Part 2
The cutting, splitting, pounding, perforating, and scraping implements are generally derived from schists, basaltic, trachytic, and porphyritic rocks, and those for grinding and crushing foods are more or less composed of coarse lava and compact sandstones. Quite a number of the metate rubbing stones and a large number of the axes are composed of a very hard, heavy, and curiously mottled rock, a specimen of which was submitted to Dr. George W. Hawes, Curator of Mineralogy to the National Museum, for examination, and of which he says:
"This rock, which was so extensively employed by the Pueblo Indians for the manufacture of various utensils, has proved to be composed largely of quartz, intermingled with which is a fine, fibrous, radiated substance, the optical properties of which demonstrate it to be fibrolite. In addition, the rock is filled with minute crystals of octahedral form which are composed of magnetite, and scattered through the rock are minute yellow crystals of rutile. The red coloration which these specimens possess is due to thin films of hematite. The rock is therefore fibrolite schist, and from a lithological standpoint it is very interesting. The fibrolite imparts the toughness to the rock, which, I should judge, would increase its value for the purposes to which the Indians applied it."
The axes, hatchets, mauls, and other implements used for cutting, splitting, or piercing are generally more or less imperfect, worn, chipped, or otherwise injured. This condition is to be accounted for by the fact that they are all of ancient manufacture; an implement of this kind being rarely, if ever, made by the Indians at the present day. They are usually of a hard volcanic rock, not employed by the present inhabitants in the manufacture of implements. They have in most cases been collected from the ruins of the Mesa and Cliff dwellers, by whose ancestors they were probably made. I was unable to learn of a single instance in which one of these had been made by the modern Indians. In nearly all cases the edges, once sharp and used for cutting, splitting, or piercing, are much worn and blunt from use in pounding or other purposes than that for which they were originally intended. On more than one occasion I have observed a woman using the edge of a handsome stone axe in pulverizing volcanic rock to mix with clay for making pottery. Nearly all the edged stone implements are thus injured. Those showing the greatest perfection were either too small to utilize in this manner or had but recently been discovered when we obtained them.
The grinders and mortars are frequently found composed of softer rock, either ferruginous sandstone or gritty clays. For a more complete knowledge of these stone implements we must depend on a comparative study of large collections from different localities, and such information as the circumstances attending their discovery may impart, rather than upon their present condition or the uses for which they are now employed.
Metates or grain-grinders, pestles and rubbing stones belong to the milling industry among the Indians. The metates are generally quite large and heavy, and could not well be transported with the limited means at the command of Indians. They are therefore well adapted to the uses of village Indians, who remain permanently in a place and prosecute agricultural pursuits. They are generally of rectangular shape, and from 10 to 20 inches in length by 6 to 12 in width, and are composed of various kinds of rock, the harder, coarse-grained kinds being preferable, though in some instances sandstone is employed; the most desirable stone is porous lava. These stones are sometimes carried with families of the Pueblos moving short distances to the valleys of streams in which they have farms in cultivation. In the permanent villages they are arranged in small rectangular bins (see Fig. 508), each about 20 inches wide and deep, the whole series ranging from 5 to 10 feet in length, according to the number of bins or divisions. The walls are usually of sandstone. In each compartment one of these metates or grinding stones is firmly set at a proper angle to make it convenient to the kneeling female grinder. In this arrangement of the slabs those of different degrees of texture are so placed as to produce an increased degree of fineness to the meal or flour as it is passed from one to the other. But a small number of these slabs were collected on account of their great weight. Accompanying these metates are long, slim, flat stones, which are rubbed up and down the slabs, thus crushing the grain. These hand-stones are worn longitudinally into various shapes; some have two flat sides, while the third side remains oval. The same variety exists in regard to the texture of these rubbing-stones, as in the concave grinders.
The pueblo of Zuni, from which the most important portion of the collection was obtained, is situated in New Mexico, near the western border, about two hundred miles southwest from Santa Fe.
At the time of Coronado's visit to this country the pueblo was located at what is now known as "Old Zuni," on the summit of a high _mesa_. The modern Zuni is situated upon a knoll in the valley of the Zuni River, about two miles from the site of the old town. Certain writers have regarded Zuni, or rather "Old Zuni," as one of the "Seven Cities of Cibola." The evidences found at and around both the old and present Zuni are certainly not sufficient to warrant this view, and further and more careful investigations are necessary.
Zuni, although lying on the line of travel of military expeditions, emigrant trains, and trade between the Pacific coast and the Rio Grande, the foreigners visiting them have seldom remained long in their village; nor has the advancing wave of Caucasian settlement approached sufficiently near to exert any marked influence on their manners and customs; at least the form and decoration of their pottery bear no marked evidence of the influence of the more highly civilized races.
