CHAPTER II

THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING IN THE PAST

Before describing the method of cutting and using the pen, it may possibly be instructive to survey briefly the development of writing through the centuries.

The alphabet, as we know it, has been traced right back to that used by the Phœnicians. In fact, until a comparatively short time ago, it was thought by some that it could be traced back to the Egyptian hieroglyphics, but in the light of recent discoveries this theory is no longer tenable. The origin of our alphabet is therefore still a matter for research, although there seems to be no doubt concerning its descent from the Phœnician alphabet.

The Roman alphabet seems to be a direct descendant from this, and it is from the Roman alphabet that the lettering that is in use to-day has been derived.

Roman writing was divided into two distinct classes: the formal book-hand, and the cursive hand which was the common hand-writing of the people.

MAJUSCULE WRITING

The book-hand first took the form of majuscules, which in turn were divided into Square Capitals, Rustic Capitals, and Uncials. After this came the modified forms of Uncials caused by the admixture of minuscules.

By way of explanation it may be here mentioned that, in both Greek and Latin palæography, capital letters are termed “majuscules,” while small letters are known as “minuscules.”

SQUARE CAPITALS

Probably the earliest Latin majuscule writing is that known as square capitals. These seem to be modelled on the same type of letter that was used for the fine inscriptions. Although the general opinion is that these are the earliest form, there is very little square capital writing in existence. The earliest specimen known has been attributed to the end of the fourth century, although it is thought that this form of writing had been in use some centuries before this. It was in use until the fourth or fifth century. There is not the slightest doubt that writing, when these letters were used, must have been comparatively slow work.

RUSTIC CAPITALS

Rustic capitals seem to be an attempt to write the letters by means of simple pen-strokes. Writing with this type of letter must have been much quicker than when the square capitals were used. This style of writing has been used in the earliest Latin MSS. now in existence, but, although this is the case, the general opinion seems to be that the square capitals were used first. The title “Rustic” is somewhat misleading, as it might lead one to suppose that these letters are rough in character, when they are generally written quite as carefully as the square capitals.

UNCIALS

The next stage is the use of the majuscules known as “Uncials.” These are true pen-formed letters. They seem to be based on the square capitals, but, in place of so many angles, curves are employed, these being much more adapted to the use of the pen. It is a round hand, and a very beautiful form of writing. The simplicity of the characters with their flowing curves is such that they may be easily formed with a sharply-cut reed or quill. The letters, A, D, E, H, M, and U, are the principal letters that show the characteristics of this form of writing. It seems to have been in common use as a book-hand in the fourth century. It is, however, thought by some that it is quite possible that it may have been in use as early as the third century, as in the oldest specimens that are known the lettering appears to be fully developed. One of the special distinctions of this kind of writing is the way some of the vertical strokes rise above, or fall below, the line of writing. From the fifth to the eighth centuries it was given the premier place as a literary hand. The early uncials, as also were the square capitals and rustic capitals, were written with a pen cut with a slanted point.

MIXED UNCIAL AND MINUSCULE WRITING

It must be remembered that all the time these majuscules, both capitals and uncials, represent only one side of the handwriting employed, _viz._, that used for the production of books. The ordinary handwriting of the people, known as “cursive” writing, was in extensive use at the same time. Very often this form of writing got mixed up with the other, and the result was a mixed style. For example, in some of the early majuscule MSS., notes have been found written in this style. This gradually came to be used as a book-hand, until soon very few of the early uncial forms were left.

HALF-UNCIALS

To this form of writing in its full development the title of “Half-Uncial” has been given. It was employed as far back as the fifth century for writing MSS. It may have been used because it could be written more quickly than the ordinary uncial; anyway, it seems to have been very extensively used as a literary hand. This style is very important, as it marks the beginning of the change from majuscule to minuscule writing. These characters were generally formed with a straight-cut pen.

IRISH HALF-UNCIALS

Writing in the British Isles was greatly different from that used on the Continent. On the Continent the hand was developed from the Roman cursive writing, while in England and Ireland the Roman Half-Uncial was the starting-point of development.

There is not the slightest doubt but that the rise of Christianity in the British Isles had a great deal to do with the development of the book-hand. It is a well-known fact that the Christian missionaries from Rome brought with them a number of MSS. which may have served as models for the native scribes. These were probably written in Roman half-uncials, which would account for the manner in which the Irish handwriting developed. Evidently no MSS. written in pure uncials came to Ireland; anyway, there seems to be no reason to suppose that such was the case, as no MS. of this type has been found that may be claimed to be purely Irish without any shadow of doubt.

