CHAPTER III

INFLUENCE OF CONTEXT

An attempt was made in the preceding chapter to show how the meaning of words formed with _-mentum_, _-bulum_ and _-culum_ was influenced by the verb stem. It will be the purpose of this chapter to illustrate how such general meanings get still greater precision from some element in the context. This study, as is intimated in the introductory paragraph of this paper, is a semantic one, but it is not lexicographical; and no attempt will be made to explain, any farther than was done in the preceding chapter, such words as show no variation in meaning due to context. For example, frumentum always means grain, no matter in what context it stands; iumentum, cattle; testamentum, a will; venabulum, a hunting spear; cubiculum, a bed-room. The reason is that these words are neat expressions of a precise idea and their meaning is therefore less likely to be shifted. This fact also illustrates, in general, the difference in variation possible in a noun and in an adjective. The latter, being in so many instances equivalent to a genitive, can, like the genitive, express a great variety of relations between its governing noun and its noun stem; while a noun, being a more finished product, that is, its meaning settling more easily in clear-cut limits, cannot be expected to show such wide variations. Aside from the figurative use of the nouns, the most frequent influence of context comes from a genitive dependent on the noun. The other elements that enter in will be noticed as each word is discussed, and wherever possible, the word or group of words which contributes to the meaning will be italicized.

First, there are a few nouns which are used in apposition with a proper noun, or are applied to persons. This use is a special illustration of the figurative meaning of these words: intercessit iste _Ligus_ nescio qui, additamentum inimicorum meorum, Sest. 68; _Sertia_ uxor, quae incitamentum mortis et particeps fuit, Tac. A. 6, 29; in conspectu _parentum coniugumque_ ac _liberorum_, quae magna etiam absentibus hortamenta animi sunt, Liv. 7, 11, 6; acerrima seditionum ac discordiae incitamenta, _interfectores_ Galbae, Tac. H. 2, 23; Fufidius, ancilla turpis bonorum omnium dehonestamentum, Sall. Lep. 22; _P. Rutilius_ qui fuit documentum hominibus nostris virtutis, antiquitatis, prudentiae, Rab. Post. 27; illius _sum_ integumentum corporis, Bacc. 602; vidi hunc ipsum _Hortensium_, ornamentum rei publicae, paene interfici, Milo, 37; _ipsa quae_ sis stabulum nequitiae, Truc. 587; quod umquam huiuscemodi everriculum [_Verres_] ulla in provincia fuit, Verres, 4, 5, 3; quid, duo propugnacula belli Punici, _Cn._ et _P. Scipiones_ cogitassene videntur, P. 12; qui sibi _me_ pro deridiculo et delectamento putat, Heaut. 952.

These examples show that the suffixes do not imprint on the nouns the idea of instrument, or any other idea, so strongly that the nouns may not be applied to human beings as well.

Of those nouns which get precision of meaning from a dependent genitive, perhaps there is no better example than fragmentum, which, expressing the result of the action of breaking, may mean a piece or fragment of any breakable object: tribunum adoriuntur fragmentis _saeptorum_, Sest. 79; ut glaebum aut fragmentum _lapidis_ dicemus, N. II, 82; fragmenta _tegularum_, Liv. 34, 89, 11; fragmenta _ramorum_, Liv. 23, 24, 10; fragmenta _crystalli_ sarciri nullo modo queunt, Plin. 37, 2, 10; fragmenta _panis_, Plin. 9, 8, 8; mille carinis abstulit Emathiae secum fragmenta _ruinae_ [the remnants of the army], Lucan, 9, 38. The genitives all answer the question, fragments of what?

