Part 9

THE TRICUSPID AND BICUSPID VALVES.--At the opening into the right ventricle, is a valve consisting of three folds or flaps of membrane, whence it is called the _tricuspid_ valve (_tri_, three; and _cuspides_, points), and in the left ventricle, one containing two flaps, and named the _bicuspid_ valve. These hang so loosely as to oppose no resistance to the passage of the blood into the ventricles; but, if any attempts to go the other way, it gets between the flaps and the walls of the heart, and, driving them outward, closes the orifice.

FIG. 39.

THESE FLAPS ARE STRENGTHENED like sails by slender cords, which prevent their being pressed back through the opening. If the cords were attached directly to the walls of the heart, they would be loosened in the systole, and so become useless when most needed. They are, therefore, fastened to little muscular pillars projecting from the sides of the ventricle; when that contracts, the pillars contract also, and thus the cords are held tight.

THE SEMILUNAR VALVES.--In the passages outward from the ventricles, are valves, called from their peculiar half-moon shape _semilunar_ valves (_semi_, half; _Luna_, Moon). Each consists of three little pocket-shaped folds of membrane, with their openings in the direction which the blood is to take. When it sets back, they fill, and, swelling out, close the passage (Fig. 40).

THE ARTERIES [Footnote: _Aer,_ air; and _tereo,_ I contain--so named because after death they contain air only, and hence the ancients supposed them to be air tubes leading through the body.] are the tube-like canals which convey the blood _from_ the heart. They carry the red blood (see note, p. 119). They are composed of an elastic tissue, which yields at every throb of the heart, and then slowly contracting again, keeps up the motion of the blood until the next systole. The elasticity of the arteries acts like the air chamber of a fire engine, which converts the intermittent jerks of the brakes or pump into the steady stream of the hose nozzle.

The arteries sometimes communicate by means of branches or by meshes of loops, so that if the blood be blocked in one, it can pass round through another, and so get by the obstacle. [Footnote: This occurs especially about the joints, where it serves to maintain the circulation during the bending of a limb, or when the main artery is obstructed by disease or injury, or has been tied by the surgeon. In the last case, the small adjacent arteries gradually enlarge, and form what is called a collateral circulation.] When an artery penetrates a muscle, it is often protected by a sheath or by fibrous rings, which prevent its being pulled out of place or compressed by the play of the muscles.

The arteries are generally located as far as possible beneath the surface, out of harm's way, and hence are found closely hugging the bones or creeping through safe passages provided for them. They are generally nearly straight, and take the shortest routes to the parts which they are to supply with blood.

THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM starts from the left ventricle by a single trunk--the _aorta_--which, after giving off branches to the head, sweeps back of the chest with a bold curve--the _arch of the aorta_ (_c_, Fig. 34)--and thence runs downward (_f_), dividing and subdividing, like a tree, into numberless branches, which, at last, penetrate every nook and corner of the body.

THE PULSE.--At the wrist (_k_, radial artery) and on the temple (temporal artery) we can feel the expansion of the artery by each little wave of blood set in motion by the contraction of the heart. In health, there are about seventy-two [Footnote: This number varies much with age, sex, and individuals. Napoleon's pulse is said to have been only forty, while it is not infrequent to find a healthy pulse at one hundred or over. In general, the pulse is quicker in children and in old people than in the middle-aged; in short persons than in tall; in women than in men. Shame makes the heart send more blood to the blushing cheek, and fear almost stops it. The will can not check the heart. There is said, however, to have been a notable exception to this in the case of one Colonel Townsend, of Dublin, who, after having succeeded several times in stopping the pulsation, at last lost his life in the act.] pulsations per minute. They increase with excitement or inflammation, weaken with loss of vigor, and are modified by nearly every disease. The physician, therefore, finds the pulse a good index of the state of the system and the character of the disorder. (See p. 314.)

THE VEINS are the tube-like canals which convey the blood _to_ the heart. [Footnote: There is one exception to the general course of the veins. The _portal_ vein carries the blood from the digestive organs to the liver, where it is acted upon, thence poured into the ascending vena cava, and goes back to the heart.] They carry the dark or venous blood (note, p. 119). As they do not receive the direct impulse of the heart, their walls are made much thinner and less elastic than those of the arteries. At first small, they increase in size and diminish in number as they gradually pour into one another, like tiny rills collecting to form two rivers, the vena cava ascending and the vena cava descending (_l, m_, Fig. 34), which empty into the right auricle.

Some of the veins creep along under the skin, where they can be seen, as in the back of the hand; while others accompany the arteries, some of which have two or more of these companions.