The collection made here by the expedition was more extensive than that from any other place, and numbers about fifteen hundred objects, of which by far the larger part is composed of earthenware articles. These include large and small water vases, canteens of various sizes and shapes, cooking cups, and pottery baskets used in their dances, paint-pots, ladles, water jugs, eating bowls, spoons, pepper and salt boxes, pitchers, bread-bowls, Navajo water jugs, treasure boxes, water vases, cups, cooking pots, skillets, ancient pottery, animals, and grotesque images. It belongs mostly to the variety of cream-white pottery, decorated in black and brown colors; a portion is red ware, with color decorations in black. There are also several pieces without ornamentation, and one or two pieces of black ware, but the latter were most probably obtained from other tribes, and possibly the same is true in reference to a few pieces of other kinds which present unusual figures or forms.
A slight glance at the figures depicted on the _tinajas_, or water vases, will suffice to show any one who has examined the older pottery of this region, specimens and fragments of which are found among the ruins, that a marked change has taken place in their ideas of beauty. Although the rigid, angular, zigzag, and geometric figures are yet found in their decorations, they have largely given way to carved lines, rounded figures, and attempts to represent natural objects.
A few apparently conventional figures are still generally retained, as around the outside of the necks of the vases and on the outer surface of the bowls, probably suggested originally by the rigid outlines of their arid country, and in fact by their buildings. The figure of the elk or deer is a very marked feature in the ornamentation of their white ware, and is often found under an arch. Another very common figure is that of a grotesquely-shaped bird, found also on the necks of water vases and the outer surface of bowls.
ARTICLES OF CLAY.
Tinajas, or water vases, are called in the Zuni tongue _tk[-a]h-wi-n[-a]-k[-a]-t[-e]hl-le_. They are usually from 8 to 12 inches in height, and from 12 to 15 in diameter. A smaller size of the same form of vessels, which are from 5 to 7 inches in height and from 8 to 10 in diameter, are called _det-ts[-a]n-n[-a]_. They are of three colors, cream white, polished red, and black: there are in the collection comparatively few of the second, and but one of the last variety. The decorations are chiefly in black and brown, but four or five pieces being in black. The decorations of the cream-white group present some four general types--those represented by Figs. 359, 363, 364, and ----, in which the uncolored circular space forms the distinguishing characteristic; those of which Fig. 360 may be considered a representative, of which type there are but two specimens in the collection; those represented by Fig. 361, and those distinguished by the rosette (see Figs. 366, 367, 368, and 370).
The following appear to be unique: (39935) Fig. 371, (40785) Fig. 375, (41149) Fig. 372, and (41167) Fig. 374.
By a careful study of these decorations we find that they consist chiefly of the following figures, which are combined in various ways: triangular figures, usually on the neck; large open circles, frequently in a diamond figure, as in Fig. 359 (39871); scrolls; or arches as in Figs. 361, 362, &c.
In no instance do we find the meander or Greek fret on these, or in fact any other Zuni vessels. A marked characteristic of the decorations on the pottery of this pueblo is the absence of vines and floral figures so common on those of some of the other pueblos. The nearest approach to the vine is the double line of scrolls seen in (40785) Fig. 375. Although the checkered figure is common on bowls, the Zuni artists have appreciated the fact that it would be out of place on the convex surface of the water vase. The elks or deer--for it is difficult to tell which are intended--are usually marked with a circular or crescent-shaped spot, in white, on the rump, and a red diamond placed over the region of the heart, with a line of the same color extending from it to the mouth, both margined with white; the head of the animal is always toward the right.
As will be observed by examining the decorated pieces, the surface is divided into zones by lines--sometimes single, sometimes double, but generally slender--one near the base, one or two around the middle, one at the shoulder, and one at the rim; thus forming one zone embracing the neck, and two or three on the body, exclusive of the undecorated base. Sometimes there is but one zone on the body as seen in Figs. 364 (40322) and 359 (39871); sometimes two, as shown in Figs. 367 (40317) and 370 (41146); but often three, the middle one quite narrow, as seen in Figs. 361 (39934) and 362 (41150). Although not always shown in the figures, the lines at the rim, shoulder, and bottom are seldom wanting in Zuni vases. The zones are often interrupted by broad perpendicular stripes or inclosed spaces in which circles, scroll figures, or rosettes are inserted.
Measurements of these vessels show considerable uniformity of proportion, the widely exceptional specimens being also exceptional in decorations. As indicating size and proportion I give here the measurements of some typical as well as some abnormal specimens.
The figures show the height, the diameter of the body at the widest part, and the diameter of the mouth in inches.
