Part 25

_Fort Union Jan. 16. 1854._]

The Mandan, Gros Ventres, and Arikara live in dirt cabins made by planting four posts in the ground, with joists on the top. From this square descend rafters to the ground in angular and circular shape, the interstices being filled with smaller sticks and willows; then grass is laid on, which is covered with mud, over which is thrown earth, and the whole beaten solid. An opening is left in the top for the smoke and a door in the side, which is extended into a covered passage of a few steps and will admit a man upright. These are large and roomy huts, will accommodate 30 or 40 persons each, but are generally occupied by one family, who frequently have their beds and bedsteads, corn cellar, provision room, and often a horse or two under the same roof. They are said to be damp and unhealthy.

The figures and representations of animals, etc., painted on their skin lodges are those of monsters seen by them in their dreams; also the hand is dipped in red paint mixed with grease and its impression made in many places over the tent. This denotes the master of the lodge to have struck an enemy. The same impression is also made on their naked bodies in some of their dances and has the same signification.

CANOES

Skin canoes are the only watercraft used by these tribes, and these are only to be found among the Mandan, Gros Ventres, and Arikara. They are made of the skins of one or two buffaloes with the hair on, not dressed, and stretched over a basketwork of willows. The women make, carry, and propel them with paddles, one person only paddling in front. A canoe of one buffalo skin will contain four persons and cross the Missouri, but they must sit very quiet or they will upset. The women carry these canoes on their backs along the bank to the place where they wish to cross, and on their return bring them to the village and turn them upside down to dry. A canoe of this kind is made in two or three hours and will last a year. Bark canoes are used by the Chippewa, but we are not well enough acquainted with their construction to describe them. When no skin can be found to make a boat war parties will cross any river on a raft.

MENTAL AND ETHICAL ADVANCEMENT

There is no doubt but most of these nations are disposed to advance from the barbaric type, though as yet they have made but little progress. Indeed, when we consider their mode of life, wants, and situation with regard to each other we can not imagine how they can well be anything more than what they are. Harassed by internal wars, pinched by necessities that compel them to constant exertion, discouraged by the ravages of diseases, and overwhelmed by innumerable superstitious fears, their condition is not one calculated to prepare either mind or body for the arts and habits of civilization. The whole tenor of an Indian’s life, and the sum and substance of all his labors is to live, to support his family, and rear his children, and he must bring them up in such a way that they in their turn can do the same. For this all is risked, and to this end the whole of their occupations, even their amusements, tend. They would be most willing to embrace any mode of life by which this main object could be realized with less risk and toil than the one they now pursue, but they must first be convinced of the certainty of success in the strange pursuit to which their formed habits must give way before they would apply themselves.

Their present manner is certainly precarious, but they would not abandon it unless some better way to live was made manifest, not by tales and speeches but by actual experiment. Indians (men) will not work. Even the slight attempt at agricultural labor by the few nations on the upper Missouri who raise corn and other vegetables devolves solely upon the women to perform them, and the men hunt as the other tribes. Meat must be had, and as yet no relish has been formed by any of them, except the Sioux, for the flesh of domestic animals. Notwithstanding all this, we see in many things a desire to change for the better, exhibiting itself in a general feature of improvement when compared with that of 20 years since. Within that time and within our acquaintance with these people the Sioux, Assiniboin, and other nations were much more savage than they now are. At the period to which we allude it was almost impossible for even the traders, much less strangers, to travel through their country without being robbed and often killed. Horses were stolen from whites on all occasions; every person outside the fort was liable to be abused, imposed upon, flogged, or pillaged, and even their dealings with each other were no better. Murders upon slight provocation, robberies, and misdemeanors of all kinds were common among them. Even whole bands armed against each other and skirmishes took place whenever they met.

All these things now, if not obsolete, are very rare. Whites move about among most of the nations with security of life and property, and the Indians are better clothed, provided for, armed and contented than formerly. For these happy results so far we are indebted to the unmitigated exertions and good counsel of a few white traders of the old stock, some good Indian agents, the entire abolishment of the liquor trade, and lately the humane endeavors on the part of the Government by the treaty at Laramie in 1851.

MEDICINE; DRUGS

Most of them are beginning to see the superiority of drugs and treatment of the sick as exhibited to them by whites and are becoming aware that their drummings and superstitions are of no avail, but it is only a perception of truth, not as yet leading to any change in their superstitions, because no person instructs them in aught better. As it stands at present and to come to the point of this matter, we would say a disposition to emerge from barbarism is apparent among most of these tribes, though as yet no great advancement has been made. The small improvements alluded to only show the desire to exist, but their present organization, knowledge, and relative positions to each other as nations do not admit of further improvement, which must necessarily unfit them for their ordinary pursuits and successful contention with enemies.