VALVES similar in construction to those already described (the semilunar valves of the heart, page 114) are placed at convenient intervals, in order to guide the blood in its course, and prevent its setting backward. [Footnote: Too much standing, or tight elastics, often cause the veins in the leg to swell, so that the valves can not work; the veins then become _varicose_, or permanently enlarged, and, if they burst, the bleeding may be profuse and even dangerous. Raising the leg and pressing the finger on the bleeding spot will stay it. Walking does not encourage this disease, for the active muscles force on the venous blood. Clerks who are subject to varicose veins should have seats behind the counters where they may rest when not actually employed. A deep breath helps the flow in the veins, and a wound may suck in air with fatal effect. A maimed horse is most mercifully killed by blowing a bubble of air into the veins of his neck. As the deep-sea pressure would burst valves, the whale has none; hence a small wound by the harpoon causes him to bleed to death.-- MAPOTHER.] We can easily examine the working of these valves. On baring the arm, blue veins may be seen running along the arm toward the hand. Their diameter is tolerably even, and they gradually decrease in size. If now the finger be pressed on the upper part of one of these veins, and then passed downward so as to drive its blood backward, swellings like little knots will make their appearance. Each of these marks the location of a valve, which is closed by the blood we push before our finger. Remove the pressure, and the valve will swing open, the blood set forward, and the vein collapse to its former size.

FIG. 40.

THE CAPILLARIES (_capillus,_ a hair) form a fine network of tubes, connecting the ends of the arteries with the veins. They blend, however, with the extremities of these two systems, so that it is not easy to tell just where an artery ends and a vein begins. So closely are they placed, that we can not prick the flesh with a needle without injuring, perhaps, hundreds of them. The air cells of the blood deposit there their oxygen, and receive carbonic acid, while in the delicate capillaries of the lungs [Footnote: The capillary tubes are there so fine that the disks of the blood have to go one by one, and are sadly squeezed at that. However, their elasticity enables them to resume their old shape as soon as they have escaped from this labyrinth.] they give up their load of carbonic acid in exchange for oxygen.

FIG. 41.

If, by means of a microscope, we examine the transparent web of a frog's foot, we can trace the route of the blood. [Footnote: With small splints and twine, a frog's foot can be easily stretched and tied so that the transparent web can be placed on the table of the microscope.] It is an experiment of wonderful interest. The crimson stream, propelled by the heart, rushes through the arteries, until it reaches the intricate meshes of the capillaries. Here it breaks into a thousand tiny rills. We can see the disks winding in single file through the devious passages, darting hither and thither, now pausing, swaying to and fro with an uncertain motion, and anon dashing ahead, until, at last, gathered in the veins, the blood sets steadily back on its return to the heart.

THE CIRCULATION [Footnote: The circulation of the blood was discovered by Harvey in 1619. For several years, he did not dare to publish his belief. When it became known, he was bitterly persecuted, and his practice as a physician greatly decreased in consequence. He lived, however, to see his theory universally adopted, and his name honored. Harvey is said to have declared that no man over forty years of age accepted his views.] consists of two parts--the _lesser_, and the _greater_.

FIG. 42.

1. _The Lesser Circulation_.--The dark blood from the veins collects in the right auricle, and, going through the tricuspid valve, empties into the right ventricle. Thence it is driven past the semilunar valves, through the pulmonary artery, to the lungs. After circulating through the fine capillaries of the air cells contained in the lungs, it is returned, bright and red, through the four pulmonary veins, [Footnote: It is noticeable that the pulmonary set of veins circulates red blood, and the pulmonary set of arteries circulates dark blood. Both are connected with the lungs.] to the left auricle.

2. _The Greater Circulation_.--From the left auricle, the blood is forced past the bicuspid valve to the left ventricle; thence it is driven through the semilunar valves into the great aorta, the main trunk of the arterial system. Passing through the arteries, capillaries, and veins, it returns through the venæ cavæ, ascending and descending, gathers again in the right auricle, and so completes the "grand round" of the body. Both these circulations are going on constantly, as the two auricles contract, and the two ventricles expand simultaneously, and _vice versa_.

THE VELOCITY OF THE BLOOD varies so much in different parts of the body, and is influenced by so many circumstances, that it can not be calculated with any degree of accuracy. It has been estimated that a portion of the blood will make the tour of the body in about twenty-three seconds (FLINT), and that the entire mass passes through the heart in from one to two minutes. [Footnote: The total amount of blood in an adult of average weight is about eighteen pounds. Dividing this by five ounces, the quantity discharged by the left ventricle at each systole, gives fifty- eight pulsations as the number necessary to transmit all the blood in the body. This, however, is an extremely unreliable basis of calculation, as the rapidity of the blood is itself so variable. Chauvreau has shown by experiments with his instrument that, corresponding to the first dilation of the vessels, the blood moves with immense rapidity; following this, the current suddenly becomes nearly arrested; this is succeeded by a second acceleration in the current, not quite so rapid as the first; and after this there is a gradual decline in the rapidity to the time of the next pulsation.] (See p. 314.)