+-----------------------------------+--------+-----------+----------+ | | Height.| Diameter | Diameter | | Number. | | of body. | of mouth.| +-----------------------------------+--------+-----------+----------+ | 1 | 8.25 | 12.00 | 6.75 | | 2 | 10.25 | 13.75 | 7.50 | | 3 | 11.00 | 13.25 | 7.15 | | 4 | 12.00 | 14.50 | 8.50 | | 5 | 10.75 | 14.50 | 8.25 | | 6 | 11.00 | 13.00 | 8.00 | | 7 | 7.25 | 10.00 | 5.00 | | 8 | 7.00 | 9.25 | 5.40 | | 9 | 4.25 | 6.75 | 4.60 | | 10 | 4.40 | 5.50 | 3.75 | | 11 | 3.50 | 4.50 | 3.25 | | 12 | 3.50 | 4.25 | 2.90 | | 13 | 7.75 | 8.00 | 5.75 | | 14 | 9.00 | 9.75 | 6.50 | +-----------------------------------+--------+-----------+----------+
If we reduce these to proportion, using the diameter of body as the unit of measurement, the result is as follows:
+--------+--------+-----------++--------+--------+-----------+ | Number.| Height.| Diameter || Number.| Height.| Diameter | | | | of mouth. || | | of mouth. | +--------+--------+-----------++--------+--------+-----------+ | 1 | .69 | .56 || 8 | .81 | .59 | | 2 | .75 | .54 || 9 | .63 | .68 | | 3 | .83 | .54 || 10 | .80 | .68 | | 4 | .81 | .58 || 11 | .78 | .72 | | 5 | .74 | .57 || 12 | .82 | .68 | | 6 | .84 | .61 || 13 | .97 | .72 | | 7 | .72 | .50 || 14 | .91 | .67 | +--------+--------+-----------++--------+--------+-----------+
From this it will be seen that No. 148, which is represented by Fig. 373 (39774), is unusually broad in proportion to the height. Nos. 152 and 153 vary to the extreme in the other direction; No. 153 is shown in Fig. 364 (40322). Excluding these and taking the means of the large and small kinds separately we find the average ratios to be as follows:
Height. Diameter of mouth. Large .78 .57 Small .78 .61
Most of the water jugs of both the Shinumos and Zunians are in the form of canteens, usually more or less spherical, and varying in capacity from a pint to four gallons. On each side there is a small handle in the form of a loop or knob, through or around which is placed a small shawl or strip of cloth, or a cord long enough to pass over the forehead so as to suspend the vessel against the back just below the shoulders. The other jugs are of various fanciful shapes, which will be noted in the catalogue. A large portion are of plain brown ware, a few plain white, and others white with colored decorations. Various names are used apparently to designate the different kinds rather than the uses for which they are intended.
The decorations, when present, are always on the upper side, which is more convex than the lower, or side on which it is intended the vessel shall lie when not in use. In the ornamented white ware the lower portion is usually red or brown.
As all these clay fabrics are the work of North American Indians, it is scarcely necessary for me to say that they are unglazed, a characteristic, so far as I am aware, of all aboriginal pottery.
Some of the specimens, especially of the black ware, show a smooth finish, and may perhaps, without violence to the term, be classed as lustrous. This is not the effect of a varnish or partial glazing, but is a polish, produced generally, if not always, by rubbing with a polishing stone.
Although, as a rule, the paste of which the ware is made is comparatively free from foreign matter, yet many pieces, especially of the decorated ware, when broken, show little whitish or ash-colored specks. These, when found in aboriginal pottery east of the Mississippi, have, I believe, been without question considered as fragments or particles of shell broken up and mixed with the paste. This may be correct in reference to the pottery found east of and in the Mississippi Valley, but this whitish and grayish matter in the pottery of the Indians of New Mexico and Arizona is in most cases pulverized pottery, which is crushed and mixed with the paste. Black lava is sometimes crushed and used in the same manner.
The principal material used is a clay, apparently in its natural state, varying in color according to locality. Although comparatively free from pebbles or lumps of foreign matter, we detect in some of the coarser specimens small particles of mica and grains of other materials, and in one broken specimen the elytron of a small coleopterous insect. But as a general rule, the paste appears to have been free from foreign matter.
A slight glance at this large collection is sufficient to show that the potters worked by no specific rule, and that they did not use patterns. While it is apparent that only a few general forms were adopted, and that, with few exceptions, the entire collection may be grouped by these, yet no two specimens are exactly alike; they differ in size, or vary more or less in form. The same thing is also true in reference to the ornamentation: while there is a striking similarity in general characteristics, there is an endless variety in details. No two similar pieces can be found bearing precisely the same ornamental pattern.
