 17; Reinach, _Orpheus_ (Eng. tr.), p. 41.

[1336] Pindar, ed. W. Christ, _Fragments_, 95 ff.

[1337] _Theogony_, 922 f.

[1338] Euripides, _Bacchæ_, 131 f. (cf. Æschylus, _The Seven against Thebes_, 541; Porphyry, _De Abstinentia_, § 13).

[1339] _Nili Opera_, p. 27; Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p., 338 f.; Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, 288.

[1340] See above, § 384 ff.

[1341] _Iliad_, xiv, 325.

[1342] Perhaps the description of him in the _Iliad_ (loc. cit.) as "a joy to mortals" refers to wine; cf. Hesiod, _Theogony_, 941, where he is called the "bright joyous one."

[1343] As, for example, the Arabian clan god Dusares (Dhu ash-Shara), carried by the Nabateans northward, was brought into relation with the viticulture of that region. Cf. above, § 764.

[1344] On this point cf. Miss J. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, p. 366.

[1345] See above, § 680 f.

[1346] _Iliad_, xv, 184 ff.; Hesiod, _Theogony_, 453 ff.

[1347] He is not always in mythological constructions distinct from Zeus--in _Iliad_, ix, 457, it is Zeus Katachthonios who is lord below.

[1348] Æschylus, _Prometheus Bound_, 806.

[1349] Cf. the development of Osiris (above, § 728).

[1350] Cf. Greek Horkos, and the oath by the Styx.

[1351] Cf. Miss Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, chap. vi.

[1352] Cf. Roscher, _Lexikon_, s.v.; Miss Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, p. 271 ff.

[1353] Compare Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 320 ff.; Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., ii, 176 ff.

[1354] Compare Miss Harrison, op. cit., p. 271 ff.

[1355] By her name she is identified with the hearth, as similarly Zeus is identified with the sky. The hearth was the center of the home, and had wide cultic significance. The name Hestia embodies not the divinization of a concrete object, but the recognition of the divine person presiding over the object in question.

[1356] Roscher, _Lexikon_; Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_.

[1357] _Odyssey_, xx, 71.

[1358] The representation of her as the slayer of women with her "kindly arrows" (_Odyssey_, xx, 67), that is, by an easy death, is in keeping with the early idea that death was caused by some supernatural Power; so Apollo slays (_Iliad_, xxiv, 759).

[1359] Leto is a Titaness (Hesiod, _Theogony_, 404 ff.), an old local goddess, naturally a patron of children, and so of similar nature with Artemis, with whom she was often joined in worship. Her connection with Apollo arose possibly from a collocation of her cult with his in some place; in such collocations the goddess would become, in mythological constructions, the mother, sister, or wife of the god. This relation once established, stories explaining it would spring up as a matter of course. The fact that she was later identified with the Asian Great Mother indicates that she also had a universal character.

[1360] Hesiod, _Theogony_, 411 ff.

[1361] She was, perhaps, an underground deity, or the product of the fusion of two deities, one of whom was chthonic.

[1362] Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_; Roscher, _Lexikon_.

[1363] Thus the Greeks endeavored to embody in divine figures all sides of family life. The division of functions between Hera, Hestia, and Athene is clear.

[1364] As, for example, 'fragile' and 'frail,' 'intension' and 'intention,' 'providential' and 'prudential,' and many other groups of this sort.

[1365] For the view that she was a native Ægean deity see Farnell, _Greece and Babylon_, p. 97. Later Semitic influences, in any case, must be assumed.

[1366] No satisfactory explanation of the name Aphrodite has as yet been offered.

[1367] See above, § 762.

[1368] _Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite_; Euripides, _Medea_, 835 ff.; Lucretius. Ishtar also is the mother of all things, but the idea is not developed by the Semites.

[1369] Compare the details given in J. Rosenbaum's _Geschichte der Lustseuche im Alterume_.

[1370] Aust, _Religion der Römer_; Fowler, _Roman Festivals_; id. _The Religious Experience of the Roman People_; articles in Roscher's _Lexikon_; Mommsen, _History of Rome_ (Eng. tr.), bk. i, chap. xii.

[1371] § 702 ff.

[1372] Hence a confusion of names that appears even to-day, and in books otherwise careful, as, for example, in the Bohn translations of Greek works, in which the Greek deities are throughout called by Latin names.

[1373] So written in good manuscripts. The "piter" probably denotes fatherly protection, though it may have meant originally physical paternity. On this point cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, lecture ii, and the various stories of the birth of Jupiter's children.

[1374] On the significance of the doublefaced Janus (Janus Geminus) and of the ancient usage of opening the gates of his temple in time of war and closing them in time of peace, see article "Janus" in Roscher's _Lexikon_, col. 18 ff.