FOOD

Their provisions, cooking utensils, manner of cooking, serving the meal and eating assimilates yearly more to that of the whites. Their conversation, desires, and willingness to listen to counsel for their benefit all convince of a disposition to advance toward civilization and exchange their present mode of life for one more certain in its resources, provided they could follow these employments secure from the depredations of neighboring tribes yet their enemies; but here is the difficulty, they are obliged to be always in readiness for war, also to make excursions on their foes to replace their stolen horses or revenge the death of their relatives.

They usually eat three times a day, morning, noon, and night, if meat is plenty, but the number of meals depends altogether on the supply of food, as has already been stated. Clay pots and other earthen vessels are still in use among the Mandan, Gros Ventres, and Arikara, being of their own manufacture, though they also have metallic cooking utensils.

The flesh of buffalo and other animals is cut in broad, thin slices and hung up inside the lodges on transverse poles over the fire, but high up in the lodge and in the way of the smoke, which soon penetrates it, and in a few days the meat is dried and fit to pack away. In the summer it is dried by spreading it in the sun, being cut up as above, which soon cures it. They employ no salt in curing any meat.

The parts of the buffalo eaten in a raw state are the liver, kidneys, gristle of the snout, eyes, brains, marrow, manyplies, or the omasum, testicles, feet of small calves in embryo, and glands of the calf envelope. Meat when cooked is either boiled or roasted, principally the former, and always rare in either way, not overdone. They have no salt for seasoning, but are fond of a little in the bouillon. In former times meat was boiled in the rawhide, in holes in the ground smeared with mud, and heated stones dropped in, or in pots made of clay and soft stone, but metallic cooking utensils, consisting of kettles of every size and description, have entirely replaced these. Tin cups and pans, with some frying pans, wooden bowls, and horn spoons, are yet common.

The tongues of buffalo sent to market are salted by the traders, who secure them from the Indians during the winter in the hunting season, and when frozen, salting them before the spring thaw comes on. None of these tribes preserves meat in any other way than above mentioned, some of which when dried is pounded and mixed with berries and marrowfat. It is then called pemmican, or in Cree pim-e-tai´-gan. Dried meat will keep but one year if free of wet, as afterwards the fat turns rancid and the lean tasteless.

The tail of the beaver is first turned in the blaze of a fire, the outside skin scraped off, then incisions are made each side lengthwise along the bone, and it is held in boiling water for a few minutes to extract the blood. It is then hung up in the lodge or in the sun and left to dry.

All inquiries regarding fish are inapplicable to these Indians, as they take none in quantity. The few catfish that are hooked by the Gros Ventres and Arikara are boiled in water, no salt added, and a horrid mess of bones and fish mixed together is produced, which no one but an Indian could eat. They eat but do not relish them.

All the hunter tribes rely greatly on the spontaneous roots and fruits found in the country and collect, dry, and pack them away, to be used in times of scarcity of animal food. We have known hundreds of Indians to subsist for one or two months on the buds of the wild rose boiled with the scrapings of rawhides. At all times the different kinds of roots and berries are a great resource, are used in their principal feasts and medicine ceremonies, are of great assistance when game is not to be found, are easily packed, and contain considerable nourishment. The following is a catalogue of those found among all the nations of which we treat, though there are several others whose names in English are unknown to us, and some of these now named peculiar to the most northern latitudes.

