CHAPTER IV

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND AND WALES

The three periods of the Gothic style in Great Britain, corresponding broadly to the Primary, Rayonnant, and Flamboyant, of France are the Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular.

While the two later phases are distinguished, as in France, by the character of the decorative details, they also involved in England a certain development of constructive principles, particularly in the matter of vaulting, and, as a result of this, in the shape of arched openings.

=Periods.=--The Early English style, also known as Lancet, First Pointed, Early Plantagenet, or Thirteenth Century, lasted approximately from 1189 to 1272, covering the reigns of Richard I, John, Henry III, and Edward I.

The Decorated, also known as Geometrical or Curvilinear, Middle Pointed, Later Plantagenet, or Fourteenth Century, comprises the reigns of Edward II, Edward III, 1307-1377.

The Perpendicular, also called Rectangular, Late Pointed, or Fifteenth Century, extends from 1377 to 1558, including the reigns of Richard III, Henry VII, and Henry VIII, Edward VI, and Mary. It continued, that is to say, through the period of the Reformation and Dissolution of Monasteries, until it gradually became mixed with elements borrowed from the Renaissance style. The style which prevailed from Henry VII to Mary is sometimes specially designated Tudor.

Unlike the French cathedrals, which were mostly erected for the secular, that is to say non-monastic, clergy with funds provided by the laity, the English were frequently attached to a Benedictine or Augustine monastery. In consequence they retain some of the features of a monastic establishment, especially the cloisters and chapter-house, or room for the transaction of business by the bishop’s or abbot’s chapter (council).

According to the circumstances of their founding, the English cathedrals are divided into three classes.

=Three Classes of Cathedrals.=--I. Thirteen cathedrals of the Old Foundation, which being served by secular canons, underwent no change of control at the Reformation. Though not attached to monastic buildings they have chapter-houses and in some cases cloisters. They include: in England, =Chichester=, =Exeter=, =Hereford=, =Lichfield=, =Lincoln=, =S. Paul=, =London=, =Salisbury=, =Wells=, =York=; and, in Wales, =Bangor=, =Llandaff=, =St. Asaph’s=, and =St. David’s=.

II. Cathedrals of monastic or New Foundation; so called because they were originally attached to monasteries and at the dissolution of the latter by Henry VIII were re-established under chapters of dean and canons. They include seven, originally attached to Benedictine Houses--=Canterbury=, =Durham=, =Ely=, =Norwich=, =Rochester=, =Winchester=, =Worcester=, and one Augustine foundation--=Carlisle=. Further, they comprise the following churches, converted into cathedrals by Henry VIII--(Benedictine): =Chester=, =Gloucester=, =Peterborough=; (Augustine): =Bristol= and =Oxford=.

III. Cathedrals of Modern Foundation, converted Churches, =Birmingham=, =Liverpool=, =Manchester=, =Newcastle=, =Ripon=, =St. Albans=, =Southwark=, =Southwell=, =Truro=, =Wakefield=.

=Comparison with French.=--The study of English cathedrals is more complicated than that of French, owing to the long period over which their construction extended. Additions were made as funds permitted and to meet the growing needs of the community, or restorations replaced earlier buildings that had collapsed, as some did, or had been destroyed by fire. Accordingly, each example is more or less an epitome of all the phases of the Gothic style; often combined with Norman (Romanesque) and also with fragments of Anglo-Saxon architecture. They are in a very full sense an expression of the nation’s growth.

English cathedrals differ from the French in being lower, longer, and narrower. The extreme length of the plan is in France seldom more than four times the width, whereas in England it sometimes reaches six times. The square east end is characteristic; the transepts project further; these are seldom double aisled and have few side chapels; the plan is inclined to cruciform, and a prominent feature is a central tower over the crossing, sometimes surmounted by a spire. The choir is proportionately longer and occasionally projects into the crossing or even a little way into the nave. At the east end of it is the _presbytery_ or sanctuary; beyond which is a _retrochoir_, containing an ambulatory or procession passage, one or more chapels to saints and a _Lady Chapel_, dedicated to the Blessed Virgin. The arcading is more closely spaced than in French Cathedrals and generally the relation of the parts is less large in character. The triforium in many cases is highly elaborated; in some it is noticeably reduced and occasionally omitted.

