CHAPTER IV

EGYPTIAN SCIENCE

The early civilization in Egypt developed in the ancient cities of Thebes and Memphis. Authorities on the dawn of history in Egypt are unable to definitely account for the origins of the various peoples who have ruled the land. One school contends that the early negroid inhabitants originated in Africa. Another school opposes this view and suggests an Asiatic origin. Each of these schools can marshal facts to sustain its contentions. The truth is that Africa was inhabited at such an early period that we are unable to fully trace back the movements of its races.

Man was divided into species and subspecies at a very remote period. The dominant peoples in each country, in each era, were the successful contestants in long conflicts for supremacy. Many races have vanished without leaving any traces beyond reversional strains which still come to the surface at times in families living to-day. The laws of evolution, only recently deciphered, are the sole means we possess for learning about many of the long-perished species of men.

A few races, too weak to ever gain supremacy and themselves to occupy districts, or countries, have survived by dwelling among stronger races. The Ainus, in Japan, and the Jews in Asia and Europe, are well-known examples.

Egypt, owing to its remarkable geographical situation between Asia, Europe, and the vast continent of Africa, has been a great highway for race migrations. Many peoples have lived and ruled there and passed on before incoming tides of new and more vigorous peoples. Each race, undoubtedly, during its residence in Egypt contributed to the general fund of Egyptian knowledge and customs and assisted in the development of science.

The tombs of Thebes have given us bodies of ancient Egyptians of more than six thousand years ago. At that time the people were characterized by the Grecian type of profile. They resembled the contemporary active peoples in India and Arabia and did not differ much from the Egyptians of our day. The incoming streams of people who settled in the Nile valley, both Asiatic and negroid, changed the appearance of the Egyptians at different times by intermarriage, but when their vigor waned and they were crowded out by other peoples, the Egyptians assumed their regular Semitic characteristics.

Egyptian history really begins with the old kingdom dynasties, about ten thousand years ago. The tombs of Abydos have furnished material for accounts of this early period. There were eight powerful kings in the first dynasty and all of them contributed to the advancement of civilization. Abydos, and later Memphis, were their principal cities. They ruled in great luxury and were patrons of the arts and sciences. The art works, sculptures, and carvings in ivory and ebony of this era speak in eloquent terms of the taste and high mental powers of the people. Modern museums are well supplied with relics of those times, which illustrate the degree of civilization attained by the Egyptians at the beginning of their history better than any written account.

The early Egyptians adopted the sciences, arts and customs of the Babylonians. With these as a basis the priests and learned men experimented and made many independent researches and discoveries.

The pyramids, erected near Cairo 3000 B. C., indicate the high degree of culture which the early Egyptians had attained. These renowned monuments to the kings were scientifically designed and constructed to exist for all time. In order to contribute to their usefulness, they were planned so as to exhibit correct geometrical forms and indicate the cardinal points of the compass and the positions of certain astronomical bodies. The details of their construction disclosed much mathematical, geometrical and physical knowledge, and their actual building called for not only an all-around mechanical skill but a high degree of engineering ability. They were constructed of various materials. Some large granite blocks were used in the outside walls and these were brought from the upper Nile. They were towed down the river on barges and were lifted into the positions in which they are found to-day. Various mortars and mortar mixtures were employed in binding the brickwork and masonry. These called for a good knowledge of chemistry and physics. The arches and sloping walls of some of the larger pyramids show how well the architects and engineers of the day knew their professions. With similar means in their possession, the best professional men of the present day would find it difficult to get such splendid results.

In the past few years, lapidaries and gem-workers have learned to cut stones and gems with steel disk-wheels, the cutting edges of which are furnished with carborundum or emery powder or insets of diamonds. The pyramid builders knew this method of sawing and cutting stones. They actually employed bronze saws set with diamonds to cut the huge blocks of granite, syenite, diorite, and basalt used in the construction of the pyramids. They also set the cutting ends of their rock drills with diamonds, and bored rocks as we do to-day with diamond core drills. The art of making these tools was afterward lost. Only within the past half-century have mechanical rock saws and diamond drills been reinvented. This brilliantly indicates the inventive ability of the engineers at the dawn of Egypt's history. The builders of the splendid monument of Rameses II in the Memnonium, at Thebes, which weighs 887 long tons, transported the huge stone by land from the quarries at E'Sooan, a distance of 138 miles. Such tasks appear never to have deterred early Egyptian engineers and architects. They were so sure of their ability to carry their great operations to satisfactory completion that they never hesitated in agreeing to the severest penalties for nonfulfillment of contract. Their cranes, levers, wedges, rock drills, pumps, air blowers and compressors, and building tools all showed how well mastered was their knowledge.

Their quarrying methods were similar to those used in the best practice to-day. When huge blocks and slabs of stone were needed the required dimensions were marked on the rock and channeled out. Metal wedges were forced into the channels and struck at once by a large number of hammers. The constant vibration, in time, broke off the stone with clean-cut surfaces. When these were to be carved into statuary or ornamental shapes it was often done at the quarries, so as to reduce transportation difficulties. Water transportation was used when possible. When the stone had to be moved over the desert sands it was lifted by cranes and set on sleds drawn by men or animals, or driven forward by levers, just as heavy steel machinery is moved by modern engineers.

