CHAPTER I

THE INFLUENCE OF THE TOOL

Calligraphy and Illumination are inseparably bound up with each other. The art of Illumination cannot be severed from that of Writing. One cannot imagine the decoration apart from the writing. Undoubtedly this sprang from a desire to beautify the writing. Man sought to make his manuscripts beautiful, and the result was a form of illumination, at first very primitive, but gradually developing into the beautiful art that we are so familiar with in the choice manuscripts of the middle ages.

When commencing the study of the art of illumination it is extremely important that it should be approached from the proper standpoint. It is to be feared that this has not always been the case. The lure of the bright gold and colours has often led both teacher and taught astray, and the proper use of the pen in writing has been almost entirely neglected.

Instead of allowing the tool to have its own way, it has been forced to form laborious shapes that are not suited to its construction at all. The decoration, it is to be feared, has been looked upon as a sort of spice to be added as a finishing touch, instead of being a vital growth springing naturally from the writing. Until it be viewed from this standpoint, no real progress can be made. If a building is to be soundly constructed, the first thing to see to is that the foundations are well laid. The same principle applies in this case. The decoration, if it is to be living and real, must have a starting-point for growth. The student should see that this is a sure foundation and not a tottering, shaky structure. Well-formed writing should be the first consideration.

Ordinary hand-writing is a development of the kind of writing used by the old calligraphers. Generally speaking, the connection between the two is not recognised. Probably if this were so calligraphy of the present day would be much better than it generally is. The fact that it is generally referred to as “printing” shows how the connection has been lost. Drawing is thought to be more akin to it than hand-writing. It is no uncommon sight to see a student carefully drawing the shapes of the letters and then filling them in with a fine mapping pen. If the individuality of the pen as a letter-making tool were recognised this kind of thing would not occur.

It may be interesting to consider briefly some of the early influences at work in the production of writing.

In Fig. 1 some examples of early Babylonian characters are shown. In these early days the common writing material was clay. The characters used in writing were rough pictures of different objects which were drawn in outline. Thus the sign for “king” was a rude drawing of a man crowned; this was scratched on the surface of the soft clay with a pointed tool. One can quite understand how these characters could be constructed with a series of impressions in much less time than it would take to draw them in outline. Then again it must have been much easier to draw on the soft clay in this way. A square-pointed stylus was used for this purpose, and, with the wedge-shaped impressions thus produced, the characters could be formed quite easily. Not only was the scribe able to write with greater speed, but the way in which the characters were produced was more methodical. The character for “king,” when made with the wedge-shaped impressions, was constructed as shown in (_b_). One can easily recognise the same form placed horizontally, instead of vertically, as was originally the case. In course of time the characters became somewhat simplified. The next step in the development of the character is shown in (_c_). The final form is shown in (_d_), this being very much simplified. In like manner the signs represented in (_e_) and (_h_) were used to denote “star” and “sun” respectively. The development of these is seen in (_f_) and (_g_), also in (_i_) and (_j_). The reason for calling attention to these characters is to show how the shapes are influenced by the tool and the material employed. This is a most important factor in the formation of letters.

Where soft clay was used as a material, and the characters were formed by making impressions with a stylus, one would naturally expect that these signs would take the form of a series of indentations rather than flowing lines as from a brush or pen.

In the case of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, shown in Fig. 2, a difference is at once noticed. These characters were at first small pictures carved on stone. The hieratic characters were simple interpretations of these formed with a reed pen. It is quite obvious, to all who care to observe, how easily these characters could be formed, especially when they are compared with the earlier signs. In this case the influence is quite different from that of the Babylonian characters. Instead of a series of impressions, one notices long flowing strokes characteristic of the pen. It is interesting to note how the essential quality of the more elaborate character is obtained with simple pen-strokes. Although the hieroglyphic is often quite complex there is still a likeness retained in the hieratic form.

The reed pen used by the Egyptian scribes was the forerunner of the modern pen. It was formed from the hollow stalk of grasses that grew in marshy districts. Sometimes pens were made from hollow canes and bamboos. This kind of pen is still used in the East.