The doorways are often placed on the north and south sides and provided with porches. The windows, in the Early English Period, are either of simple lancet form, used singly or grouped in pairs or threes, united over the top by tracery; or the lights terminate at the top in trefoils or cinquefoils, a heading rare in France known as _cusps_. Plate tracery is comparatively rare in England, and the tracery of the Decorated Period is of a geometric character. Gradually the tracery becomes more flowing, including lines of double curvature, which somewhat resembles the French Flamboyant. Finally in the Perpendicular Period, the pointed arch of the window becomes flattened until it reaches the slight curve of the so-called four-centre arch. The window is divided up into many lights (nine in =King’s College Chapel=, =Cambridge=) by vertical mullions, which in the larger examples are reinforced by horizontal transoms, thus producing parallel rows of cusped lights, surmounted in the heading by small replicas of the latter in several tiers--an arrangement somewhat rigid and monotonous.

The mouldings are generally richer and more varied than in French cathedrals, and, owing to their being nearer to the eye, are wrought to a greater refinement of finish.

=Ornament.=--The characteristic ornament of the Early period is the “dog-tooth” used profusely in hollow mouldings. The foliage is conventionalised, crisply carved in bold curving and curling masses, known as “stiff-leaf foliage,” which in the case of capitals sometimes projects beyond the abacus. The flat surfaces of the walls are often diapered.

In the Decorated Period the characteristic ornament of hollow mouldings is the “ball-flower”; but the “four-leaf flower” is frequently used. By degrees other motives of ornament were drawn from ivy, oak, and vine leaves; and the treatment grew more and more naturalistic.

In the Tudor period the special ornament is the Tudor rose, two concentric layers of five petals, symbolising the union of the Houses of York and Lancaster. Other frequent motives are the portcullis and, in reference to the continued claim of the English kings to the throne of France, the fleur-de-lys. The traceries of the windows were repeated in the panelling of the walls and in the elaborate choir and chancel screens, which were a special feature of the period.

=Stained Glass.=--Stained glass played a very important part in the embellishment of cathedrals and churches. York Minster presents an opportunity of studying the progress of the art through some four centuries, as it was practised, not only in England, but throughout Europe.

The early examples show the influence of the Byzantine enamellers. The windows are filled with jewel-like patterns composed of small pieces of glass, enclosed with lead-lines, like the “cloisons” in cloisonné enamels. Gradually the figure subject becomes more pronounced; at first in comparatively small medallions set in a frame of tracery, then increasing in size until they become the leading motive. They are surmounted by canopies, enriched with ornament, as in the sculptured work of the period, and the character of the ornament reflects that of the carving.

It is interesting to note that until the sixteenth century no use was made of painted glass. The material was what is known as “pot-metal”; that is to say, glass dyed with colour while in a condition of flux. The quality of these pieces of glass was translucent, permitting the passage of light, though not transparent. However, the deep red of ruby was so dense that the practice was adopted of fusing a layer of ruby on a layer of colourless glass and then of grinding away portions of the ruby, so as to brighten the mass by the contrast of white. In time this method of “flashing,” as it was called, was extended to other colours. Further, about the beginning of the fourteenth century it was discovered that a solution of silver applied to glass would under the action of the firing impart to it a “yellow stain.” Thus it was possible to infuse a yellow into the whole or parts of the colourless glass, and to introduce yellow into the “flashed” parts of blue and ruby, while the stain applied to greyish blue produced delicate tones of green.

