CHAPTER VII
CONCLUSION: READING, WRITING, AND SPEAKING
Anyone who wishes to swim without the help of others is faced by a "vicious circle." In order to swim he must jump into the water, but before he entrusts himself to the water he ought to be able to swim. In spite of this, many people learn to swim without a teacher. How do they do that? They go at first only into shallow water, and splash about there until they have become more or less familiar with this element. Then, when they perceive that they can propel themselves in it, they go gradually into deeper water.
If we wish to get scientific men to use the international language, we must probably recommend the same method and advise them to move about in the shallower regions of every-day language before they venture into the deeper waters of science. The instruction concerning the movements of swimming given by the swimming-master on dry land corresponds to a lesson of a couple of hours on the simple grammar of the international language. Further progress, leading up finally to the introduction of the latter into science, can be divided into three stages, which we may describe by the words reading, writing, and speaking.
I. _Reading._--The extraordinary ease with which every educated person, and especially anyone who has learnt Latin or one of the Romance languages, can read and understand the language of the Delegation almost without any previous study, indicates that the first stage will not be difficult of attainment. But one would require scientific reading material in order to gain practice in scientific reading, and there we are again faced by a vicious circle. For, in order to create such reading material, we require authors who can write it, and yet the latter can only learn to express themselves in the international language by means of already existing reading material. We must therefore at first make use of the language of daily life and carry over into science whatever is found to be suitable for scientific purposes, after which more sharply defined meanings may be assigned to the words. It has been indicated in the previous article how the remaining special scientific nomenclature can be determined. When this preliminary work is sufficiently advanced the following way will lead quickest to the goal.
There will be founded an _international journal_, divided into as many divisions as correspond to the groups of sciences to be dealt with. We have here in view more particularly the theoretical and practical sciences of nature, because they have much more urgent need of an international auxiliary language than the "humanities," whose representatives are more likely to possess a sufficient knowledge of languages. For example, mathematics, mathematical astronomy, mathematical geography, mathematical physics, geodesy, etc., might form one group; general and experimental physics, chemistry and physical chemistry, electrotechnics and applied chemistry, mechanics and mechanical engineering, etc., a second group; mineralogy, petrography, crystallography, geology, etc., a third group; biology, systematic and physiological zoology and botany, morphology, etc., etc., a fourth group. Extensions of these groups and other modes of arrangement might of course be introduced.
The foundation at first of several separate periodicals would not be advisable.
The following remarks may be made concerning the contents of this journal. In conformity with our plan, it should not at first contain any original articles, for the international language is not intended to replace the natural ones, but only to act as an _intermediary_ between them. Besides, the journal must not contain any insignificant or uninteresting articles if it is to attract and interest readers. But eminent authors, even if they could command the international language, would not publish important original articles in a journal which naturally at first would not have any very great circulation.
The journal must therefore contain chiefly translations of interesting articles from all branches of science and from all languages, and also extracts from the more important literary productions. The editorial committee of this journal should be independent of the Language Academy, but nevertheless in close contact with it, in order, on the one hand, to guarantee the correctness of the language by means of the Academy, and, on the other hand, to help the latter by acting as its scientific adviser. The gradual dissemination of this periodical would have the effect that a considerable number of scientific men, especially those of the younger generation, would be induced to read and understand the international language without any expenditure of trouble injurious to their professional work.
II. _Writing._--From reading a comparatively easy step leads to writing. The number of scientific men would soon increase who could either write directly in the international language, or, at all events, translate a paper written in a natural language into the international language. Owing to the gradually increasing dissemination of the international Review, a first-hand publication of such papers in the Review would soon be very much in the interest of the authors, as the acceptance of their papers would itself be a mark of honour, whilst the rapid distribution amongst all nations would be likewise advantageous.
III. _Speaking._--The speaking of the international language at first in small and then gradually amongst wider circles and finally at international congresses can only be attempted later. This attempt must not, however, be made before its success is fully assured, and the language has received a certain amount of consolidation through its application to writing.
We have already remarked in another place that the introduction of the international language is not nearly so difficult as it appears at first sight, almost the only difficulty being the establishment of the _confidence_ that this goal _can_ be attained.
When one tries to swim for the first time it seems as if one would never succeed. But when, after a few lessons, one has seen one's comrades moving safely and merrily in the water, courage comes, and with it success. We shall therefore show in an appendix by means of an example that the language of the Delegation is already capable of expressing difficult passages with all possible fidelity.
At a time when the language had only just been fixed and when he had very little practice in its use, L. Couturat translated into it a particularly difficult passage from the work of Gomperz (the Viennese Academician) on _Grecian Thinkers_. The present author, without having seen the original, retranslated it at Graz from the international language into German, and sent this to Gomperz at Vienna with the request, that he would give his opinion on the accuracy of the retranslated passage. Gomperz wrote characterising the reproduction as "astonishingly exact," "the test as extraordinarily successful, and the result in a high degree favourable to the possibility of employing the international language." This test must certainly be regarded as a very severe one, because the German language is foreign to the first translator, whilst, owing to its philosophical nature, the subject was not familiar to the second translator as a physicist. For the sake of English readers, a similar experiment has just been made, the results of which are given in Appendix III. A passage from Professor W. James's _Talks to Teachers on Psychology_, dealing with the laws of habit, was translated into Ido by Professor Couturat, and the Ido text retranslated into English by Mr. P. D. Hugon in London, who was unacquainted with the original. A comparison of the two English texts demonstrates the marvellous lucidity of Ido as a medium for the transmission of thought without distortion.