Early Irish writing is in two forms, round and pointed. The round hand is distinctly half-uncial. Although it is most difficult to state the earliest date of the Irish MSS., the general opinion is that they date back at least as far as the seventh century. The famous Book of Kells is a well-known example of Irish half-uncials. The pointed writing was developed in the eighth and ninth centuries. This is probably a development of the round hand, and in course of time became the Irish national hand.

ENGLISH HALF-UNCIALS

In England there were two distinct schools of writing, one of which came from Ireland and the other brought over by the Roman missionaries. Very little is known of the writing brought over by the foreign missionaries, as only a small amount is known to be in existence. There is evidence, however, that some of the Roman rustic capitals were made use of.

The English half-uncials were modelled on the Irish half-uncials. The writing in the Durham Book, now in the British Museum, affords a good example of this kind of writing. It is interesting to compare this writing with that of the Book of Kells; there is a great similarity. Both are carefully written with the straight-cut pen. The English half-uncials also developed in the eighth and ninth centuries into a pointed hand. Capitals which were used for initials, etc., are simply variations of the majuscules.

MINUSCULE WRITING

As mentioned before, the Roman cursive was the basis of the writing on the Continent. Three great national hands were formed, _viz._, Lombardic, Visigothic, and Merovingian.

LOMBARDIC WRITING

This was the national handwriting of Italy; it was used from the eighth to the eleventh centuries. The term “Lombardic” is given as a general term to the writing of Italy in the early middle ages. In Fig. 4 some free renderings are given of this hand. The first (_a_) is an example in one of its earliest stages, written cursively in the early part of the ninth century. The next, shown in (_b_) is the book-hand a little later. The third example (_c_) is a later development of the eleventh century, known as “broken Lombardic.” It may be noted that in all these the slanted-cut pen has been used.

VISIGOTHIC WRITING

The title “Visigothic” has been given to the national handwriting of Spain. Derived also from the Roman cursive, it developed into a book-hand that was used in the eighth century. It was in use until the twelfth century. The first example (_d_) is a half-cursive book-hand of the seventh or eighth century. The next (_e_) a book-hand of the early tenth century. The last example (_f_) is the last stage, being of the twelfth century. All these are written with the slanted-cut pen.

MEROVINGIAN WRITING

This is the name given to the writing practised in the Frankish empire. This form of writing leads on to the great reform in the time of Charlemagne. Starting, as was the case in the other two schools, from the Roman cursive, it developed into a set book-hand which is noticeable in several MSS. of the seventh and eighth centuries. An early specimen is shown in (_g_). Several different types of writing were used within the limits of the Frankish empire, some of which bear a strong resemblance to the Lombardic style. In fact, so similar are they that it is rather difficult to distinguish one from the other. The example (_h_) is one of this type, being of the late seventh century. As uncial and half-uncial characters were still used for a good number of MSS. it is but natural that these should influence the style of writing. The specimen given in (_i_) is an example showing the influence of the half-uncial, and is a step towards the full development of the Caroline minuscule.

CARLOVINGIAN WRITING

The great revival of learning during the reign of Charlemagne resulted in the development of a new school of writing known as Caroline, or Carlovingian. Towards the end of the eighth century the decree calling for the revision of the Church books naturally became the cause of fresh activity in the writing schools connected with the monasteries. At Tours the book-hand was developed which is known as the Caroline Minuscule. An example is given of this hand. This form of writing spread rapidly all over the Frankish empire and gradually influenced the book-hands employed in the neighbouring countries. The use of the slanted-cut pen is an important thing in connection with the formation of these minuscules.

LATER STYLES

The tenth century example given is from the Benedictional of Æthelwold, Bishop of Winchester from A.D. 963-984. This lettering is of the foreign type, but it has a strongly defined native character all its own, some of the letters being distinctly Saxon in type.

From the twelfth century onwards a great number of MSS. were produced, each country having its own particular style and developing on certain definite lines. It is impossible to give specimens of all the different kinds of Calligraphy. The examples shown must be taken as roughly indicating the general style of the writing. The use of the slanted-cut pen tended towards the compression of the letters, thus forming a strong contrast to the letters produced in the earlier periods with the straight-cut pen.

In the thirteenth century writing became considerably smaller. In the latter part of this century a very large number of Bibles appear to have been written, and volumes were smaller, standing out in strong contrast to the ponderous tomes of the preceding century. In the fourteenth century the writing became considerably stiffer and more angular. This tendency showed itself still more strongly in the fifteenth century.

In Italy this tendency did not make itself felt quite as early as in the writings of Northern Europe. Although later on they became more or less affected in this way, there is a decided difference between Italian writing and the styles employed by the other countries.

In the fifteenth century the Italian scribes appear to have gone back to their early periods for models for book-hands, and it is this that influenced the early printers of Italy to use type of this character, which has its modern representative in the Roman type of to-day.