Another process was developed; namely, the use of enamel paint. A pigment composed of powdered coloured glass, mixed with some such binder as glue, was applied with a brush, after which the glass was subjected to a comparatively low degree of heat, sufficient to flux the pigment and fuse it into the body of the material. At first the only colour employed was brown, which being opaque in the firing was used for the line of the drawing. It was even used for shading, the paint being spread in gradations of thickness and, when dry, scraped off in parts or reduced to a stipple of tiny dots, by the action of a stiff brush. This process was also applied upon the yellow stain and comparatively colourless glass (_grisaille_) to produce diapers of pattern and other ornament.

Finally, about the beginning of the sixteenth century, enamel paints of other colours were employed, and painting _upon_ glass marks the last stage in the European technique of window glass. While the colours, unlike the opaque brown, were translucent, they lacked the brilliance and purity as well as the richness and depth of pot metal. But by this time, as in other kinds of decoration, the designers were absorbed with details. A favourite task enforced upon them was the insertion of heraldic insignia in the windows, and brushwork was the only method that could reproduce the complicated devices of “quartering” the coats of arms. Window decoration, in fact, had ceased to be an art of glass work and become confused with the art of painting. The end of glass decoration was completed when the window was filled with rectangular panes of white glass, on which the painter depicted figures of saints or symbolical nymphs, as Sir Joshua Reynolds, for example, did in the windows of the ante-chapel of =New College=, =Oxford=. This masterpiece of the trivial is popular, but represents a debased taste, founded upon a complete ignorance of the glass-technique, for Sir Joshua called in to his assistance a china painter!

=Vaulting.=--The treatment of the roofing displays more variety in English Gothic than in French. Wooden ceilings, which we will return to presently, often replaced the vaulting and the latter also became distinguished by elements that were only sparingly, if at all, employed in France. The French, as we have noted, constructed the diagonal as well as the longitudinal and transverse ribs with pointed profiles, so that their vaults were domical. The English, on the contrary, frequently used the half-circle for the diagonal ribs. Thus the vaults have level tops or _ridges_, the latter being marked by ridge ribs.

=Tiercerons.=--In England, during the thirteenth century, as in France, the plain four-part ribbed vault was used, as in the naves of =Salisbury= and =Gloucester=, and the aisles of =Peterborough=. Toward the end of the century, however, came in the use of subordinate ribs, called _tiercerons_. These were introduced between the transverse and diagonal ribs, as may be seen in the nave vaulting of =Westminster Abbey=. Their purpose was to decrease the pressure on the main ribs, and for their own further security a _ridge_ rib was employed for them to abut on at the top.

=Liernes.=--During the Decorated Period of the fourteenth century a new set of ribs were introduced, which were known as _Liernes_--holding or binding ribs. The name was applied to any rib, other than the ridge rib, that did not spring from an abacus. They were ornamental rather than constructional and were freely employed to form a network of geometric pattern over the vaulting. Meanwhile, although they increase the apparent complexity of the vaulting, the actual constructive plan of the latter is not affected and may be simply four part. Such multiplication of ribs reduced the size of the intervening spaces or panels, whence this kind of vaulting is sometimes called _rib and panel_. It is also named _stellar_ vaulting from the star-shaped patterns produced by the ribs. Examples are to be found in the choirs of =Gloucester=, =Wells=, =Ely=, the nave of =Tewkesbury Abbey=, and the vaulting of =Winchester Cathedral=, as rebuilt by William of Wykeham (1390).

=Fan Vaulting.=--The development of the Perpendicular Period or Fifteenth Century is that of _Fan Vaulting_, examples of which occur in =Henry VII’s Chapel=, =Westminster=; =Divinity Schools=, =Oxford=; =King’s College Chapel=, =Cambridge=; the =retro-choir=, =Peterborough=; =Gloucester Cathedral=, and =St. George’s Chapel=, =Windsor=. In this type of vaulting the ribs are all of equal curvature, and separated from one another by equal angles, terminating at the top in a circular ridge, which leaves a series of flat lozenge-shaped spaces.

