Part 2

Their society was divided into different classes or castes. There were the chiefs, one to preside over war ceremonies and another over peace ceremonies, the upper class (“their own people” or “friends”), and 5 classes of slaves.

The Choctaw women had their babies alone and it was not until later times they accepted the practice of mid-wives. When the mother was about to give birth the father retreated to another house and would not eat until after sunset. He also abstained from pork and salt until the baby was born.

When the baby was born the mother washed him and placed him in a cradle with a bag of sand tied over his forehead to flatten it. This is why the Choctaw were called “flat heads” by neighboring tribes.

Mothers were not allowed to discipline their sons. This was the duty of the maternal uncle who acted as the boy’s teacher. All the boys were schooled morning and afternoon in tribal legends, hunting with bows and arrows, and other manly tasks.

In 1540 the Spanish explorer, DeSoto, began trading with them. The Choctaw were intrigued by Spanish goods, especially metal. They also established trade with the French and by the 1700’s had adopted many French ideas, life styles, cultural attitudes and incorporated French words into their language. Unlike their Indian neighbors, the men continued to wear their hair in full length styles.

The Choctaws served as guides for the European expeditions across Louisiana which resulted in many Choctaw words being used as name locations throughout our state.

As colonization increased pressures to choose alliances with either the French to keep the English and their powerful allies, the Chickasaw and Creek Nations, from closing trade routes to the north and Canada.

From 1754-1763 the Choctaws were in almost constant warfare. In 1763 the French and Indian wars ended with France ceding all her lands east of the Mississippi River to the English. This resulted in half the Choctaw towns being allied to the French and the other half with the English. War pressures eroded inter-tribal tranquility in the Choctaw Nation, leading to civil war.

When the French retreated to New Orleans they in effect deserted their Choctaw allies. On January 3, 1786, the Treaty of Hopewell was negotiated with the United States Government recognizing the Choctaw Nation as a nation and defining the eastern boundary of the Choctaw Lands.

Hostilities with their former Indian allies during the wars, coupled with increasing pressures from settlers desiring their lands, led the tribe to migrate west of the Mississippi River in search of farm land and tranquility.

Between 1801 and 1830 they were methodically negotiated off their tribal homelands in Alabama and Mississippi. In 1830, they signed the treaty of Dancing Creek, agreeing to leave their homelands and not return. The following year the greater part of the nation moved to lands along the Red River in Oklahoma granted by the treaty. There they established a small republic modeled after that of the United States government. However, this republic came to an end when the State of Oklahoma was organized.

A considerable number of Choctaw remained in Mississippi while smaller bands migrated to northern and central Louisiana.

Prior to 1778 Choctaw communities moved from north Central Louisiana to LaSalle, Rapides, Jackson, and Grant Parishes in the vicinity of two saw mill towns, Jena and Eden. Other Choctaw communities were scattered throughout the Florida parishes north of Lake Pontchartrain.

_Jena Band_—

Although they function autonomously, the Jena Band of Choctaw continue to maintain a close relationship with their parent tribe, the Mississippi Band in Philadelphia, Mississippi and continue to speak their native language.

In 1974 they incorporated as a non-profit organization and are currently preparing for federal recognition as a separate tribe from the Mississippi Band.

They are basically rural people, but maintain a community at Jena, Louisiana on Highway 167, approximately 46 miles northeast of Alexandria.

The Jena Band of Choctaws are a founding member of the Inter-Tribal Council.

COUSHATTA

The Coushatta occupied many villages in their Alabama homeland. They lived in towns and farmed the surrounding lands. The tribe was divided into clans. Each clan was allotted specific fields and a portion of their crops were collected for the public granary to protect against poor harvests, war emergencies and to feed the needy and hungry travelers.

The clans elected their best orator as chief who in turn appointed a town chief and war chief for each town. In the center of the town was a square where the tribal leaders met to discuss the religious, political and economic affairs.