Another noun of general meaning which gets precision from a genitive is fundamentum; whether literal or figurative, we want to know, the foundations of what? and the context tells, though not always merely by means of a genitive: quin cum fundamento _aedes_ perierunt, Most. 148; solum et quasi fundamentum _oratoris_ vides, _locutionem emendatam_ et _Latinam_, Brut. 258; fundamenta _rei publicae_ ieci, Fam. XII, 25, 2; fundamenta ieci _salutis_ tuae, Fam. X, 29, 1; _arcem_ Syracusis a fundamentis disiecit, Nepos, XX, 3, 3; hic locus sicut aliquod fundamentum est huius _constitutionis_, Inv. II, 19; qui a fundamentis mi usque movisti _mare_, Rud. 539; prima fundamenta _urbi_ iacere, Liv. 1, 12, 4; alta fundamenta _theatri_ locare, Aen. 1, 428; fundamenta altae _Carthaginis_ locare, Aen. 4, 266; _urbs_ a fundamentis diruta, Liv. 42, 63, 11; fodere fundamenta _delubro_, Plin. 28, 2, 4; _pietas_ fundamentum est omnium _virtutum_, Planc. 29; fundamentum _iustitiae_ est fides, Off. 1, 7, 23; narratio est fundamentum _constituendae fidei_, Part. 9, 31; fundamentum _eloquentiae_, De Or. 3, 151; fundamentum _philosophiae_, Div. 2, 1, 2; initium ac fundamentum _defensionis_, Clu. 10, 30; quod fundamentum huius _quaestionis_ est, id videtis, N. I, 44; fundamentum horum _criminum_, Cael. 13, 30; disciplina nixa fundamento _veritatis_, Gell. 14, 1, 20; fundamentum et causa _imperii_, Sen. Ep. 87, 41; fundamenta _libertatis_, Balb. 13, 31; fundamentum _consulatus_ tui, Pis. 4, 9; senectus quae fundamentis _adolescentiae_ constituta est, C. 18, 62; fundamenta _pacis_ ieci, Phil. 1, 1, 1; fundamentum _domus novae_ iacere, Suet. Cal. 22; _villa_ a fundamentis inchoata, Suet. Caes. 46.

Incitamentum is nearly always followed by a genitive or a gerundive construction expressing the object toward which a thing or circumstance is an inducement. The noun is used most frequently in Tacitus: hoc maximum et _periculorum_ incitamentum est et _laborum_, Arch. 23; uxor, quae incitamentum _mortis_ fuit, Tac. A. 6, 29; incitamenta _irarum_, Tac. A. 1, 55; incitamenta _victoriae_, Tac. Agr. 32; incitamentum _ad_ honeste _moriendum_, Curt. 9, 5, 4; incitamentum _fortitudinis_, Tac. G. 7, 9; incitamentum _cupidinis_, Tac. A. 6, 1, 10; incitamenta _belli_, Tac. A. 12, 34, 2; est magna illa eloquentia alumna licentiae, comes seditionum, _effrenati populi_ incitamentum, Tac. D. 40, 11. In the last example the genitive is a real objective genitive, while the participle limiting it expresses the result of incitement expressed by the genitives in the other examples.

Like incitamentum, invitamentum and irritamentum usually get precision of meaning from a genitive: invitamenta _urbis_ et _fori_, Sulla, 74; honos, non invitamentum _ad tempus_, sed perpetuae virtutis praemium, Fam. X, 10, 2; invitamenta _temeritatis_, Liv. 2, 42, 6; invitamentum _sceleris_, Vell. 2, 67, 3; pulchritudinem eius non _libidinis_ habuerat invitamentum, sed _gloriae_, Curt. 4, 10, 24; fons reperiendus est, in quo sint prima invitamenta _naturae_, Fin. 5, 6; neque irritamenta _gulae_ quaerebant, Sall. Jug. 89, 7; quod irritamentum _certaminum_ equestrium est, Liv. 30, 11; _opes_, irritamenta _malorum_, Ov. M. 1, 140; irritamenta _luxuriae_, Val. Max. 2, 6, 1; irritamentum _invidiae_, Tac. A. 3, 9; irritamentum _pacis_, Tac. Agr. 20.