Much the larger portion of the collection consists of vessels of various kinds, such as bowls, cooking utensils, canteens, bottles, jars, pitchers, cups, ladles, jugs, water vases, ornamental vessels, paint-pots, &c. These vary in size from the large vase, capable of holding ten gallons, to the little cup and canteen, which will contain less than half a pint. The other and much smaller portion includes all those articles which cannot be classed as vessels, such as images, toys, toilet articles, representations of animals, &c. The collection can perhaps be most satisfactorily classified by reference to the coloring, ornamentation, and quality, thus:
1. _The red or uncolored pottery_, which is without ornamentation of any kind. Some of this is coarse and rough, and in this case always more than ordinarily thick; but the larger portion has the surface smooth and often polished. The color varies from the natural dull leaden hue of the clay, to a bright brick red, the latter largely predominating.
2. _The brown ware_, or that which shows an admixture of mica. This, although uniformly without color decorations, is occasionally marked with impressed figures and lines. Although inferior in quality, being coarse and fragile, it presents more symmetrical though less varied forms than are usually found in the preceding group. The influence of contact with the European races is here very apparent, as, for example, in the true pitcher and other common utensils and an apparent attempt at glazing.
3. _The black ware_ which is without ornamentation. This variety in quality and character is precisely like the polished red of the first group; but is slightly in advance of that in regard to finish, and perhaps, as heretofore remarked, may be classed as lustrous, while the red may be classed as semi-lustrous. The paste of which this black ware is formed appears to have been better prepared than that of the preceding varieties, and is the hardest and firmest in the collection.
4. _The cream-white pottery decorated in colors_. This extensive group, which includes fully two-thirds of the entire collection, embraces almost every known form of earthenware manufactured by the tribes from whom it was obtained. The paste of which it is formed is similar in character to that of the black ware. When broken the fracture shows very distinctly the effect of burning, the interior being of the natural leaden color, shading off to a dull grayish white as it approaches the outer surface. The opaque or creamy-white color of the surface is produced by a coating of opaque whitewash. Upon this white surface the figures are afterwards drawn.
The only colors used in decorating pottery are black, red, and some shade of brown. But of this we will speak more fully when we come to describe the peculiar methods practiced by the different tribes in making and adorning pottery.
Although there is a strong general similarity in this colored ornamentation, the great variety of details renders it difficult to classify the figures so as to convey a correct idea of them to the reader. We shall therefore have to refer him to the numerous cuts and the colored plates which have been introduced for the purpose of illustrating the catalogue.
The following general statement is about all that can be said in reference to them before descending to specific details.
So far as the coloring is concerned they are of two kinds, those having the figures wholly black, and those which are partly black and partly brown or red. The differences in the decorated pottery appear to be always accompanied by certain other variations sufficient to warrant speaking of them as different varieties or groups. The former (those having the figures wholly black), which are made of the ordinary plastic blue clay, have only the upper half or two-thirds of the body of the vessel overlaid with the white coating for receiving the decorations, the lower part being uncoated, and of the natural pale red or salmon color produced by burning, but usually well polished. As additional distinguishing features of this group we notice that the shape is more generally globular, the workmanship rather superior, and the pottery somewhat harder and less friable than that of the other group; the angular and geometrical figures formed by straight lines are more common in this group; here we also find the meander or Greek fret correctly drawn, the vine, and several other designs rarely or never found in the other group. The figures of animals, which are common to both varieties, are in the former more usually distributed in zones or groups, while in the latter they are generally placed singly in inclosed spaces. The latter variety, in which we see the curve freely used, shows an evident advance over the ornamentation of the older pottery of this region; and while the figures must be classed as rude, and the outlines are less sharp, and not so well defined as in the older specimens, yet they indicate clearly a mental advance in the greater variety of conception.
The figures of this entire class, as regards forms, may be grouped under three general headings: first, the geometrical, which is the most common; second, the figures of animals; and, third, rude attempts at floral decorations, which forms are rather rare. Strange to say, in but few instances can any attempt at representing the human form or any part of it be discovered in these color decorations.
The geometric figures present an endless variety; but we notice, as is shown by the cuts and plates, that triangles with an elongate acuminate apex and the zigzag are very common in the black-brown decorations. The checkered figure also is not uncommon. The animals most frequently represented are the elk or deer and birds. The floral decorations are chiefly vines well drawn, and rude attempts at representing trees, and the flowers of various species of _Helianthus_.
5. _Red ware with color decorations_. This ware is represented by but few vessels, which are in every respect similar to the best variety of the red pottery heretofore mentioned, except that it is marked with figures in black, many of which are decorated only on the upper portions around the neck or rim.
6. _The ancient pottery_, of which Figs. 680 (40816) and 693 (40817) are good examples.