DISTRIBUTION AND REGULATION OF THE HEAT OF THE BODY.--1. _Distribution_.--The natural temperature is not far from 98°. [Footnote: The average temperature is, however, easily departed from. Through some trivial cause the cooling agencies may be interfered with, and then, the heating processes getting the superiority, a high temperature or fever comes on. Or the reverse may ensue. In Asiatic cholera, the constitution of the blood is so changed that its disks can no longer carry oxygen into the system, the heat-making processes are put a stop to, and, the temperature declining, the body becomes of a marble coldness, characteristic of that terrible disease.--DRAPER.] This is maintained, as we have already seen, by the action of the oxygen within us. Each capillary tube is a tiny stove, where oxygen is combining with the tissues of the body (see note, p. 107). Every contraction of a muscle develops heat, the latent heat being set free by the breaking up of the tissue. The warmth so produced is distributed by the circulation of the blood. Thus the arteries, veins, and capillaries form a series of hot- water pipes, through which the heated liquid is forced by a pump--the heart--while the heat is kept up, not by a central furnace and boiler, but by a multitude of little fires placed here and there along its course.

2. _Regulation_.--The temperature of the body is regulated by means of the pores of the skin and the mucous membrane in the air passages. When the system becomes too warm, the blood vessels on the surface expand, the blood fills them, the fluid exudes into the perspiratory glands, pours out upon the exterior, and by evaporation cools the body. [Footnote: Just as water sprinkled on the floor cools a room.--_Popular Physics_, p. 255.] When the temperature of the body is too low, the vessels contract, less blood goes to the surface, the perspiration decreases, and the loss of heat by evaporation diminishes. [Footnote: Thus one is enabled to go into an oven where bread is baking, or into the arctic regions where the mountains are snow and the rivers ice. Even by these extremes the temperature of the blood will be but slightly affected. In the one case, the flood gates of perspiration will be opened and the superfluous heat expended in turning the water to vapor; and, in the other, they will be tightly closed and all the heat retained.]

LIFE BY DEATH.--The body is being incessantly corroded, and portions borne away by the tireless oxygen. The scales of the epidermis are constantly falling off and being replaced by secretion from the cutis. The disks of the blood die, and new ones spring into being. On the continuance of this interchange depend our health and vigor. Every act is a destructive one. Not a bend of the finger, not a wink of the eye, not a thought of the brain but is at some expense of the machine itself. Every process of life is thus a process of death. The more rapidly this change goes on, and fresh, vigorous tissue takes the place of the old, the more elasticity and strength we possess.

CHANGE OF OUR BODIES.--There is a belief that our bodies change once in seven years. From the nature of the case, the rate must vary with the labor we perform; the organs most used altering oftenest. Probably the parts of the body in incessant employment are entirely reorganized many times within a single year. [Footnote: To use a homely simile, our bodies are like the Irishman's knife, which, after having had several new blades, and at least one new handle, was yet the same old knife.]

THE THREE VITAL ORGANS.--Death is produced by the stoppage of the action of any one of the three organs--the heart, the lungs, or the brain. They have, therefore, been termed the "Tripod of Life." Really, however, as Huxley has remarked, "Life has but two legs to stand upon." If respiration and circulation be kept up artificially, the removal of the brain will not produce death. [Footnote: When death really does take place, _i. e._, when the vital organs are stopped, it is noticeable that the tissues do not die for some time thereafter. If suitable stimulants be applied, as the galvanic battery, transfusion of blood, etc., the muscles may be made to contract, and many of the phenomena of life be exhibited. Dr. Brown- Sequard thus produced muscular action in the hand of a criminal, fourteen hours after his execution.]