Tegumentum and integumentum have only their general meaning of “cover” which they get from their verb stem, unless something in the context tells what it is a covering for: _lanx_ cum integumentis, quae Iovi adposita fuit, Liv. 40, 59, 7; illius sum integumentum _corporis_, Bacc. 602; istaec ego mihi semper habui integumentum meae, Trin. 313; integumentum _frontis_, Cic. post Red. in Sen. 7, 15; integumentum _flagitiorum_, Cael. 20, 47; integumentum _dissimulationis_, De Or. 2, 86; tegumenta _galeis_ milites ex viminibus facere iubet, B. C. 3, 62, 1; ad tegumenta detrahenda _scutis_ tempus defuerit, B. G. 2, 21, 5; quae [_palpebrae_] sunt tegmenta _oculorum_, N. II, 142; _tunicos_ aut tegimenta fuerant, B. G. 3, 44, 7; _humus_ satis solidum est tegimentum _repellendis caloribus_, Sen. Ep. 90; _equo_ purpurea tegumenta dedit, Suet. Cal. 55.

Documentum has the meaning of “example”, particularly when there is a limiting genitive: Rutilius qui documentum fuit _virtutis_, _antiquitatis_, _prudentiae_, Rab. Post. 10, 27. The common occurrence of the word with verbs like dare, together with an indirect question, shows it to mean proof: _dederas_ enim, quam contemneres populares insanias, iam ab adolescentia documenta maxima, Mil. 8; multa documenta egregii principis _dedit_, Suet. Galb. 14. With capere the natural meaning is “warning” or “instruction”: ex quo documentum nos _capere_ fortuna voluit, quid esset victis pertimescendum, Phil. 11, 2. This meaning is also very commonly seen in the use of the dative case to express purpose, followed by a supplementary clause of purpose. The noun need not be in the dative, however: insigne documentum Sagunti ruinae erunt _ne_ quis fidei Romanae aut societati confidat, Liv. 21, 19, 10; deletum cum duce exercitum documento fuisse, _ne_ deinde turbato gentium iure comitia haberentur, Liv. 7, 6, 11.

Monumentum is quite as general in meaning as documentum, and shows as great variety of meaning. It is applied to a whip: vos monumentis commonefaciam _bubulis_, Stich. 63; a statue: _statuam_ volt dare, factis monumentum suis, Curc. 441; a literary record: monumenta _rerum gestarum_ oratori nota esse debent, De Or. I, 201; an action or circumstance: cum Sex. Pompeium _restituit_ civitati, clarissimum monimentum _clementiae_ suae, Phil. 5, 39; a tomb: _sepultus est_ in monumento avunculi sui, Nepos, Att. 22, 4. Sometimes the word gets precision of meaning from an appositional genitive: hoc _statuae_ monumento non eget, Phil. 9, 11; ut tu monumentum aliquod _decreti_ aut _litterarum_ tuarum relinquas, Q. fr. I, 2, 11; _sepulcri_ monumento donatus est, Nep. Dion. 10. Sometimes it is used without any suggestion of a concrete object (cf. also the third example above): nullum monumentum _laudis_ postulo praeterquam huius diei memoriam sempiternam, Cat. 3, 11, 26.

Argumentum (always abstract) has the very frequent general meaning of proof, reason, argument: quid nunc? _vincon_ argumentis te non esse Sosiam?, Am. 437; nunc, huc _qua causa_ veni, argumentum eloquar, Rud. 31; _quod_ pridie noctu conclamatum esset in Caesaris castris argumenti sumebant loco non posse clam exiri B. C. 1, 67, 1. A common meaning in comedy is plot, or theme of a play (our “argument” of an epic or a drama): ne exspectetis argumentum _fabulae_, Adel. 22. Then it comes to mean the subject matter of a speech or letter: ut mihi nascatur _epistulae_ argumentum, Fam. XV, 1, 22, 2; a sign or indication: ubi lyrae, tibia et cantus, _animi_ felicia _laeti_ argumenta, sonant, Ov. M. 4, 762; reality or meaning: haec tota _fabella_ quam est sine argumento, Cael. 27; the subject of artistic representations: ex _ebore_ perfecta argumenta erant in _valvis_, Verr. II, 4, 56. Twice in Ciceronian Latin this word is defined in two of the ways mentioned: argumentum est ficta res quae tamen fieri potuit, velut argumentum comoediarum, Ad Her. 1, 8; argumentum esse rationem quae rei dubiae faciat fidem, Top. 8.