Two things are indispensable for the realisation of a great idea. In the first place, the idea must, as regards its nature and value, have a rational foundation, and its possibility must be demonstrated. In the second place, there must be present courage, energy, and persevering devotion in order to realise practically that which has been recognised to be right and good. No amount of energy, however great, can produce a lasting result from a mistaken idea; but at the same time nothing great has ever been accomplished by doubters and pessimists. The readers of our brochure will concede to us that the idea of an international auxiliary language and its realisation by means of the language of the Delegation have in the foregoing chapters been fully examined in the cold light of reason and shown to be good and practicable, whilst the appendices will enable this opinion to be experimentally tested and confirmed. Now that the head has done its work, the heart, the source of courage and devotion, must do its part. We have full confidence, therefore, in calling upon the representatives of science, who have followed us so far, to assist us in the work, in the first place by _joining the Uniono di l'Amiki di la Linguo Internaciona_ and by making its labours known. This step can be taken also by those who do not see in the language as at present constituted the final and best solution of the problem, for before one can reach the topmost heights one must traverse the intervening stages. We ourselves do not consider that our language is the best possible, but we regard it as one which is susceptible of continuous improvement without its immediate and future use being injured thereby.
LEOPOLD PFAUNDLER.
APPENDIX I.
"LINGUO INTERNACIONA DI LA DELEGITARO."
(IDO).
The Délégation pour l'Adoption d'une Langue Auxiliaire Internationale, founded in Paris in 1901, has received the support of 310 societies of many countries and the approval of 1,250 professors and academicians. It elected in 1907 an international committee, composed of eminent linguists and men of science, which, after having studied all the projects for international language, adopted Esperanto with certain modifications. These modifications, whilst preserving the principles and essential qualities of Dr. Zamenhof's language, aim at a more logical and strict application of these principles and the elimination of certain unnecessary complications. The following are the principal modifications:--
(1) Suppression of the accented letters, _thus permitting the language to be printed everywhere_, and at the same time preserving the phonetic and frequently re-establishing the international spelling;
(2) Suppression of certain useless grammatical rules which are very troublesome to many nations, and _especially to persons possessing only an elementary education_ (accusative, concord of the adjective);
(3) Regularisation of the method of derivation, this being the only means of preventing the intrusion of idioms and of furnishing a solid foundation for the working out of the _scientific and technical vocabulary_ so indispensable for the propagation of the language in the scientific world;
(4) Enrichment of the vocabulary by the adoption of new stems carefully chosen according to the _principle of maximum internationality_.
All the words have, in fact, been formed from international stems, that is to say those which are common to the majority of European languages, with the result that they are immediately recognised by everyone of medium education. It is not necessary therefore to learn a new language; _the international language is the quintessence of the European ones_. It is, however, incomparably more easy than any of them on account of its simplicity and absolute regularity; there are _no useless rules_, and _no exceptions_. It can be learnt by reading it; as soon as one can read it one can write it; as soon as one can write it one can speak it. And experience has proved that the differences of pronunciation amongst people of the most diverse countries are insignificant and cause no trouble at all. To sum up, the _linguo internaciona_ is a simplified and improved Esperanto, very analogous to primitive Esperanto, but possessing the advantage over the latter of being immediately intelligible, so that it is destined to become _the_ international language. Besides, it has already received the warm approval and support of many of the earliest and best Esperantists. It alone, thanks to the support of the scientific and literary men of the Delegation and Committee, has a chance of being adopted some day by Governments and of being introduced into the schools of all countries.
The following pages provide a key which enables one to read a text in this language.
GRAMMAR.
@Pronunciation.@--All letters are pronounced, and have always the same sound: _a_ (as in _father_), _c_ (like _ts_), _e_ (like _e_ in _set_, or _a_ in _fate_), _g_ (always hard, as in _go_), _i_ (like _ee_ in _sweet_), _j_ (either as in English, or like the French _j_ in _journal_), _o_ (like _o_ in _not_ or like _o_ in _go_), _q_ (_qu_ as in English, or like _kv_), _s_ (unvoiced), _u_ (like _oo_ in _too_), _x_ (like _ks_ or _gz_), _y_ (as in English), _z_ (as in English), _ch_ (as in _church_), _sh_ (as in English), _au_ (like _ow_ in _how_), _eu_ (= _e-u_). It will be seen that a _certain amount_ of latitude is permitted, in order to suit the convenience of different nations. _Stress_ (tonic accent) on the penultimate syllable, except in the infinitive, when it falls on the last syllable (@-ar@, @-ir@, @-or@). Since _y_ is a consonant, it does not count as a separate syllable (@fluvyo@).