ROOTS, BERRIES, ETC., EATEN BY THE INDIANS OF THE UPPER MISSOURI

+-------------------------+------------------------------------------ English Name | Assiniboin name | Method of preparation ---------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------------------------------ Prairie turnip (pomme blanche) | Teep-se-nah | Dried and pounded. Service berries | We-pah-zoo-kah | Dried. Bull berries (grains des boeufs) | Taque-sha-shah | Do. Chokecherries | Cham-pah | Pounded with seeds and dried. Red plums | Caun-tah | Stones extracted and dried. Wild grapes | Chint-kah | Not preserved; eaten ripe. Currants | Wecha-ge-nus-kah | Do. Gooseberries | Chap-tah-ha-zah | Do. Wild rhubarb | Chan-hn-no-ha | Tops eaten raw or boiled. Fungus growing on trees | Chaun-no-ghai | Not dried; found in winter. Artichokes | Pung-ghai | Eaten raw or boiled; not preserved. Berries of the red willow | Chau-sha-sha | Eaten raw only in great need. Antelope turnips | Ta-to-ka-na Teep-se-nah | Boiled and dried. Wild garlic | Ta-poo-zint-kah | Raw; not preserved. A berry called | Me-nun | Not dried; eaten ripe. Acorns[31] | Ou-tah-pe | Roasted and dried. Strawberries | Wa-zshu-sta-cha | Not dried. Inner bark of cottonwood | Wah-chin-cha-ha | Resorted to in time of actual famine. Berries of the smoking weed | She-o-tak-kah | Not preserved; eaten ripe. A root resembling artichoke | Ske-ske-chah | Dried, pounded, and boiled. Buds of the wild rose | We-ze-zeet-kah | Found everywhere all winter on the stalk. Red haw berries | Tas-paun | Not dried; eaten in fall and winter. ---------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------------------------------

[31] Found only along White Earth River.

ANIMALS EATEN BY INDIANS

+--------------------- Buffalo (wo-ta-cha) | { bull | Ta-tun-gah. { cow | Petai. Antelope | Tah-to-ka-nah. Elk | Opoñ. Deer | Tah-chah. Bear | Wah-ghuñ-kseecha. Wolf | Shuñkto-ka-chah.[32] Foxes { red | Shunga shanah. { gray | To-kah-nah. Porcupine | Pah-hee. Badger | Kho-kah. Skunk | Man-gah. Rabbit | Mushtinchanah. Hare | Mushtincha ska. Ermine | E-toonka sun. Otter | Petun. Mink | E-koo-sa. Beaver | Chap-pah. Muskrat | Sink-pai. Glutton | Me-nag-gzshe. Lynx | Ega-mo´. Mouse | Pees-pees-anah. Ground squirrel | Tah-she-ho-tah. Water turtle | Kai-ah. Terrapin | Pat-kah-shah. Horns of elk in the velvet. | Tah-hai. Horse | Shungatun-gah. Mule | Sho-shonah. Dog | Shunka. Snake (not eaten except by Cree). | ----------------------------------+---------------------

[32] Literally, the other kind of dog.

BIRDS EATEN

+--------------------- Crow | Ah-ah-nah. Raven | Con-ghai. Magpie | Eh-hat-ta-ta-na. Owl | He-hun. Duck | Pah-hon-tah. Goose | Man-ghah. Crane | Pai-hun. Pelican | Mid-dai-ghah. Small bird of any sort. | Sit-kap-pe-nah. Eagles are not eaten. | ----------------------------------+---------------------

PARTS OF BUFFALOES NOT EATEN

Glands of the neck. Sinews. Bull’s pizzle. Horns, hoofs, and hair. Every other part, inside and out, is eaten, even to the hide.

Sugar is made from the sap of the maple. Wild rice is gathered by the Cree and Chippewa on Red River and the adjacent lakes, but not by the upper Missouri tribes. In times of great scarcity old bones are collected by the nations of whom we write, pounded, and the grease extracted by boiling, and eaten together with any of the foregoing roots or berries that can be found. But these sad times always happen when the snow is deep, the ground frozen, and they can not be found. Then those who have not laid up a stock of some of these roots the previous summer are driven to the necessity of killing and eating their horses and dogs, which being exhausted and nothing more to be found they are compelled to eat human flesh.[33]

[33] We have only witnessed one season in 21 years where they were driven to this necessity.

GARMENTS; DRESSES

In the materials of their clothing, as far as the cold climate will admit, articles of European manufacture have been substituted for their skins, but there being no fabric as yet introduced equal to or even approaching the durability and warmth of the buffalo skin, all hunters and travelers in the winter season must be clothed with the latter to preserve life or prevent mutilation by frost. Still in the summer season these are laid aside, being full of vermin and saturated with grease and dirt, and the Indian steps proudly around in his calico shirt, blanket, and cloth pantaloons. Their hair also, formerly tangled and matted, has been unraveled by the use of different kinds of combs, and the livestock, which found “a living and a home there,” has, by these instruments, been torn from their comfortable abode, thus rendering useless their original method of disposing of these vermin, viz., extracting them with their fingers and masticating them in turn for revenge.