The principle of the siphon was known to the Egyptians at an early period. It was employed daily in many homes for supplying water and for drawing off wine from barrels and tanks into domestic utensils. Its principal use, however, was in civil engineering works. Siphons were constructed on a large scale for furnishing water to villages, draining land for farming, and for irrigation purposes. They were built, in many known instances, for carrying large quantities of water, in high lifts, over hills.

Herodotus tells us that the science of geometry was discovered by the Egyptians as a result of the necessity for making annual surveys of the farming lands in the Nile valley.

When geometry was established as a practical science, land and astronomical surveying were simplified and many branches of mathematics were enlarged. The science of marine surveying was also developed and this led to a great improvement in map-making and in geography, in which the Egyptians became famous.

The skill attained by the Egyptians in land surveying required accurate surveying instruments. These were invented at an early period. The Greeks claim the invention of the theodolite and similar instruments, but Egyptian history shows that gnomons, surveying compasses, and levels were used by Egyptian surveyors long before the Greeks began to study the learning of Egypt.

Astronomical science made great progress in Egypt. The theory attributing to the sun the central place in our planetary system, now called the Copernican theory, was known and used in Egypt. They were familiar with the obliquity of the ecliptic, and knew that the Milky Way was an aggregation of numerous stars of various sizes. They understood that moonlight is simply the reflected light of the sun. The movements of comets, the positions of the principal stars and stellar constellations and other astronomical phenomena were studied and charted on astronomical maps or recorded and forecasted in astronomical tables.

The discoveries made by the Greek scientists naturally stimulated philosophical thought, which in turn reacted upon scientific experimentation and led to a broadening of the scope of general research work. We are dependent upon the pictorial records of early Egyptian times for descriptions of the instruments and machinery employed and these are not always clear. They indicate, however, that the Egyptians quickly learned the sciences developed by the Babylonians and other Oriental peoples and improved them. Their knowledge of astronomy, mathematics, geometry, chemistry, physics, medicine, and agriculture was extensive. The priests and learned men taught the pure sciences and constantly experimented; the engineers, architects, surveyors, and mechanics applied the sciences to the arts.

In one of the records of an early dynasty the father of a student sailing up the Nile to begin his studies in one of the leading scientific schools gave this advice: "Put thy heart into learning and love knowledge like a mother, for there is nothing that is so precious as learning."

The Mesopotamian peoples, as we saw in the last chapter, considered the stars and principal heavenly bodies as deities. The Egyptians did not do this, although they looked upon the heavens as the abode of all pious souls. Their astronomical knowledge at the time of the establishment of the New Empire at Thebes, about the year 1320 B. C., was remarkably extensive.

The Egyptians divided time in accordance with the course of the sun into periods of 365¼ days, and these were divided in accordance with the course of the moon into periods of about 29½ days. Thus the basis of the system of years and months used by us was perfectly understood by the Egyptians.

The science of medicine was developed at a very early period in Egyptian history. The various divisions of physicians, surgeons, pharmaceutists, veterinarians, and dentists organized by the Babylonians were retained by the Egyptians. Many names of distinguished practitioners have been handed down. Nevertheless, their anatomical knowledge remained poor, and there were many superstitious practices connected with medicine. The various medical manuals which have been preserved show that the Egyptian physicians studied diagnosis with modern thoroughness. They were aware that an exact knowledge of each disease, obtainable only by a complete study of the symptoms, was necessary before a correct treatment could be prescribed. When the magic and the superstitious dressings are abstracted from Egyptian medical works and prescriptions, we find that the broad principles were sound and efficient. They were developed along lines similar to those of modern times.

Mathematics attracted much attention in Egypt. The learning of Oriental countries on this subject was readily absorbed by the Egyptians. The Greek historians were so surprised at the efficiency of the Egyptians in this branch of knowledge that they almost unanimously asserted that the mathematical sciences originated in Egypt.

The pyramid base lines run in the direction of the four points of the compass, and were determined by correct astronomical methods. The astronomers and surveyors were skilled in trigonometry. Fractions were known to the Egyptians, who were taught in the schools of Babylon. The modern x, representing an unknown factor, was known to the Egyptians under the name of "hau."

Quadratic equations were employed by them. The problem of finding x and y, when x² + y² = 100 and x:y = 1:¾, one of the earliest problems of this character known, was found in a papyrus at Kahun. The problem was stated as follows: "A given surface of, say, 100 units of area, shall be represented as the sum of two squares, whose sides are to each other as 1:¾."