@Definite Article.@--@La@, for all genders and numbers.
@Substantive.@--Ends in _-o_ in the singular, in _-i_ in the plural.
@Adjective.@--Is invariable, and ends in _-a_.
@Personal Pronouns.@--@Me@ = _I_, @tu@ = _thou_, @vu@ = _you_ (singular), @il@ = _he_ or _it_ (masculine), @el@ = _she_ or _it_ (feminine), @ol@ = _it_ (thing); @ni@ = _we_, @vi@ = _you_ (plural), @li@ = _they_ (all genders). If distinction is necessary, @ili@ = _they_ (masculine), @eli@ = _they_ (feminine), @oli@ = _they_ (neuter).
@Possessive Pronouns.@--@Mea@ = _my_, _mine_, @tua@ = _thy_, _thine_, @vua@ = _your_, _yours_ (singular), @sa@ = _his_, _her_, _hers_, or _its_; @nia@ = _our_, _ours_, @via@ = _your_, _yours_ (plural), @lia@ = _their_, _theirs_. In the plural the ending _-i_ is substituted for _-a_ when the above words are used as true possessive _pronouns_.
@Reflexive Forms.@--@Su@ is used as an objective (reflexive) personal pronoun (for singular and plural) in the third person. The corresponding possessive forms are @sua@ and @sui@ (plural _pronoun_). It may be remarked that the possessive pronominal adjectives @sa@ (singular) and @lia@ (plural) may be made to indicate sex in the following way:--
_Singular._ _Plural._ Masculine @ilsa@ @ilia@ Feminine @elsa@ @elia@ Neuter @olsa@ @olia@
@Demonstrative Pronouns.@--@Ica@ = _this_, _these_; @ita@ = _that_, _those_. The plural forms @ici@ = _these_, and @iti@ = _those_, are only used as true demonstrative _pronouns_. The indeterminate (neuter) forms are @ico@ = _this_, @ito@ = _that_. In all the above words the initial _i_ is usually _omitted_, except where euphony requires it.
If it is required to indicate sex, or something which is not alive, this may be done as follows:--
_This._ _That._ Masculine @ilca@ @ilta@ Feminine @elca@ @elta@ Neuter @olca@ @olta@ Plural } @ilci@ @ilti@ Pronoun } etc. etc.
@Relative and Interrogative Pronouns@: @qua@ = _who_, _which_, _what_; plural, @qui@. @Quo@ = _what_ (indeterminate, general).
@Accusative@ (objective case).--When the direct object of the verb precedes the subject, the former is indicated by the inflexion _-n_: @la homo quan vu vidis@ = _the person whom you have seen_.
@Verb.@--Invariable in person and number. Endings of the principal tenses:--
_Active_ _Passive_ _Infinitive._ _Indicative._ _participle._ _participle._ Present @-ar@ @-as@ @-anta@ @-ata@ Past @-ir@ @-is@ @-inta@ @-ita@ Future @-or@ @-os@ @-onta@ @-ota@ Conditional, @-us@. Imperative, @-ez@.
The auxiliary verb @esar@, _to be_, is used for the passive, and for the compound tenses of the active.
_Passive._
_Present_ @esas amata@, or @amesas@ = _I am (being) loved_. _Past_ @esis amata@, or @amesis@ = _I was (being) loved_. _Future_ @esos amata@, or @amesos@ = _I will be loved_. _Conditional_ @esus amata@, or @amesus@ = _I would be loved_. _Imperative_ @esez amata@, or @amesez@ = _be loved_. _Infinite_ @esar amata@, or @amesar@ = _to be loved_.
_Compound Tenses of the Active._
_Perfect_ @(me) esas aminta@ = _(I) have loved_. _Pluperfect_ @(me) esis aminta@ = _(I) had loved_. _Future perfect_ @(me) esos aminta@ = _(I) shall have loved_. _Past conditional_ @(me) esus aminta@ = _(I) should have loved_.
The past tenses of the passive (indicating _completed_ states) are formed by means of the passive participle in @-ita@:--
@(me) esis amita@ = _(I) had been loved_. @(me) esos amita@ = _(I) shall have been loved_. @(me) esus amita@ = _(I) would have been loved_.
Derived adverbs are formed by substituting the ending _-e_ for the _-a_ of the adjective or the _-o_ of the noun: @bone@ = _well_; @nokte@ = _at night_.
FORMATION OF WORDS.
All words are composed of three elements, possessing an invariable form and meaning: _stems_, _affixes_ (prefixes and suffixes), and _grammatical terminations_.