Experimentum, when followed by indirect discourse, as in the following example, must mean the result of trial; _viz._, “proof”: hoc maximum est experimentum _hanc vim esse_ in cogitatione diuturna, T. 4, 56. In the plural, being the accumulation of a number of trials, it is equivalent to experientia, (experience): Metello experimentis _cognitum erat_, genus Numidarum infidum esse, Sall. Jug. 46, 3.

Firmamentum often gets precise meaning from a limiting genitive, which is also sometimes appositional: ossa nervique et articuli, firmamenta _totius corporis_, Sen. De Ira, 2, 1, 2; firmamenta _stabilitatis constantiaeque_ est eius quam in amicitia quaerimus fides, Lael. 65; eum _ordinem_ firmamentum ceterorum _ordinum_ recte esse dicimus, Pomp. 17; transversaria _tigna_ iniciuntur, quae firmamento esse possint, B. G. 2, 15, 2; firmamentum ac robur totius _accusationis_, Mur. 28, 58; firmamentum _rei publicae_, Planc. 9, 23; firmamentum _dignitatis_, T. 4, 7; inventa ratione firmamentum [_orationi_] quaerendum est, Inv. I, 34.

Instrumentum is a word which has the most general meaning, and really receives less influence from its verb stem than from the context. Even when there is a qualifying genitive or other limiting factor it retains more or less of its general character. Probably its most definite meaning is that of furniture (of a house): decora atque ornamentum fanorum in instrumento ac _supellectili_ C. Verris nominabuntur, Verr. 2, 4, 44; instrumenti ne magni siet (of a _villa_), Cato, R. R. I. 5. A common meaning is that of a tool, or utensil of any kind: inest huic computationi sumptus fabrorum et _venatorii_ instrumenti, Plin. 3, 19; crudelia iussae instrumenta necis, _ferrumque ignisque_ parantur, Ov. M. 3, 697; _arma_, _tela_, _equos_ et cetera instrumenta militiae parare, Sall. Jug. 43, 3; naves _nautico_ instrumento aptae, Liv. 30, 10, 3. The following example shows it meaning a legal document: opus est intueri omne _litis_ instrumentum; quod videre non est satis, _perlegendum_ est, Quint. 12, 8, 12. The meaning of supply, provisions (both literal and figurative) is illustrated by the following examples: quid _viatici_, quid instrumenti satis sit, Att. XII, 32, 2; instrumenta _naturae_ deerant, sed tantus animi splendor erat ut.., Brut. 77, 268; in _oratoris_ vero instrumento tam lautam supellectilem numquam videram, De Or. I, 36, 165. In one instance it plainly means apparel, dress: in iuvenem rediit, _anilia_ demit instrumenta, Ov. M. 14, 766. The meaning of aid or assistance is seen in these citations: quanta instrumenta habeat _ad obtinendam_ adipiscendamque sapientiam, Leg. 1, 22; industriae _subsidia_ atque instrumenta virtutis in libidine audaciaque consumpsit, Cat. 2, 5.