The Coushatta were primarily farmers who supplemented their crops of maize, peas, beans, squashes, pumpkins, melons, potatoes, and rice by hunting, fishing and trading with other tribes. They were accomplished archers and were reluctant to accept the use of guns. They also used their bows and arrows for fishing or they used blow guns, hook and lines, spears, traps and handnets.

In 1540 a Spanish exploration party led by DeSoto robbed an outlying Coushatta village, kidnapping the chief and other leaders. They threatened to burn their hostages alive unless the tribe agreed to give future explorers whatever they wanted.

Co-existence with the Spanish and French assumed relatively peaceful proportions and was mutually beneficial until the end of the Revolutionary War when land seeking settlers pushed farther and farther into Coushatta territory.

The years were marked by a continuing struggle over land, warfare, broken treaties, migration away from white settlements and a dwindling Coushatta population. The final blow came when 3,000 warriors were killed and 22 million acres of Indian land lost in the Creek War of 1813-1814.

The Coushatta migrated through Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas in their search for unclaimed land where they could re-establish their peaceful agricultural way of life.

By the beginning of the Civil War in 1861, some 250 Coushattas had settled along the Calcasieu River near Kinder. Here the tribe continued its traditions and enjoyed amicable relations with their neighbors, until their peaceful and prosperous existence was again lost when American settlers became interested in Coushatta lands. In 1884 most of the Coushattas remaining in Louisiana moved to a site 15 miles east of the Calcasieu River and 3 miles north of Elton in Allen Parish. Life was hard for the Coushattas, but by 1920 individual tribespeople had carved out an Indian community that encompassed more than 1,000 acres of farmland, forest and lush, green swamps.

In 1898 the United States government placed 160 acres in trust for the tribe and assumed partial responsibility for educating the children. Later a federally sponsored elementary school for grades 1-5 was established and medical services were added for the tribal members. During the repudiated “termination” policy in 1958 the United States government ended its trusteeship of tribal lands and discontinued its meager services. Legally this meant the Coushatta tribe no longer existed.

In 1973 a newly formed corporation, the Coushatta Alliance, Inc. finally succeeded in getting the United States government to legally re-establish recognition of the Coushatta tribe.

With the development of a strong tribal government came the revival of a culture almost lost; a heritage almost forgotten.

HOUMA

_Houma_—

The Houmas were accomplished farmers who lived in towns or villages and farmed the surrounding lands. Certain unique cultural traits indicate they may have migrated to Louisiana centuries ago from a homeland somewhere in South America. It is evident they had some contacts, directly or indirectly, with other Indian cultures in Mexico and South America. Several varieties of squash and pumpkin native to the Indian south of the equator were part of the Houma agriculture. Also, grew peas, beans, and other vegetables. They relied heavily on their maize crop but also grew several varieties of peas and beans in addition to squash and pumpkins.

Another indication of ties with South America is their composite type grooved blow-gun. It was made in two pieces and tightly bound with sinew or fiber cord. Although this type of blow-gun was very common among South American tribes it is quite different from the cane blow-guns used by other Southeastern tribes of the United States.

When anyone in their village fell ill two wise men were summoned to the cabin to chase evil spirits away by singing. Their cabins were perfectly square structures made with pole frames covered with a plaster of mud and Spanish moss. There were no openings in the house except for a very small door 2 X 4 feet or less. There were no smoke holes for their fireplaces either. After the house was plastered woven cane mats were attached to the walls inside and out. These mats were then covered with bunches of tall grass canes. Such a structure would last 20 years without repairing.

A red crawfish was recognized as their war symbol. War parties were led by women as well as men. One woman was so fierce and respected, she occupied first place on the council of Houma villages. Women could also serve as chief.

French explorer, LaSalle, first encountered the Houma in 1682 in the area now known as Wilkinson County, Mississippi and West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana near Angola. This was the first known contact with Europeans. When the French returned to the area in 1700 half of the Houma tribe had died of abdominal flu.