@Prefixes@:--
@ge-@, the two sexes united: @ge-patri@ = _parents_. @bo-@, relation by marriage: @bo-patro@ = _father-in-law_. @ex-@, former, ex-: @ex-oficero@ = _ex-officer_. @mal-@, opposite, contrary: @mal-bela@ = _ugly_. @mis-@, error, mistake: @mis-komprenar@ = _misunderstand_. @mi-@, half: @mi-horo@ = _half an hour_. @re-@, repetition: @re-dicar@ = _repeat_, _say again_. @retro-@, backwards: @retro-sendar@ = _return (send back)_. @ne-@, negation: @ne-utila@ = _useless_ (but @mal-utila@ = _harmful_). @sen-@, want of: @sen-arma@ = _unarmed_.
@Suffixes@:--
@-in@, female sex: @frat-ino@ = _sister_. @-id@, descendant: @Sem-ido@ = _Semite_. @-estr@, chief, director: @urb-estro@ = _mayor_. @-an@, member of: @senat-ano@ = _senator_. @-ism@, system, doctrine: @socialismo@ = _socialism_. @-ist@, profession, occupation: @dent-isto@ = _dentist_. @-er@, amateur: @fotograf-ero@ = _amateur photographer_. @-ul@, person who is characterised by ...: @kuras-ulo@ = _cuirassier_. @-aj@, concrete thing, consisting of, or made of: @lan-ajo@ = _woollen goods_. @-ur@, product, result: @pikt-uro@ = _a picture_. @-ar@, collection of a number of similar things: @hom-aro@ = _mankind_. @-il@, instrument, tool: @bros-ilo@ = _brush_. @-ey@, place for ...: @kaval-eyo@ = _stable_; @dorm-eyo@ = _dormitory_. @-uy@, container, recipient: @ink-uyo@ = _inkpot_. @-yer@, that which bears or carries: @pom-yero@ = _apple tree_. @-al@, relating to: @nacion-ala@ = _national_. @-oz@, full of, provided with: @por-oza@ = _porous_. @-atr@, similar, like: @spong-atra@ = _sponge-like_, _spongy_. @-iv@, that which can, active possibility: @instrukt-iva@ = _instructive_. @-em@, addicted to: @babil-ema@ = _talkative_, _garrulous_. @-ebl@, passive possibility, that which can be ...: @vid-ebla@ = _visible_. @-end@, that which is to be, or must be ...: @solv-enda@ = _to be solved_, _requiring solution_. @-ind@, worthy of being: @respekt-inda@ = _worthy of respect_. @-es@, state of being: @san-esar@ = _to be well_, whence the substantives expressing state or quality, _e.g._, @san-eso@ = _health_. @-esk@, to commence to do or to be: @dorm-eskar@ = _to fall asleep_. @-ig@, to make or cause to do or to be: @bel-igar@ = _beautify_; @dorm-igar@ = _to send to sleep_. @-ij@, to become: @rich-ijar@ = _to get rich_. @-iz@, to furnish or provide with: @arm-izar@ = _to arm_. @-if@, to produce, bring forth: @frukt-ifar@ = _to fructify_. @-ad@, repetition, continuation: @dans-ado@ = _dancing_. @-eg@, augmentative: @bel-ega@ = _very beautiful_. @-et@, diminutive: @mont-eto@ = _hill_, _hillock_. @-ach@, derogative: @popul-acho@ = _populace_, _the mob_. @-um@, indeterminate relationship (see the dictionary), @-esm@, ordinal number: @un-esma@ = _first_. @-opl@, multiplicative number: @du-opla@ = _double_. @-on@, fractional number: @tri-ono@ = _a third_. @-op@, distributive number: @quar-ope@ = _in fours_.
LEXIKO DI LA GRAMMATIKALA VORTI.
@a@, @ad@ _to_, _towards_ @ad maxime@ _at most_ @ad minime@ _at least_ @altra@, @-i@ _other_ (_s_) @altru@ _another_ @altro@ _another thing_, _something else_ @anke@ _also_ @ankore@ _still_, _yet_ @ante@ _before_ (time) @aparte@ _apart_ @apene@ _scarcely_, _with difficulty_ @apud@ _near_, _close by_, _at_ @avan@ _before_ (place) @balde@ _soon_ @cent@ _hundred_ @ceter-i@, @-o@ _the others_, _the rest_ @che@ _at the house of_ @cirke@ _around_, _about_ @cis@ _on this side of_ @da@ _by_ @de@ _from_, _since_, _of_ @dek@ _ten_ @di@ _of_ @do@ _therefore_, _hence_ @dop@ _after_ (position); _behind_ @du@ _two_ @dum@ _during_ @e@, @ed@ _and_ @ek@ _out, out of_ @en@ _in_ @exter@ _outside of_, _besides_ @for@ _far from_ @forsan@ _perhaps_ @frue@ _early_ @hiere@ _yesterday_ @hike@ _here_ @ibe@ _there_ @inter@ _between_, _among_ @ips-a@, @-e@ _self_, _even any_ (_whatsoever_) @irg-a@, @-u@ _anyone_ (_whatever_) @irgo@ _anything_ (_whatever_) @itere@ _again_, _anew_ @ja@ _already_ @jus@ _just at the moment_ @kad@ _whether_ (general interrogative) @kam@ _as_, _than_ (in comparisons) @kande@ _when_ @ke@ _that_ (conjunction) @kelk-a@, @-i@ _some_ @kin@ _five_ @kontre@ _against_, _opposite_ @kun@ _with_ @lor@ _then_, _at that time_ @malgre@ _in spite of_ @max@ (@-ime@) _most_ @mem@ _even_, _indeed_ @mil@ _thousand_ @min@ _less_ @minime@ _least_ @morge@ _to-morrow_ @mult-a@ (@-i@) _much_, _many_ @nam@ _for_, _because_ @ne@ _not_ @nek@ _neither_, _nor_ @no@ _no_ @nov@ _nine_ @nu@ _well!_ _now!_ @nul-a@ (@-u@) _no_, _no one_ @nulo@ _nothing_ @nun@ _now_ @nur@ _only_ @o@, @od@ _or_ @ok@ _eight_ @olim@ _formerly_ @omn-a@ (@-i@) _each_, _all_ @omno@ _all_, _everything_ @or@ _now_ (conjunction) @per@ _through_, _by means of_ @plu@ _more_ @plur-a@ (@-i@) _several_ @po@ _for_ (the price of) @poke@ _a little_ @por@ _for_, _to_ (_in order to_) @pos@ _after_ (time) @precipue@ _especially_ @preske@ _almost_, _nearly_ @preter@ _past_, _beyond_ @pri@ _concerning_, _on_ @pro@ _for_, _on account of_ @proxim@ _next_ @qual-a@ _what_ (_sort of_) @quale@ _how_, _as_ @quankam@ _although_ @quant-a@ (@-e@) _how much_, _how many_ @quar@ _four_ @quaze@ _as if_, _so to speak_ @quik@ _at once_, _immediately_ @sama@ _the same_ @same@ _similarly_ @sat@ (@-e@) _enough_, _sufficiently_ @se@ _if_ @sed@ _but_ @segun@ _according to_ @sempre@ _always_ @sen@ _without_ @sep@ _seven_ @singl-a@ (@-e@ _single_, _singly_ @sis@ _six_ @sive@ _either_, _or_ @sub@ _under_, _below_ @super@ _above_, _over_ @sur@ _on_, _upon_ @tal-a@ _such a_, _such_ @tal-e@ _thus_, _so_, _in such a way_ @tam@ _as_ (in comparisons) @tamen@ _nevertheless_, _yet_ @tant-a@ (@-e@) _so much_, _as much_, _so_ @tarde@ _late_ @til@ _until_ @tra@ _through_, _across_ @trans@ _beyond_, _on the other side of_ @tre@ _very_ @tri@ _three_ @tro@ _too_ @ube@ _where_, _whither_ @ula-@ (@-u@) _some_, _any_, _someone_, _anyone_ @ulo@ _something_, _anything_ @ultre@ _beyond_, _besides_ @un@ (@-u@, @-a@ _one_ @ve@ _alas!_ @vice@ _in place of_, _vice_ @ya@ _certainly_, _undoubtedly_ @ye@ preposition of indeterminate meaning @yen@ _here is_, _there is_, _behold_ @yes@ _yes_
APPENDIX II.
@Specimen page from the INTERNATIONAL-ENGLISH DICTIONARY.@[6]
@deskript-ar@: to describe; @-o@: description; @-iva@: descriptive [EFIS].
@desper-ar@: to despair; @-o@: despair; @-igar@: to drive to despair [EFIS].
@despit-ar@: to be vexed, to fret; @-o@: spite, despite; @-igar@: to vex [EFIS].
@despot-o@: despot; @-eso@, @-ismo@: despotism [DEFIRS].
@destin-ar@: to destine; @-o@, @-eso@: destination, destiny [EFIS].
@destrukt-ar@: to destroy; @-o@: destruction; @-iva@, @-ema@: destructive [EFIRS].
@detal-o@: detail; @-a@, @-oza@: detailed; @-e@, @-oze@: in detail [DEFIRS].
@detashment-o@ (military): detachment [DEFIRS].
@detektiv-o@: detective [EFR].
@determin-ar@: to determine; @-o@, @-eso@: determination (not _decision_); @-anta@, @-iva@: determinative; @-ismo@: determinism [DEFIRS].
@detriment-ar@: to cause injury or prejudice to (_a person_); @-o@: detriment, damage, injury (_moral_) [EFIS].
@dev-ar@: to be obliged to, ought, have to; @-o@: duty [FIS].
@devast-ar@: to devastate; @-o@, @eso@: devastation [EFIS].
@deviac-ar@ (_trans. and intrans._): to deviate; @-o@: deviation [EFIS].
@deviz-o@: motto, device [DEFIRS].
@devlop-ar@: to develop; @-o@, @-eso@: development [EFI].
@devot-a@: devoted; @-eso@: devotion; @-esar@, @-igar@, @-su@: to devote oneself [EFI].
@dextr-a@: right (_hand_, _side_); @-e@: on the right [IS].
@dezert-a@: desert, deserted; @-o@: a desert, wilderness [EFIS].