=Pendant Vaulting.=--A further development, often used in connection with “Fan Vaulting,” as in Oxford Cathedral and Henry VII’s Chapel, is the device known as _Pendant_ vaulting. It was at first adopted to sustain the flat spaces of the vaulting and consisted of a stone support suspended from an arch concealed above the vaulting. It was, in effect, a prolonged keystone, and its lowest part formed a base from which to build up. For by this time the old method of constructing ribs and laying panels upon them had been abandoned, and the vaulting was constructed of parts, interlocking like a Chinese puzzle.

A beautiful feature of English vaulting occurs in the polygonal Chapter Houses, in which the ribs radiate from a central column to the sides and angles of the polygon. “If these vaults are less majestic than domes of the same diameter, they are far more decorative and picturesque, while the Chapter Houses themselves were the most striking and original products of English Gothic. Every feature was designed with strict regard for the structural system determined by the admirable vaulting and the Sainte Chapelle was not more logical in its exemplification of Gothic principles.” (Hamlin.) Among the finest examples are those of =Westminster=, =Wells=, =York=, =Lincoln=, and =Salisbury=.

=Open Wood Roofs.=--The Saxon use of timber construction survived as a tradition and was developed by the Gothic builders, in the interior roofs that sheathed the vaulting and with specially fine effect in the ceiling-roofs of churches and halls. The simplest principle of it is the so-called _tie-beam_ roof. In this, a succession of rafters slope up to each side of a ridge beam and are prevented from spreading by beams that tie them together at the foot. If the pitch of the roof were high, the construction would be strengthened by a post supported on the centre of the tie-beam, which is called a _King-post_. Instead of or in addition to this, two posts might be erected between the centre and the ends of the beams, known as _Queen-posts_. Each complete section of this arrangement is called a _truss_. It might be further stiffened by _struts_, that is to say cross pieces which, instead of tying the parts, keep them from being drawn together.

The next principle is the _trussed-rafter_ or _single-framed_ roof. Since the transverse beam might interfere with the vaulting, it was replaced by one or more cross-beams near the upper angle of the roof known as _collars_. These might be further stiffened by braces, fixed diagonally from the under side of the beam to the rafter. Further, short struts or upright posts might be added near the lower angles, connecting the rafters with short, horizontal pieces, attached to the ends of the rafters and resting on the wall. These were called _sole-pieces_ and represent what would be left if the intermediate part of the tie-beam were sawn away. Sometimes an arched profile was secured by curving braces fixed to the rafters and collars. Or the collars were omitted and the curved braces were carried up to the ridge-beam, forming the variety of roof styled _arch-braced_. Frequently this style of roof was sheathed on its under side with boards decorated with ribs and bosses.

The further development was the _hammer-beam_ roof, which came into general use in the fifteenth century. The hammer-beam resulted from the lengthening and thickening of the sole-piece and was supported by a curved brace, connecting its under side with a vertical piece, attached to the wall and hence called _the wallpiece_. The combination of this construction with struts, collars, and curved braces produced the magnificent effects to be seen in the roofs, for example, of =Westminster Hall= and the =Hall= of the =Middle Temple=.

=Exteriors.=--Unlike the French cathedral, which is apt to be crowded upon by other buildings, the English usually stands amid smooth lawns and shade trees--a secluded spot known as the “close,” around which are the houses and gardens of the dean and canons. Cloisters also frequently add to the spirit of quiet. Durham is superbly set upon a steep bluff above the River Wear. In harmony with the charm of the setting a noble picturesqueness characterises the English cathedral. Flying buttresses, it is true, are little in evidence, owing to the comparative lowness of the structure and to the fact that they are often concealed in the aisles, but the façades, because of length of transepts and additions of Retrochoir, Lady Chapel, Chapter House, Cloisters, Chantries, and so forth, are more irregular than in the French. There is greater variety of points of view; frequent surprise of vistas, while from near and far the great central towers are features of impressiveness and grandeur, and the occasional spires, the most beautiful of which is =Salisbury’s=, are singularly sublime.