The material used for writing upon was known as papyrus. This was made from the pith of a species of reed, the _Cyperus Papyrus_ of Linnæus. This was, in early days, cultivated in the Delta of Egypt. It was used for several different purposes, one of the most important being for writing-material. This was prepared by cutting it into strips and placing these side by side, with another set placed across them at right angles. The two layers were stuck together and the whole pressed and dried, and the surface smoothed to make a sheet of writing-material.

It is a most difficult matter to state when the quill pen was first used. Probably the earliest allusion to it occurs in the writings of St Isidore, Archbishop of Seville, who lived in the early part of the seventh century. The following is the quotation in question:

“_Instrumenta scribæ calamus et penna; ex his enim verba paginis infiguntur; sed calamus arboris est, penna avis, cujus acumen dividitur in duo._”

(“The tools of the writer are a reed and a quill; for by these words on pages are impressed; the reed is of wood, the quill from a bird, and its point is divided into two.”)

But of course it is extremely probable that quill pens were in use at a much earlier period than this. It is well known that metal pens were used by the Romans, as a number of these, made of bronze, are in existence at the present time.

For general writing purposes tablets coated with wax were used by the Greeks and Romans. A stylus with one end pointed and the other flattened was used to write with, the writing being done with the sharp point and erasures made with the flattened end.

The skins of animals have been used as a writing material since quite an early period, and the use of vellum was probably an improvement upon this. Pliny, in his “Natural History,” tells the story, on the authority of Varro, of how Eumenes II., King of Pergamus from 197 to 159 B.C., was desirous of extending the library in his capital, but the Ptolemies, being jealous, stopped the export of papyrus, thinking by this means to prevent the royal library from growing. Owing to the lack of papyrus, skins were employed and, necessity being the mother of invention, the manufacture of vellum came about. Whether any real importance can be attached to this story or not, it is certain that Pergamus was a great centre for the manufacture of vellum. In fact, the word “parchment” is derived from _charta Pergamena_, _i.e._, “paper from Pergamum.”

It is easy to see how this ideal writing-material, with the quill pen, must have had a great influence upon the formation of letters. Generally speaking, the writing on parchment or vellum is crisper and more sharply defined than that on the papyrus.

There is not the slightest doubt that the influence of the tool and the writing-material had a great deal to do with forming the shapes of the letters. Good lettering was seldom or never consciously designed, but was the result of certain influences at work.

In the development of lettering in the past, the pen, as a letter-making tool, has played a most prominent part. A reed or quill pen cut with a broad nib, so as to give crisp thick and thin strokes, is an ideal tool for the formation of letters, but one thing is necessary: the pen must be allowed to have its own way. The letters should not be designed first and copied with the pen afterwards. If the lettering is to be pen-formed, let it be formed with the pen; it should come straight from the pen.

The capabilities of the pen as a letter-making tool should be carefully studied. The reed or quill pen should be used, and one of the best ways to become intimate with the pen is to cut it to shape for oneself. One is thus able to understand the possibilities of this tool as a means for the formation of letters, in a much more intimate manner than if a ready-made tool is placed in the hand. The first thing to endeavour to grasp is how to cut and use the pen. After this has been mastered, the next step should be the formation of letters. This is followed by forming letters into words. Then comes writing and designing with masses of writing. Not until the student is thoroughly familiar with the use of lettering should he attempt to add any decoration to it. A fine piece of writing in black, or black and red, on vellum or fine hand-made paper is a piece of decoration by itself, but a bad piece of lettering cannot be made beautiful, however much ornament be added afterwards. The first step towards the study of illumination proper comes then, and attention should be given to the place of the initial letter and the part it has played in the past as a starting-point for the decoration in the MSS. of the mediæval period. At first a good deal can be done with the use of black and red only, or black, red, and blue. Then come simple decoration with gold and colours; the use of raised burnished gold; the application of illumination for commercial purposes; and the illuminated MS. book.