@dezir-ar@: to wish, desire; @-o@: wish, desire [EFIS].
@di@: of (_preposition_).
@di-o@, day (twenty-four hours); @-ala@: daily [EIS].
@diabet-o@: diabetes [DEFIRS].
@diablo@: devil; @-ala@: diabolical [DEFIRS].
@diadem-o@: diadem [DEFIRS].
@diafan-a@: transparent; @-eso@: transparency [FIS].
@Specimen page from the ENGLISH-INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY.@
to @describe@: deskriptar. @description@: deskripto. @descriptive@: deskriptiva. to @desecrate@: profanigar. a @desert@: dezerto. to @desert@: desertar. @deserted@: dezerta. @deserter@: desert-anto, -into. @desertion@: deserto, to @deserve@: meritar. @deserving@: merit-anta, -oza. to @desiccate@ (_v. trans._): sikigar. @desiccated@: sikigita. @design@ (= drawing): desegno. to @desire@: dezirar. @desire@: deziro. @desk@ (_writing_): pupitro. " (_pulpit_): katedro. to @despair@: desperar. @despair@: despero. @despair@, to @drive to@: desperigar. a @desperado@: riskemo. @despicable@: mal-prizinda. to @despise@: mal-prizar. @despite@ (_s._), despito. " (_prep._) (= _in spite of_), malgre. @despot@: despoto. @despotism@: despot-eso, -ismo. @desquamation@: squamifo. @dessert@: desero. @destination@: destin-o, -eso. to @destine@: destinar. @destiny@: destin-o, -eso. " (= _fate_): fato. to @destroy@: destruktar. @destruction@: destrukto. " , @utter@: nuligo. @destructive@: destrukt-iva, -ema. @detachment@ (military): detashmento. @detail@: detalo, mal-grandajo. " , @in@: detal-e, -oze. @detailed@: detal-a, -oza. @detective@: detektivo. to @deter@: timigar, impedar. @determination@ (_not decision_): determin-o, -eso. @determinative@: determin-anta, -iva. to @determine@: determinar. " " (= decide): decidigar. @determinism@: determinismo. to @dethrone@: mal-tronizar. @detriment@: detrimento. to @devastate@: devastar. @devastation@: devast-o, -eso. to @develop@: devlopar. " " (_photo._): rivelar. @developer@ (_photo._): rivelilo. @developing@ (_photo._): rivelo. @development@: devlop-o, -eso. to @deviate@ (_v. trans. and intrans._): deviacar. @deviation@: deviaco.
APPENDIX III.
EXPERIMENT IN DOUBLE TRANSLATION.
THE LAWS OF HABIT.
By Professor W. JAMES.[7]
I believe that we are subject to the law of habit in consequence of the fact that we have bodies. The plasticity of the living matter of our nervous system, in short, is the reason why we do a thing with difficulty the first time, but soon do it more and more easily, and finally, with sufficient practice, do it semi-mechanically, or with hardly any consciousness at all. Our nervous systems have (in Dr. Carpenter's words) _grown_ to the way in which they have been exercised, just as a sheet of paper or a coat, once creased or folded, tends to fall for ever afterward into the same identical folds.
Habit is thus a second nature, or rather, as the Duke of Wellington said, it is "ten times nature," at any rate as regards its importance in adult life, for the acquired habits of our training have by that time inhibited or strangled most of the natural impulsive tendencies which were originally there. Ninety-nine hundredths or possibly nine hundred and ninety-nine thousandths of our activity is purely automatic and habitual, from our rising in the morning to our lying down each night. Our dressing and undressing, our eating and drinking, our greetings and partings, our hat-raisings and giving way for ladies to precede, nay, even most of the forms of our common speech, are things of a type so fixed by repetition as almost to be classed as reflex actions. To each sort of impression we have an automatic, ready-made response. My very words to you now are an example of what I mean, for, having already lectured upon habit and printed a chapter about it in a book, and read the latter when in print, I find my tongue inevitably falling into old phrases and repeating almost literally what I said before.
So far as we are thus mere bundles of habit, we are stereotyped creatures, imitators and copiers of our past selves. And since this, under any circumstances, is what we always tend to become, it follows first of all that the teacher's prime concern should be to ingrain into the pupil that assortment of habits that shall be most useful to him throughout life. Education is for behaviour, and habits are the stuff of which behaviour consists.
LA LEGI DI L'KUSTUMO,
Traduko en Ido da L. COUTURAT.
Me kredas, ke ni esas submisata a la lego di l'kustumo per konsequo di l'fakto, ke ni havas korpi. La plastikeso di la vivanta materyo di nia nerva sistemo, esas, abreje, la kauzo ke ni facas un kozo malfacile la unesma foyo, sed balde plu e plu facile, e fine, kun suficanta praktiko, ni facas ol mi-mekanike, o kun preske nula koncio. Nia nerva sistemi _kreskis_ (segun la vorti di Dr. Carpenter) en la voyo en qua li esis exercita, exakte quale folyo di papero, o vesto unfoye faldita o shifonigita, tendencas falar sempre pose en la sama identa falduri.