The papyrus gave the working out of the solution. Many similar problems are given in mathematical works and papyri. They show the proficiency in mathematics that Egyptian scientists had attained at a remote period. But their methods of expressing mathematical problems were crude and, consequently, involved much tedious labor in finding solutions. There can be little doubt that if effective mathematical symbols had been devised the abstract sciences would have made even greater progress than they did in early Egypt. When we study the complicated solutions of algebraic problems made by the Egyptians, owing to the lack of simple symbols, we can appreciate how greatly modern mathematical science is benefited by the devices now employed for expressing quantities, variations, and operations.

The Egyptians were expert in applying the discoveries of science to the arts. The Nile made their country potentially rich in agriculture, and they devoted much attention to inventing such things as single and double plows, rakes, and other agricultural machines, many of which were drawn by oxen, donkeys, and other animals. Reaping was done with sickles and scythes. Not only was irrigation understood and widely practiced, but the importance of fertilization was recognized.

The farmers understood the preservation of meat, vegetables, and foodstuffs generally, by drying or pickling. They also brewed beer and made wines, vegetable and seed oils, and alcohol. The selection of breeding animals and the principles of variation were understood and employed for developing particular breeds of cattle and farm stocks.

The papyrus reed grew luxuriantly in Egypt and this resulted in the discovery of paper making, weaving, thread making and many textile methods. These industries led to the invention of looms, rope and twine twisting appliances, flax weaving and other machinery. The linens and cloths made by these machines have never been excelled.

Dyeing was developed with the textile industries. As the skies of Egypt are bright, the people in all ages have had a fondness for brilliant colors. The call for bright textile colors led to a considerable development in the chemistry of dyes and dyeing. Vegetable and mineral dyes were used. Dyes were not always applied to the whole pieces of goods, but stenciling and other methods of patterning were used. The highly organized artistic skill of the people demanded art-designed textiles and the manufacturers responded with beautiful and rich materials.

The fur and feather industries became important at an early period. The Egyptians were fond of beautiful ornamental skins like those of the panther or gazelle. Such skins were manufactured into numerous domestic articles, made into clothing or used as rugs, mats, and seat coverings.

Skins not valuable for art purposes were sent to the tanners to be converted into various kinds of leather. Tanning was highly developed, and the tanners turned out leathers which are to-day admired for their excellence. The tanners carried on their industries by chemical processes similar to those in use to-day.

The scarcity of wood in Egypt led to the invention of various substitutes. One common substitute was a kind of _papier mâché_. This was manufactured out of linen, wood or vegetable pulp and various kinds of paste. When it was used for art work the molded forms were covered with lacquer or various kinds of stucco. Very beautiful objects were manufactured from these substances, which indicate that the artists possessed a wide practical knowledge of physical and chemical principles.

Chemical knowledge was also well shown in their manufacture of glass. They excelled in this industry. All kinds of glass were made and decorated by staining and glazing. The glassmakers were able to imitate precious stones in glass and their glass-bead and enamel work has never been excelled. Some modern chemists express the opinion that glass making was carried to a greater degree of perfection in Egypt than any modern nation has attained.

Egyptian porcelains were also finely executed. These were enameled, stained, and decorated in numerous ways. The colors, glazes, and art mediums employed by the artists in pottery and porcelain necessitated a wide chemical knowledge. Some of the pigments employed both in glass and porcelain ornamentation were made from metals. Their use required a knowledge of metallurgy. Metals like lead, nickel, manganese required fluxing and refining before they could be secured in a state sufficiently pure to be used as bases for colors. Not only did the artists know the value of many metallic oxides, but they understood how to secure the tints resulting from blending different oxides, and by acting upon metals with acids, just as they acted upon vegetable and metallic dyes with acids to get rare tones in linen dyeing.

Mordants were employed in dyeing cloths and these were acted upon by acids and alkalies to produce various colors. We are dependent upon the relics which have been preserved for our knowledge of the chemical and physical learning of the Egyptians. No chemical books of theirs have come down to us, and inferences must be drawn from the results seen.

In carrying out metallurgical operations, the Egyptians employed small blast furnaces and melting pots. Air was compressed by bellows and conducted into molten substances by pipes.

The methods of metal working, melting, rolling, forging, soldering, annealing, and chasing were similar to common methods in use in modern times.

The Egyptians were a practical people. They made wonderful progress in the industrial arts and learned enough of scientific principles to enable them to deal with much success with the mechanical, agricultural, astronomical, medicinal, and chemical problems encountered. But, like the Babylonians, Assyrians and other Oriental peoples, the Egyptians did not systematize their sciences. Their investigations were always carried out with practical objects in view, and when the objects were attained the experiments ceased. They never discovered a true scientific method. That was left to be done by another people who were long students of Egyptian science and who, taking all the learning of Egypt, worked out from it, as a basis, the principal sciences as we have them to-day. The Greeks took the torch of scientific progress from the Egyptians, organized learning, and passed it on to the Romans and other peoples in sound, effective and augmented forms.

The Greeks idealized and systematized scientific principles, whereas the Egyptians and earlier peoples rested content with the results they could obtain by their practical efforts. We will find that, throughout the history of science, progress has always been made by similar reactions between peoples possessing the one a practical, the other a philosophical genius.