In 1706 the Houma and Tunica formed an alliance to strengthen themselves against the Chickasaw and their British allies. Three years later the Tunicans turned on their allies and many Houma were massacred in the ensuing battle. Those who survived, fled southward and settled briefly on the Mississippi River near Donaldsonville.

During much of the 1700’s they migrated from place to place searching for a suitable location, free from pressures of other groups, where they could resume their agricultural economy. As their tribe decreased they united with other tribes and pursued hunting, fishing, and trapping to feed and clothe their shrinking group. With other tribes joining and merging with the Houma their cultures and customs were interchanged and blended until the tribes were indistinguishable from one another. Only the various chiefs attempted to maintain their tribal identities.

From 1820-1840 the Houma migrated farther and farther south until they reached the Gulf of Mexico and settled along the bayous and swamps in Terrebonne and Lafourche Parishes. They shared this territory with the French Acadians and gradually adopted the French language and Catholic religion.

Although they formerly had the skills to weave finely decorated cane baskets similar to Chitimachan baskets, this skill was lost and replaced with palmetto, cypress and cane weaving and moss mat making. Many of the men are skilled wood carvers.

By 1940 they supported themselves almost exclusively by trapping muskrats and raccoons in the coastal marshes, by fishing with nets for shrimp and other fish in season, gathering oysters, and in a small part hiring out to cane and rice growers in the lower parishes. Thus their traditional agricultural economy evolved into a hunting and fishing one on the coastal fringes.

Today tribal members are concentrated primarily in Terrebonne, Lafourche and Jefferson Parishes with the majority located in Terrebonne Parish.

They have historically held the concept of each community retaining a large measure of autonomy, existing separately and possessing different outlooks and goals. With such tradition it is not surprising that two distinctly separate tribal governments currently exist. The Houma Tribe Inc., domiciled in Golden Meadow in Lafourche Parish serves Lafourche, St. Bernard, St. Tammy, Orleans, Plaquemine, Jefferson and Terrebonne Parishes while the Houma Alliance Inc., is domiciled in Dulac, in Terrebonne Parish.

The Houma Alliance, Inc. was a founding member of the Inter-Tribal Council.

_Acotapissa_—

In 1699 this tribe was living on the Pearl River about 11 miles from its mouth. It is said to occupy 6 villages and the Tangipahoa occupied one which had formerly constituted a 7th.

In 1702 or 1705 they moved to Bayou Castine on the North shore of Lake Pontchartrain, six months later the Natchitoches, whose crops had been ruined, were settled beside them by the commanders of the Mississippi fort.

In 1718 they moved to the Mississippi River and settled 35 miles above New Orleans on the east bank. In that year a Frenchman described their village and said the chief’s house was 36 feet in diameter. Six feet more than that of the Natchez Great Sun.

A little higher up the river they had a small village, then abandoned. In their old town was a temple which they rebuilt after they moved to the Mississippi River.

This tribe, the Bayogoula and Houma who had settled nearby were gradually becoming amalgamated. The Bayogoula and the Acotapissa seem to have combined first and then united with the Houma.

_Bayogoula_—

When the colony of Louisiana was founded in 1699, this tribe was living on the west bank of the Mississippi River about 5 miles below Plaquemine at a place which still bears their name. The Mugulasha tribe was then living with them.

The Bayogoula were at war with the Houma. When the Mugulasha became too friendly with the Houmas, the Bayogoula attacked their fellow villagers, destroyed a considerable number and drove the rest away. They then invited the Acotapissa and Tiou to take their places. In 1706 the Taensa, who had abandoned their towns on Lake St. Joseph, settled in the Bayogoula as they had attacked the Mugulasha. The survivors were given a place to settle near the French fort on the Mississippi River. By 1725 they had moved above New Orleans. In 1739 they were living between the Acotapissa and the Houma and had partially become fused with them. Their subsequent history is given with the Houma.