La kustumo esas duesma naturo, o prefere, quale dicis Duko de Wellington, ol esas "dekople naturo," omnakaze per sa importo en adulta vivo; nam la aquirita kustumi di nia eduko en ta tempo impedis o strangulis max multa de la natural impulsiva tendenci, qui existas origine. Novdek nov centoni, o, posible, novcent novdek nov miloni de nia agemeso esas pure automatal e kustuma, de nia levo matene a nia kusho omnanokte. Nia vestizo e malvestizo, nia manjo e drinko, nia saluti ed adyi, nia chapel-levi et voyo-cedi por siorini preteriranta, ya mem max multa formi di nia komuna parolado, esas kozi de tipo tante fixigita per repeto, ke li povas esar klasizita quale agi reflexa. Ad omna speco de impreso ni havas automatal, tute pronta respondo. Mea ipsa paroli a vi nun esas exemplo de to, quon me pensas: nam, pro ja facir lecioni pri la kustumo ed imprimigir chapitro pri ol en libro, e lektir olca dum imprimo, me trovas mea lango falanta neeviteble en sa malnuva frazi, e repetanta preske litere, quon me dicis ante.
Segun quante ni esas tale pura faski de kustumi, ni esas stereotipita kreuri, imitanti e kopianti di nia propra pasinto. E pro ke co, en omna supozi, esas to, quo ni sempre tendencas divenar, konsequas, unesme, ke la precipua skopo di l'instruktisto devas esar inkrustar en la lernanto ta asortajo de kustumi, qua esos max utila ad il tra sa tuta vivo. L'eduko esas por la konduto, e la kustumi esas la materyo, en qua la konduto konsistas.
THE LAWS OF HABIT.
I believe that we are subject to the law of habit in consequence of the fact that we have bodies. The plasticity of the living material of our nervous system is, to put it briefly, the reason why we do a thing with difficulty the first time, but soon more and more easily, and finally, with sufficient practice, we do it half mechanically, or almost without any consciousness. Our nervous systems _have grown_ (in Dr. Carpenter's words) in the way in which they were trained, just as a sheet of paper or a garment, once folded or crumpled, tends to fall ever after in the same identical creases.
Habit is a second nature, or rather, as the Duke of Wellington said, it is "tenfold nature," at any rate by its importance in adult life, for the acquired customs of our education by that time have impeded or strangled most of the natural impulsive tendencies which existed originally. Ninety-nine hundredths or maybe nine hundred and ninety-nine thousandths of our activity is purely automatic and habitual, from our rising in the morning to our retiring every night. Our dressing and undressing, our eating and drinking, our greetings and leave-takings, our hat-raisings and way-givings to ladies passing by, even indeed most forms of our common speech, are things of a type so well fixed by repetition, that they can be classified as reflex actions. For every kind of impression we have an automatic, ever-ready response. My very words to you now are an example of what I think, for through having already given lessons about habit, and having had a chapter printed about it in a book, and having read the latter in the course of printing, I find my tongue falling unavoidably into its old phrases and repeating almost literally what I have said before.
Inasmuch as we are thus pure bundles of habits, we are stereotyped creatures, imitators and copyists of our own past. And because this, in any case, is what we always tend to become, it follows, in the first place, that the teacher's chief object must be to incrust in the learner that set of habits which will be most useful to him throughout his whole life. Education makes for conduct, and habits are the material which conduct consists of.
[Retranslated into English by P. D. HUGON, who was unacquainted with the original before doing the retranslation, 20th January, 1910.]
APPENDIX IV.
"UNIONO DI L'AMIKI DI LA LINGUO INTERNACIONA."
The following excerpt from the provisional statutes of the _Uniono_ is only intended to give an indication of its nature. The full statutes will be willingly sent to anyone interested by one of the authors of this brochure or by the Secretary of the _Uniono_, Herr A. Waltisbühl, 46, Bahnhof Strasse, Zürich.
EXCERPT FROM THE PROVISIONAL STATUTES.
(1) The sole purpose of the _Uniono di l'Amiki di la Linguo Internaciona_ is to unite, for the purposes of common action, all persons who recognise and approve of the idea of an international language in the form given to it by the _Délégation pour l'Adoption d'une Langue Auxiliaire Internationale_.
(2) The Uniono accepts as the international auxiliary language the _Linguo internaciona di la Delegitaro_ resulting from the labours and decisions of the commission and the working committee of the Delegation, but expressly declares that this language is not to be regarded as "perfect" and "infallible." On the contrary, it takes the view that the language is capable of continuous improvement according to the principles resulting from the work of the Delegation.
(3) The _Uniono_ consists of members of both sexes of all nationalities (at least eighteen years old) who are willing to learn the language, to employ it on all suitable occasions in intercourse with foreigners, and to take part in its propagation.
(4) The yearly subscription amounts to 1·25 francs, 1 shilling, 1 mark, or 1·20 krone (Austrian). Half of this sum goes to the Academy, the other half to the credit of the "Komitato." Permanent membership is obtained by a single payment of 50 francs. Persons paying at least 100 francs in a single payment become _membri protektanta_.