[1375] With his function as door-god compare the functions of other Roman door-gods, of Vesta, and of Hindu and other house-deities.

[1376] Varro, _De Lingua Latina_, v, 85; Cato, _De Agri Cultura_, 141.

[1377] So Roscher and others.

[1378] Cf. Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 35.

[1379] The cult of Mars was widely diffused in Italy and, later, elsewhere. His original seat is uncertain. He was, perhaps, the tribal god of a conquering people.

[1380] Cf. also the Ancillarum Feriæ (July 7).

[1381] See above, § 217 ff.

[1382] Vergil, _Eclogues_, iv, 6. Cf. above, § 768, note (Kronos).

[1383] Aust, _Religion der Römer_; Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_; Fowler, _Roman Festivals_; articles in Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[1384] She appears to have been a Greek deity adopted by the Romans.

[1385] See above, § 43.

[1386] Compare the Greek Hestia and the Hindu house-goddess (Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 374, 530).

[1387] On the Arician Diana see Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 230 f.

[1388] Or, better, from _dei[=a]_.

[1389] The prevailing view is that the grove is an opened place into which light enters, and it is thus distinguished from the dark and gloomy forest. The verbs _nitere_, _nitescere_, _virere_, are used by Ovid and other writers to describe this gleaming of leaves, plants, trees, groves, and of the earth.

[1390] An early divine name expressive of intellectual power is not probable.

[1391] On her origin cf. Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 203 ff.

[1392] Varro, _De Re Rustica_, i, 1.

[1393] See above, § 803.

[1394] In favor of Ardea, twenty miles south of Rome, as her original seat, cf. Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 235.

[1395] Her identification with the Greek goddess was perhaps furthered by a supposed relation between her name and the noun _venustas_, 'grace, beauty,' the special quality of Aphrodite. If that was the original sense of 'Venus,' it could hardly have indicated an æsthetic perception of nature (Wissowa, op. cit.); such a designation would be foreign to early ways of naming deities. Whether the stem _van_ might mean 'general excellence' (here agricultural) is uncertain; on the Greek epithets 'Kallisto,' 'Kalliste,' and so forth, cf. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, p. 1270 f. The name 'Venus,' if connected with the root of _venerari_, might mean simply 'a revered object,' a deity; cf. Bona Dea and Ceres (creator).

[1396] Roscher's _Lexikon_, s.v. "Fortuna," col. 1518; Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 68. On licentious cults of Venus cf. J. Rosenbaum, _Geschichte der Lustseuche im Altertume_.

[1397] See above, § 671.

[1398] Articles in Roscher, _Lexikon_, and in _Orientalische Studien Nöldeke gewidmet_.

[1399] Inscriptions of Rammannirari and Nebuchadrezzar (Birs Nimrud); Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, Index, s.v.; id., _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria_, Index, s.v. _Adad_.

[1400] There is no separate god of Sheol in the Old Testament. On Eve as such a deity see Lidzbarski, _Ephmeris_, i, 26; cf. Cook, _North Semitic Inscriptions_, 135.

[1401] Gen. vi, 4, cf. Ezek. xxxii, 27; Philo of Byblos; Harper, _Assyrian and Babylonian Literature_.

[1402] Isa. lxiii, 16 ("God is our father, though Abraham and Israel do not acknowledge us") is regarded by some commentators as pointing to ancestor-worship. It seems, however, to be nothing more than the complaint of persons who were disowned by the community or by the leaders.

[1403] § 341 ff.

[1404] Jastrow, _Religions of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 168: "a pantheon of demons."

[1405] Isa. xxxiv, 14.

[1406] Satan is one of the Elohim-beings, old gods subordinated to Yahweh, and Azazel, if his name contains the divine title _el_, must be put into this class.

[1407] Wisdom of Solomon, ii, 24.

[1408] Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, chap. v. On Hindu demons see Hopkins, _Religions of India_, Index, s.v. _Devils_.

[1409] §§ 698 ff., 398 ff.

[1410] See below, Chapter vii. Here, again, Mazdaism forms an exception, resembling the Semitic scheme rather than the Hindu.

[1411] A partial exception is found in the comparatively late movement from the south of Arabia over into Africa (Abessinia, Ethiopia).

[1412] On the characteristics of the various great religions see Hegel, _Religionsphilosphe_; Santayana, _Reason in Religion_ (vol. iii of _The Life of Reason_); E. Caird, _Evolution of Religion_; R. B. Perry, _Approach to Philosophy_; S. Johnson, _Oriental Religions_; J. F. Clarke, _Ten Great Religions_; S. Reinach, _Orpheus_. See below,