WONDERS OF THE HEART.--The ancients thought the heart to be the seat of love. There were located the purity and goodness as well as the evil passions of the soul. [Footnote: Our common words, hearty, large-hearted, courage (_cor_, the heart), are remains of this fanciful theory.] Modern science has found the seat of the mental powers to be in the brain. But while it has thus robbed the heart of its romance, it has revealed wonders which eclipse all the mysteries of the past. This marvelous little engine throbs on continually at the rate of one hundred thousand beats per day, forty millions per year, often three billions without a single stop. It is the most powerful of machines. "Its daily work is equal to one third that of all the muscles. If it should expend its entire force in lifting its own weight vertically, it would rise twenty thousand feet in an hour." [Footnote: "The greatest exploit ever accomplished by a locomotive, was to lift itself through less than one eighth of that distance." Vast and constant as is this process, so perfect is the machinery, that there are persons who do not even know where the heart lies until disease or accident reveals its location.] Its vitality is amazing. The most tireless of organs while life exists, it is one of the last to yield when life expires. So long as a flutter lingers at the heart, we know the spark of being is not quite extinguished, and there is hope of restoration. During a life such as we sometimes see, it has propelled half a million tons of blood, yet repaired itself as it has wasted, during its patient, unfaltering labor. The play of its valves and the rhythm of its throb have never failed until, at the command of the great Master Workman, the "wheels of life have stood still." [Footnote: Our brains are seventy-five- year clocks. The Angel of Life winds them up once for all, then closes the case, and gives the key into the hand of the Angel of the Resurrection. Ticktack! Ticktack! go the wheels of thought; our will can not stop them, they can not stop themselves; sleep can not stop them; madness only makes them go faster; death alone can break into the case, and, seizing the ever-swinging pendulum which we call the heart, silence at last the clicking of the terrible escapement we have carried so long beneath our wrinkled foreheads.--HOLMES.]

FIG. 43.

THE LYMPHATIC CIRCULATION is intimately connected with that of the blood. It is, however, more delicate in its organization, and less thoroughly understood. Nearly every part of the body is permeated by a second series of capillaries, closely interlaced with the blood capillaries already described, and termed the Lymphatic system. The larger number converge into the thoracic duct--a small tube, about the size of a goose quill, which empties into the great veins of the neck (Fig. 43). Along their course the lymphatics frequently pass through _glands_,--hard, pinkish bodies of all sizes, from that of a hemp seed to an almond. These glands are often enlarged by disease, and then are easily felt.

_The Lymph_, which circulates through the lymphatics like blood through the veins, is a thin, colorless liquid, very like the serum. This fluid, probably in great measure an overflow from the blood vessels, is gathered up by the lymphatics, undergoes in the glands some process of preparation not well understood, and is then returned to the circulation.

FIG. 44.

OFFICE OF THE LYMPHATICS.--It is thought that portions of the waste matter of the body capable of further use are thus, by a wise economy, retained and elaborated in the system.

The _lacteals_, a class of lymphatics which will be described under Digestion (p. 166), aid in taking up the food; after a meal they become milk white. In the lungs, the lymphatics are abundant; sometimes absorbing the poison of disease, and diffusing it through the system. [Footnote: Persons have thus been poisoned by tiny particles of arsenic which evaporate from green wall paper, and float in the air.]

The lymphatics of the skin we have already spoken of as producing the phenomena of absorption, [Footnote: Pain is often relieved by injecting under the cuticle a solution of morphine, which is taken up by the absorbents, and so carried through the system.] Nature in her effort to heal a cut deposits an excess of matter to fill up the breach. Soon, the lymphatics go to work and remove the surplus material to other parts of the body.

Animals that hibernate are supported during the winter by the fat which their absorbents carry into the circulation from the extra supply they have laid up during the summer. In famine or in sickness, a man unconsciously consumes his own flesh.

DISEASES, ETC.--l. _Congestion_ is an unnatural accumulation of blood in any part of the body. The excess is indicated by the redness. If we put our feet in hot water, the capillaries will expand by the heat, and the blood will set that way to fill them. The red nose and purplish face of the drunkard show a congestion of the capillaries. Those vessels have lost their power of contraction, and so are permanently increased in size and filled with blood. Blushing is a temporary congestion. The capillaries being expanded only for an instant by the nervous excitement, contract again and expel the blood. [Footnote: Blushing is a purely local modification of the circulation of this kind, and it will be instructive to consider how a blush is brought about. An emotion--sometimes pleasurable, sometimes painful--takes possession of the mind; thereupon a hot flush is felt, the skin grows red, and according to the intensity of the emotion these changes are confined to the cheeks only, or extend to the "roots of the hair," or "all over." What is the cause of these changes? The blood is a red and a hot fluid; the skin reddens and grows hot, because its vessels contain an increased quantity of this red and hot fluid; and its vessels contain more, because the small arteries suddenly dilate, the natural moderate contraction of their muscles being superseded by a state of relaxation. In other words, the action of the nerves which cause this muscular contraction is suspended. On the other hand, in many people, extreme terror causes the skin to grow cold, and the face to appear pale and pinched. Under these circumstances, in fact, the supply of blood to the skin is greatly diminished, in consequence of an excessive stimulation of the nerves of the small arteries, which causes them to contract and so to cut off the supply of blood more or less completely.-- Huxley's _Physiology_.]