(5), (6), (7) All members take part in the election of the two directing bodies of the _Uniono_ (the Academy and the "Komitato") according to a specially arranged method of representation (in which account is taken of the number of adherents belonging to each nationality).
(8), (9), (10) The Academy is concerned only with questions relating to the development and improvement of the international language. It has to reply within six months to all questions and suggestions emanating from at least three elected representatives. The official organ of the Academy is the journal _Progreso_ (pronounced _Progresso_). The _Komitato_ has the practical direction and organisation of the _Uniono_ which it controls and represents. It is intended to found in the different countries language courses, offices for the practical employment of the language in commerce and travel, and translation bureaus. The Academy and Komitato may unite for the purpose of discussing general questions concerning the international language.
(11), (12), (13) deal with local groups, change of statutes, dissolution of the Society, etc.
(14) All questions or proposals to be settled by the Academy or the Komitato must be published in the journal _Progreso_ three months before the decision in order to allow of general discussion.
ENTRANCE FORM.
The undersigned declares his (or her) adherence to the "Association of Friends of the International Language," as constituted by the provisional statutes, and subscribes
for the year 19.... or in one { life member, payment { _protektanta_ as { _membro_.
Signature.
Christian name and surname. (Please write clearly.)
Address.
Profession or occupation (optional).
Natural language.
Age.
Send this form filled up, together with your subscription (international money order), to the Secretary of the Society, Herr A. Waltisbühl, 46, Bahnhofstrasse, Zürich, Switzerland.
UNIONO DI L'AMIKI DI LA LINGUO INTERNACIONA.
ADHERILO.
_Me subskribanta deklaras adherar a_ l'Uniono di l'Amiki di la Linguo Internaciona, _tala quala ol esas definita en la_ Provizora Statuti, _e me suskriptas_{1}
{ _por la yaro_ 19 ............................ { { _unfoye_ { _permananda_ } { _quale_ { _protektanta_ } _membro_ ............
_Subskribo_:
_Nomo e prenomo_ ..............................
_Adreso_ .....................................
................................................
_Profesiono_ (ne obliga indiko) ...............
_Naturala linguo_ ............................
_Eco_ ................................
@Sendez ta adherilo kun la suskripto@ (@per internaciona valoro@) _a la sekretaryo-kasisto_, @So. A. WALTISBÜHL, 46, Bahnhofstrasse, Zürich@ (@Suiso@).
{1} Minima suskripto: fr. 1·25, shilling 1, mark 1, dollar 0·25. _Permananta membri_ pagas 50 fr. unfoye; _protektanta membri_ pagas 100 fr. unfoye.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] We do not therefore approve of the poetical attempts of Zamenhof, or the dramatic representation of Goethe's _Iphigenia_.
[2] For other comparisons, such as musical notation, chemical formulæ, etc., compare the excellent brochure of W. Ostwald, _Die Weltsprache_. Compare also L. Couturat, _Pour la Langue Internationale_.
[3] Here and elsewhere the following abbreviations will be used:-- G. = German, E. = English, F. = French, I. = Italian, R. = Russian, and S. = Spanish.
[4] Concerning the criticism of Esperanto, cf. also Zamenhof, _Pri Reformoj en Esperanto_, 1894, _represita per zorgo de E. Javal_, 1907 (containing many important suggestions which the Esperantists have now unfortunately forgotten); A. Liptay, _Eine Gemeinsprache der Naturvölker_, 1891; E. Beermann, _Die Internationale Hilfssprache Novilatin_, 1907; K. Brugmann and A. Leskien, _Zur Kritik der Künstlichen Weltsprachen_, 1907; Couturat and Leau, _Conclusions du Rapport_, 1907; L. Couturat, _Étude sur la Dérivation en Esperanto_, 1907; Ido, _Les Vrais Principes de la Langue Auxiliaire_, 1908; many articles in the periodical _Progreso_, 1908; F. Borgius, _Warum ich Esperanto verliess_, 1908.
[5] "What language aimed at languages have destroyed." The remarks contained in this chapter have been developed and applied to the criticism of Esperanto in my _Étude sur la Dérivation_ (1st edition, unpublished, 1907, 2nd edition in French and in Ido, 1909).
[6] The letters D, E, F, I, R, S, are the initial letters of the names of the six chief European languages, and those placed after any word indicate to which of these languages the corresponding stem is common (D = Deutsch (German)).
[7] "Talks to Teachers on Psychology," pp. 65, 66 (New York, H. Holt & Co., 1907).
CONSTABLE & CO. LTD
CHEMISTRY
PRACTICAL METHODS OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By E. MOLLWO PERKIN, Ph.D. 2_s._ 6_d._ net.
CONTENTS:--Chapter I.--Introduction. Chapter II.--General Preparations and Methods. Chapter III.--Salts. Chapter IV.--Halogens and Halogen Compounds. Chapter V.--Metallic Oxides.