Ornamentum is very similar in meaning to instrumentum, and shows similar variety of signification due to context, although the verb stem is a little more specialized. The number of things which may be spoken of as having ornamenta are seen from the examples: ornamenta _bubus_, ornamenta _asinis_ instrata (esse oporteat), Cato, R. R. 11, 4; _elephantos_ ornatos armatosque cum turribus et ornamentis capit, Auct. B. Afr. 86; _pecuniam_ omniaque ornamenta ex _fano_ Herculis in oppidum Gadis contulit, B. C. 2, 18, 2; _eloquentia_ principibus maximo ornamento est, F. 4, 61; pecuniam et ornamenta _triumphi_ Caesaris retinenda curaret, Auct. B. Afr. 28, 2; audieram quae de _orationis_ ipsius ornamentis traderentur, De Or. I, 144; pulcherrima totius Galliae _urbs_, quae praesidio et ornamento est _civitati_, B. G. 7, 15; mihi hoc subsidium comparavi ad decus atque ornamentum _senectutis_, Orat. 1, 45; Hortensius, lumen atque ornamentum _rei publicae_, Mil. 14; _urceoli_ sex, ornamentum _abaci_, Juv. 3, 203; neminem omnium tot et tanta, quanta sunt in Crasso, habuisse ornamenta _dicendi_, Orat. 2, 28. Sometimes adjectives show the ornamenta to be a special sort of distinction: pluribus _triumphalia_ ornamenta decernenda curavit, Suet. Aug. 38; decem praetoriis viris _consularia_ ornamenta tribuit, Suet. Caes. 76. In comedy especially it means dress, costume: ipse ornamenta a _chorago_ haec sumpsit: si potero ornamentis _hominem circumducere_, dabo operam ut...., Trin. 859, 860; hominem cum ornamentis omnibus _exornatum_ adducite ad me, Pseud. 756; also trinkets: i, Palaestrio, _aurum_, ornamenta, _vestem_, omnia duc, M. G. 1302; in one instance, the dress of tragedy: ornamenta absunt: _Aiacem_, hunc quom vides ipsum vides, Capt. 615.

Stramentum is applied to a number of things which can be conceived of as being strewn or covered with straw, but is also sometimes used absolutely: _fasces_ stramentorum _virgultorumque_ incenderunt, B. G. 8, 15, 5; iubet magnum numerum _mulorum_ produci deque his stramenta detrahi, B. G. 7, 45; cum ea noctem in stramentis _pernoctare_ (a bed), Truc. 278; stramenta si deerunt, _frondem ligneam_ legito: eam substernito _ovibus bubusque_, Cato, R. R. 5. There are two examples in which it means the roof of a house, or thatch: _casae_, quae stramentis _tectae erant_, B. G. 5, 43; pars ignes _casis_ stramento arido _tectis_ iniciunt, Liv. 25, 39.

Tormentum, an instrument with which anything is turned or twisted, is applied especially to a military engine for hurling missiles: aciem eo loco constituit, unde tormento _missa tela_ in hostium cuneos conici possent, B. G. 8, 14, 5; the missile itself: quod unum genus tegumenti nullo _telo_ neque tormento _transici_ posse, B. C. 2, 9; a (twisted) cord or rope: praesectis omnium mulierum _crinibus_ tormenta _effecerunt_, B. C. 3, 9, 3; a chain or fetter: nam si non ferat, tormento non _retineri_ potuit _ferreo_, Curc. 227; an instrument of torture: _rotam_, id est genus quoddam tormenti apud Graecos, T. 5, 24; tum _verberibus_ ac tormentis quaestionem habuit pecuniae publicae, Phil. 11, 2, 5; torture, pain: cum incredibles _cruciatus_ et indignissima tormenta pateretur, Plin. Ep. 1, 12, 6; hinc licebit tum dicere se beatum in summo _cruciatu_ atque tormentis, T. 5, 73.

Vestimentum, in addition to having its common meaning of clothing: me vides ut sim vestimentis _uvidis_, Rud. 573; is once applied to the covering of a bed: huc est intro latus _lectus_, vestimentis stratus, Heaut. 903.

From the above examples it will be clear that at least some _-mentum_ words get precision of meaning from the context. The different means by which the context exerts influence would be difficult to classify; still less could one assert that _-mentum_ tends to have any meaning. Perhaps we should not speak of a word varying semantically when it is used figuratively, yet it is only from the context that we can ascertain whether it is used figuratively or not. A word can be used in a figurative sense only when, in one context, it has certain elements identical with those which it has in another context. The more definite and concrete the object expressed by a noun, the less variability will be expected, either in a literal or figurative use. This is true of the _-bulum_ and _-culum_ words, which, while admitting a small range of variation, are much more limited in their variation than the _-mentum_ words were found to be. The best examples will be given below.