On the other hand, the west fronts have not the special splendour of the French cathedrals. Yet there are a few exceptions. That of =York Minster=, for example, with its immense window and twin towers, is in respect of size, decorativeness, and proportion a magnificent façade. Those, again, of =Lichfield= and =Wells= are grand and beautiful, while the west fronts of =Lincoln= and =Peterborough= are strikingly imposing and picturesque.

Both the latter are virtually screens pierced with deeply recessed openings that include windows above doors. The designs are arresting and boldly picturesque, but arbitrary in invention. For the façades, being applied to the building and not growing out of its internal purpose, lack the dignity of logical arrangement and, moreover, are deficient in proportion of parts and harmonious unity.

=Interiors.=--Grand picturesqueness, also, rather than ordered grandeur, characterises the English interiors. Lower and narrower than the French, and longer, they have not their stately unity and sublime simplicity. But their very length and the closer intercolumniation of the pillars and the ampler size of the transepts present a greater variety of vistas. And the picturesqueness is also increased by the variety and superior elaboration of the vaulting and the profusion of decorative features, the frequent use of black Purbeck marble in the cluster columns, the number of fine mouldings on the arches, the richness and variety of design in the triforium and clerestory, the wealth of carved ornament in the wooden screens and choir-stalls, and the marble enrichments of the numerous tombs. On the other hand, though an English Cathedral is more decorative architecturally, it lacks the warmth and colour that the embellishments of a Roman Catholic ritual impart to the French examples.

=Secular Examples.=--The interest of English Gothic extends beyond cathedrals to the profusion of edifices--chapels, churches, colleges, hospitals, and almshouses--that stud the country. Oxford presents a mine of study; Cambridge has its splendid examples; there are Royal Chapels of magnificence, such as =St. George’s Chapel, Windsor=; and town churches of extraordinary beauty, while scarce a village, however tiny and remote, but has an architectural treasure in its little church, sheltering the graves of its quiet “God’s Acre.”

The homes of the nobles, during the Norman Period, had been frankly armed castles, including an outer “bailey” or court, an inner bailey, and a donjon or keep, surrounded by a moat and ramparts. In the fifteenth century the idea of domesticity increased, other buildings for various uses clustered round the main ones and the hall became the centre of the life of the inmates. At first there was a central fireplace, where the logs were piled on dogs, the smoke escaping through a flue or opening in the ceiling. The need of protecting this led gradually to the erection on the roof of a lantern-like turret, technically known as a _louver_, which became a characteristic feature of the exterior of a hall, even after the central fireplace had been moved to one of the walls and connected with a chimney. By this time the fireplace had grown to be the distinctive feature of the hall, embellished with a massive carved chimney-piece, around which the lord and his lady and guests gathered, while the house-fool laboured at his quips, or some wandering minstrel regaled the family with song or story, while the retainers of the establishment sat in the outer ring on the rush-strewn floor. For the hall was the common dining-room and recreation centre of the whole establishment, and on a dais at one end stood the high table at which the family and guests were served at meals, the retainers occupying the body of the hall. A salt-cellar was conspicuous in front of the lord, symbol of hospitality and also of class distinction, since the persons of “inferior quality” were entertained “below the salt.” In earlier times the hall also served as a sleeping place for the retainers.

By degrees, however, as ideas of comfort and privacy increased, this habit was abandoned. Withdrawing rooms or bowers opened from the dais of the hall for the private use of the lord and lady, and bedroom accommodation was improved. And the progress toward greater domesticity was assisted by the discovery of gunpowder, which rendered the old system of fortification useless for defensive purposes, so that the idea of a castle was gradually superseded by that of a mansion.