_Mugulasha_—

This tribe was living at a site a few miles above the present site of New Orleans on the opposite side of the river when LaSalle first encountered them in 1682. In 1699 they shared a village with the Bayogoula north of their former settlement. Between 1682 and 1699 the Mugulasha and the Quinipissa joined together. The chief of the Quinipissa in 1682, when the French first entered the territory, also served as the chief of the Mugulasha in 1699. In May, 1700 they were attacked by their fellow villagers, the Bayogoula, and were almost completely destroyed. Survivors probably united with the Bayogoula or Houma.

_Okelousa_—

In 1541 the Spaniards described them as a tribe “of more than ninety villagers not subject to anyone, with a very warlike people and much dreaded”, occupying a fertile land.

In 1682 they appear as allies of the Houma in the destruction of a Tangipahoa village on the east bank of the Mississippi River. They were a wandering people living west of the river on two little lakes to the west of and above Point Coupee.

By the 18th century they were a small tribe living west of the lower course of the Mississippi River. They evidently joined the Houma tribe and ceased to exist as a distinct group.

_Quinipissa_—

This tribe was found by LaSalle in 1682 a _few miles above the present site of New Orleans_, but on the _opposite side_ of the river. The people received him with flights of arrows, and on his return used peacemaking overtures as a mask for a treacherous but futile attack upon his force. Four years later, Tonti made peace with this tribe. In 1699 Iberville hunted for them in vain, but later learned that they were identical with the Mugulasha, then living with the Bayogoula about 20 leagues above their former settlement. According to Sauvolle, however, the Quinipissa were not identical with the Mugulasha, but had united with them. In any case, there can be no doubt that the _chief of the Quinipissa in 1682 and 1686 was the same man as the chief of the Mugulasha in 1699_.

In May, 1700, shortly after Iberville had visited them for the second time, the Mugulasha were attacked and almost completely destroyed by their fellow townsmen, the Bayogoula. The destruction was not as complete probably as the French writers would have us believe, but we do not hear of either Mugulasha or Quinipissa afterward, and the remnant must have united with the Bayogoula or Houma, the latter having been their allies.

_Tangipahoa_—

A tribe _probably related to the Acotapissa_ and perhaps originally a part of them, whose home at the end of the 17th century was on an _affluent of Lake Pontchartrain_ which still bears their name. Some may at one time have moved to the Mississippi, Sioucie. LaSalle in 1682, found, on the east side of the river, 2 leagues below the Quinipissa settlement, a town recently destroyed and partly burned by enemies, which some said was named “Tangibao”, though others called it “Maheonala” or “Mahehoualaima”. The remnants of this tribe probably united or reunited with the Acotapissa and eventually merged with the Houmas.

KADOHADACHO (CADDO)

_Caddo_—

The name Caddo is applied collectively to an important group of approximately 25 tribes forming 3 or more confederated groups of Kadohadacho covering the present states of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma.

Their culture was considerably different from those of other Louisiana tribes. They allied themselves with the plains cultures and unlike the other tribes of the state, who were afraid of horses, the Caddo readily accepted and utilized them for hunting buffalo and other game.

The Caddo was very large and powerful before the arrival of the Europeans. They had highly developed social and ceremonial organizations with surrounding tribes. They were excellent farmers and noted for their outstanding pottery. Their importance in history however quickly diminished with the arrival of the white man.

Their name comes from their own word Kadohadacho which was later shortened to Caddo by the white man. They seem to have always lived on the Red River where they planted corn, pumpkins, and various vegetables. They did not tolerate idleness and those who did not work were punished. They worked their fields in good weather and attended their handiwork, made bows and arrows, clothing, and tools during cold rainy weather. The women kept busy making mats out of reed and leaves and by making pots and bowls from clay.

When it was time to till the fields all the men assembled and worked first one field and then another until every field of all the households were ready for planting. The planting was never done by the men; only the women. To supplement their crops the men hunted and fished.

Each tribe had a chief called a Caddi, who ruled within the section of country occupied by his tribe. The larger tribes also had sub-chiefs, the number depending on the size of the tribe.