Most of the clothing used by these tribes is made of skins of their own procuring and dressing, the process of which has already met with attention. They have different dresses for different seasons, also various costumes for war, dancing, and other public occasions, some of which have been described. In the summer seasons, when comparatively idle, the clothing traded from the whites is preferred on account of its superior texture and color, but in their usual occupations, in winter, at war, in the chase, or any public ceremonies among themselves, very few articles of dress thus obtained are seen, if we except some blankets, undercoats, scarlet cloth, and ornaments. Their own dresses of skins fancifully arranged, adorned with feathers, beads, shells, and porcupine quills, are much more highly prized by them than any article of dress of European manufacture introduced by the traders.

We will now detail a few of the most common or everyday dresses among them, in different seasons, male and female, estimating the cost of each in buffalo robes at $3 each, their value in this country.

SUMMER AND FALL DRESS FOR MEN

NO. 1

A buffalo robe, thin hair, or a dressed cowskin robe on the back 1 robe Dressed deer or antelope skin leggings 1 robe Cloth breech flap and moccasins ½ robe ----------- 2½ robes at $3=$7.50

NO. 2

A scarlet blanket 4 robes Beads worked in same 10 robes Deerskin shirt and leggings fringed and garnished with beads and porcupine quills 5 robes Breech flap of scarlet cloth and moccasin 1 robe Necklace of bear’s claws 5 robes Moccasins and handkerchief for the head 1 robe -------- 26 robes at $3=$78.00

NO. 3

White blanket 3 robes Calico shirt 1 robe Neckerchief and cloth breech flap 1 robe Cottonade pantaloons 1 robe Muskrat cap 1 robe Moccasins 0 robe ------- 7 robes at $3=$21.00

NO. 4

White blanket 3 robes Blanket capot 3 robes Skin leggings, plain antelope skin 1 robe Breechcloth and moccasins ½ robe ----------- 7½ robes at $3=$22.50

NO. 5

Scarlet or Hudson Bay blanket 4 robes Beads worked on same 10 robes Scarlet laced chief’s coat 6 robes Black fur hat and three cock feathers 2 robes Silver hatband and plate 2 robes 1 pair silver arm bands 2 robes Scarlet cloth leggings and hawk bells 1 robe Black silk handkerchief and cloth breech flap 1 robe Silver gorget, ear wheels and hair pipe 2 robes Moccasins garnished with beads ½ robe ------------ 30½ robes at $3=$91.50

WINTER DRESS FOR MEN

Hunter’s winter dress of the Plains

NO. 7

Buffalo robe coat, hair inside 1 robe Buffalo robe over it 1 robe Skin cap and mittens, hair inside ½ robe Blanket breech flap, robe, moccasins, belt knife, and fire apparatus ½ robe Dressed cowskin leggings } 1 pair snowshoes } ½ robe ----------- 3½ robes at $3=$10.50

NO. 2

White blanket coat with hood 3 robes White blanket over it 3 robes Flannel or calico shirt 1 robe Blanket leggings 1 robe Soled rope moccasins } Blanket breech flap } 1 robe Skin mittens, hair inside } ------- 9 robes at $3=$27.00

No. 2 is the dress of a wood hunter, ordinary warrior in winter, if we take away the blanket and substitute a buffalo robe; or it is worn in traveling, and is occasionally used by hunters in the Crow and Sioux Nations, but the Cree and Assiniboin mostly wear No. 1 winter on the plains. Other ordinary dresses are only variations of the foregoing, adding some articles and withdrawing others, but none of them are used when in full dress, on public occasions, among themselves, except sometimes No. 5. All their fancy dresses for dances, war, and feasts have their peculiar marks and distinction in rank; also the robes worn by chiefs, soldiers, or warriors in stated assemblies have their battle scenes painted on them in rude drawings, though intelligible to them. When merely designed to be ornamental the drawing consists of a representation of the sun, made by a large brilliant circle painted in the middle. Sometimes a calumet is pictured, and other devices, such as guns, bows, lances, horses, etc.

The dresses of the divining men are not distinguished from those of ordinary Indians by any marks, unless they are able and wish to renew the remembrance of their former coups on their enemies by wearing a robe on which they are drawn, but being generally old they seldom make any display in dress, though wearing a cap or piece of bearskin round the head is common with them. The rest of their clothing in summer would answer to No. 1 and in winter to No. 2, abstracting the blanket capot.

WOMEN’S SUMMER DRESSES

NO. 1

Dressed cowskin cotillion 1 robe Leggings of same ½ robe Dressed cow or elk-skin robe 1 robe Moccasins 0 robe ----------- 2½ robes at $3=$7.50

NO. 2