Conciliabulum is a place of assembly and is expressly so defined by Festus (cf. Chapter II, p. 25): mulieres _ex oppidis_ conciliabulisque conveniebant, Liv. 34, 1, 6; sacerdotes non Romae modo, sed per omnia _fora_ et conciliabula conquiri, Liv. 39, 14, 7. The following example, however, shows that it may also mean the assembly itself: igitur per conciliabula et _coetus_ seditiosa disserebant, Tac. A. 3, 40. In a few instances it takes on a bad meaning: ne penetrarem me usquam ubi esset _damni_ conciliabulum, Trin. 314; forte aut cena, ut solet in _istis_ fieri conciliabulis, Bacc. 80.

Latibulum is seen to be a hiding place for different animals and even of men, and also a refuge (figurative): cum etiam se _ferae_ latibulis tegant, Rab. Post. 42; repente te tamquam _serpens_ a latibulis intulisti, Vatin. 4; defendendi facilis est cautio non solum latibulis occultorum _locorum_, sed etiam tempestatum moderatione et conversione (of pirates), Flacc. 13, 31; ego autem volo aliquod emere latibulum et perfugium _doloris_ mei, Att. XII, 13, 2.

Pabulum is used not only of food for animals but also, in poetry, of food for men, and sometimes for the pastures, or feeding places. Its figurative meaning is also quite common: _bubus_ pabulum parare oportet, Cato, R. R. 54, 1; pabula carpsit _ovis_, Ov. F. 4, 750; ferae _pecudes persultant_ pabula laeta, Lucr. 1, 14; novitas mundi pabula dura tulit, miseris _mortalibus_ ampla, Lucr. 5, 944; si animus habet aliquod tamquam pabulum _studii_ atque _doctrinae_, C. 49; sed fugitare decet simulacra et pabula _amoris_, Lucr. 4, 1063.

Stabulum has its literal and general meaning of standing-place in only two examples: neutrubi _habeam stabile_ stabulum, siquid divorti fuat, Aul. 233; nusquam stabulum _confidentiae_, Most. 350. Most frequently it means a stable for animals or lair of wild beasts: neque iam stabulis gaudet _pecus_ aut arator igni, Hor. C. 1, 4, 3; itur in antiquam silvam, stabula alta _ferarum_, Aen. 6, 179. The agricultural writers use it in speaking of a variety of animals, birds and fishes: _pecudibus_ sient stabula, Col. 1, 6, 4; _avium_ cohortalium stabula (an aviary), Col. 8, 1; ut sit _pavonum_ stabulum, Col. 8, 11, 3; hac ratione stabulis ordinatis _aquatile pecus_ inducemus, Col. 8, 17, 7; absint et picti squalentia terga lacerti pinguibus a stabulis (of bees), Georg. 4, 14. It also means a cottage, a hut, a dwelling like a stable: cum Catilina _pastorum_ stabula praedari coepisset, Sest. 12; pueros ab eo ad stabula _Larentiae uxori_ educandos datos, Liv. 1, 4, 7. A number of times the context shows it applied to a house of ill fame: pistorum _amicas_, quae tibi olant stabulum stratumque, Poen. 267. Twice it is applied to persons as a term of reproach: _ipsa quae_ sis stabulum flagitii, Truc. 587; faciam uti proinde ut est dignus vitam colat, Acheruntis pabulum, stabulum _nequitiae_, Cas. 160. In the last example pabulum is also used with an emotional tone.

Vocabulum is a name or appellation, the name of the thing itself being expressed, if at all, in the genitive, or in the nominative with vocabulum in the ablative: si res suum _nomen_ et proprium vocabulum non habet, De Or. III, 159; deligitur artifex talium vocabulo _Locusta_, Tac. A. 12, 66. It also signifies as a grammatical term, a noun, as opposed to a verb: Aristotelis orationis duas partes esse dicit, vocabula et _verba_, ut homo et equus, et legis et currit, Varro, L. L. 8.