They lived in a communal arrangement. Eight to ten families lived in a single conical shaped grass house or one made of thatch supported by a pole frame. Mat couches lined the walls and served for seating during the day and for beds at night. A fire burned in the center of house night and day. (883)

Their houses were arranged around an open town square which was used for social and ceremonial functions. The members of each house were responsible for farming the fields adjacent to their house.

For their role as ambassadors of peace under the rule of the French, Spanish and American governments, the Caddo were promised they would never be disturbed from their land. However, the purchase of the Louisiana Territory resulted in increased immigration into Caddo country. Even with military assistance it soon became impossible for the United States government to restrain the white settlers from inhabiting the Caddo lands. Finally the Indian agent was authorized to purchase the Caddo land and the Indians moved westward to Texas.

As a result of an extermination policy by the Texans who did not want the Caddo either, those who weren’t killed were driven from Texas east of the Red River where in retaliation, the Caddo sent small bands into Texas to plunder and harass the whites. With their hunting grounds so depleted stealing became almost a necessity. By the early 19th century their importance as a distinct tribe was over and survivors merged with other tribes.

_Adai_—

A Caddo tribe which lived near the present site of Robeline, Louisiana when first encountered by Europeans in the 1500’s. As a result of wars between France and Spain the Adai suffered severely. One portion of their villages was under French control and the other part under Spanish. An ancient trail between their villages became the noted “contraband trail” along which traders and travelers journeyed between the French and Spanish provinces. War between France and Spain almost exterminated the Adai. (891)

Even though their vocabulary differed widely from the rest of the Caddo dialects, it is probable that they combined with the Kadohadacho. By the close of the 19th century all of the Adai had disappeared.

_Doustioni_—

A small tribe living near Natchitoches, Louisiana. They also appeared in European accounts under the names of Souchitiony, Dubchinsis, and Oulchionis.

In 1702 a crop failure caused the Indian agent St. Denis to move their neighbors, the Natchitoches tribes, from the Red River to an area beside the Acolapissa on Lake Ponchartrain. The Doustioni however, chose to remain in their country and reverted for a time to hunting rather than move to the Lake Ponchartrain area.

In 1714 when St. Denis brought the Natchitoches back and started an establishment among them the Doustioni accepted an invitation to settle close by the post. In 1719 they were known to be living on an island in the Red River not far away. Since nothing more was written about them, they probably lost their identity in the Natchitoches tribe.

_Nasoni (Nissohone or Nisione)_—

This tribe appears in 1542 as a “province” entered by the Spaniards during an attempt by DeSoto’s expedition to reach Mexico by land. It was southwest of the present city of Shreveport. They were poor and had very little corn. In 1687 there were 2 Nasoni towns, an upper town and a lower one. The latter was 27 miles north of Nacogdoches, Texas and Upper Nasoni was near Red River just south of the river.

Tribal wars with the Osage Indians and disease left their villages destroyed and abandoned. By the close of the 18th century they had disappeared, or merged with the Kadohadacho.

_Natasi_—

A Caddo tribe on Red River between Natchitoches and Shreveport mentioned by writers between 1690-1719. It was probably part of the Yatasi.

Their villages were destroyed and abandoned due to tribal wars and disease and by the close of the 18th century they also had disappeared.

_Natchitoches_—

When first discovered in 1690 by the French, the main tribe bearing this name, pronounced by the Indians themselves Nashitosh, was living near the city which is called after them. They were primarily farmers. In 1702 when their crops were ruined they requested and were granted permission from the French to relocate. St. Denis located them on the north side of Lake Ponchartrain near the Acolapissa. Twelve years later he took them back to their country and established a French post close to their village. As long as he remained commandant of this post, his influence over the Natchitoches and other tribes which came to live nearby was unbounded. Even after his retirement relations between the settlers and Indians continued harmonious and the Indians remained in their old villages until the first of the 19th century, when they joined the rest of the Caddo tribes and accompanied them successively to Texas and Oklahoma.