Conventiculum regularly means an assembly (without any diminutive notion): conventicula _hominum_ quae postea _civitates_ nominatae sunt, Sest. 91; but it may also mean the place of assembly: _exstructa_ sunt apud nemus conventicula, Tac. A. 14, 15.

Oraculum may mean a prophetic declaration by gods, or by men: cum praesertim _deorum immortalium_ iussis atque oraculis id fecisse dicantur, Sex. Rosc. 66; haec ego nunc _physicorum_ oracula fundo, vera an falsa nescio, N. 1, 66. Also the place where oracular responses were given: numquam illud oraculum _Delphis_ tam celebre fuisset nisi...., Div. I, 19, 37.

Periculum, in the sense of trial, is always the object of the verb facere: _fac_ semel periculum, Cist. 504; priusquam periculum _faceret_, B. G. 4, 21. Its change to the meaning of danger must have been by some such step as is seen in the following example, although periculum facere, “make a trial,” is also practically the same as “run a risk”: nescio quanto in periculo _sumus_, Phor. 58. The common meaning of risk or danger hardly needs to be illustrated: salus sociorum summum _in_ periculum _vocatur_, Pomp. 5, 12. The context shows it to have also two other meanings; _viz._, a lawsuit: meus labor in periculis _privatorum_ caste integreque _versatus_, Pomp. 1, 2; a judicial sentence: petiit ut _in_ periculo suo _inscriberent_, Nep. Ep. 8; est honestus, quod eorum hominum fidei _tabulae publicae_ periculaque _magistratuum_ committuntur, Verr. 2, 3, 79.

Piaculum is properly an offering performed as a means of appeasing a deity: porco femina piaculum _faciundum_ est, Leg. II, 57; apparet omnia nec ullis piaculis _expiari_ posse, Liv. 5, 53; and then naturally it is applied to the victim itself: duc _nigras pecudes_: ea prima piacula sunto, Aen. 6, 153; then also a sinful action, which needs expiation: nonne in mentem venit, quantum piaculi _committatur_?, Liv. 5, 52.

Spectaculum is properly a “sight”, anything seen: quom hoc mihi _optulisti_ tam lepidum spectaculum, Poen. 209; then a show, on the stage or in the arena: spectacula sunt tributim _data_, Muren. 72. Once in Plautus it clearly means a part of the theater itself: exoritur ventus turbo, spectacula ibi _ruont_, Curc. 647; that it means also the theater in general is seen from a few examples: _resonant_ spectacula plausu, Ov. M. 10, 668; _ex_ omnibus spectaculis _plausus est excitatus_, Sest. 58.

Umbraculum is a shady place: faciundum umbracula, _quo succedant_ homines in aestu tempore meridiano, Varro, R. R. I, 51; also anything that furnishes shade, an umbrella: aurea _pellebant_ tepidos umbracula _soles_, Ov. F. II, 311. The limiting genitive in the following example shows the noun to have lost its regular stem-meaning and to have been used for “school”: Demetrius mirabiliter doctrinam ex umbraculis _eruditorum_ otioque produxit, Leg. III, 14.

Vehiculum, a means of transportation, is applied to wagons or carts: omnes di, qui vehiculis _tensarum_ solemnes coitus ludorum initis, Verr. 5, 186; but also to ships: ut procul divinum et novum vehiculum _Argonautarum_ e monte conspexit, N. II, 89.

* * * * *

That the words which we have treated vary in meaning according to the context seems perfectly obvious; but the extent to which this is true in general has received little if any attention from linguistic students. The tracing of the meaning of a word through various periods of the language has been commonly enough done; that side of the question, however, this investigation has not touched except incidentally. But the material presented in this chapter and the preceding has, it is hoped, been sufficient to illustrate how the words formed with our suffixes, while revealing a limited tendency in meaning due to their verb stems, often also owe much of their meaning to the context in which they are used.