Chapter 2

(_d_) REGARDING FACTS WHICH HE DOES NOT THEN INVESTIGATE THE REASON FOR, HE SHOULD ASK How THEY ARE ASCERTAINED.--This will {15} draw his attention to methods of observation and experiment, or to the technique of the subject. How, for instance, is it ascertained that New York is 90 miles from Philadelphia, or that the sun is ninety-two million miles from the earth? It is always possible to ascertain, at least in a general way, how a fact is ascertained, though it may not be possible to determine the reason for the fact. This applies not alone to physical sciences, but to questions of an economic, historic or sociological character. If we read that at the Battle of Gettysburg 3072 Union soldiers were killed, we do not inquire why; such a question is clearly meaningless; but we may well inquire how this was ascertained, whether by counting the dead upon the field or by the roll call, etc.; or if we read that following the issue of large quantities of paper currency during the Civil War, the amount of gold in the country decreased, we may in this case also inquire how it was ascertained, and we may further perceive that this is a fact for which there must be a reason, and we may then or later ascertain why it is true.

(_e_) THE STUDENT MUST TRAIN HIMSELF TO BE CONSTANTLY ON THE WATCH FOR EVIDENCE OF RELIABILITY IN THE WRITER HE IS STUDYING, IN ORDER THAT HE MAY GET A CORRECT {16} IMPRESSION AS TO WHETHER HIS STATEMENTS OF FACT MAY BE ACCEPTED, AS WELL AS HIS CONCLUSIONS AND OPINIONS.--Many writers are careless, some are entirely unreliable, and some wilfully distort. Not only are the opinions sometimes expressed entirely unwarranted by the facts, but often statements of mere fact, such as those of statistics, may be grossly perverted, sometimes intentionally. Erroneous conclusions or opinions which are the result of illogical reasoning from correct facts may be discovered by the student who himself knows how to reason, but perversions of fact may escape detection, if not traced back to original authorities or observations, which the student may not have time or opportunity to do. Statistical results, or statements made in books on economics, history, and sociology, are particularly liable to distortion, intentionally or unintentionally. Indeed by selecting certain statistics and excluding others, almost anything depending upon statistics may be proved.

The importance is thus obvious of being able to detect signs of reliability and accuracy, and of discarding a writer who cannot be depended upon. It is also important to make it a rule to ask whether any result when reached appears to be reliable in the light of common sense. {17} Sometimes a suggestion of error will be observed if the subject is looked at in this light, which if traced back will lead to the discovery of some mistake in observation or some error in reasoning.

Evidence of unreliability shown by a writer may generally be discovered, if care is exercised. His temperament, age, environment, training, religion and other facts will contribute. One who is dogmatic or abusive in stating what are obviously mere opinions which cannot be demonstrated, or who is intolerant of those who reach different conclusions, is obviously by temperament untrustworthy. A writer who in a single instance can be shown to have intentionally distorted facts should, of course, be at once and forever rejected;[2] one who has distorted facts unintentionally may perhaps be forgiven once. So a writer who, in a matter not capable of mathematical demonstration, and to some extent a matter of opinion, sets out to prove a preconceived idea, shows himself in general not possessed of the qualities which should inspire confidence.

By these and other tests the student should constantly be on the watch to form his opinion of the credibility and reliability of a writer or experimenter whose work he is studying. He {18} may thus guide himself as to the books which he should pursue carefully, remembering the dictum of Bacon that "Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested," except that very few, if any, are to be literally swallowed without digestion. By careful observance of the injunction to study constantly the credibility of a writer one may become what may be termed a discriminating student.

(_f_) ANOTHER ESSENTIAL ELEMENT OF A PROPER ATTITUDE OF MIND IS CAUTION.--Always realize the possibility of error both in another and in yourself. Be on your guard against intentional or unintentional deception. As Bacon said, "Read not to contradict and to confute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but to _weigh and consider_."[3] The author you are reading may have made a mistake, or may be trying to mislead you. "When we think of the difficulty of finding the way, when we are most desirous to go right, how easy to mislead those whom we wish to go wrong!" Be, therefore, always suspicious of {19} your author, and subject all his statements to the test of your own intelligence.[4]

(_g_) STUDY WITH AN OPEN MIND, AND WITH NO PRECONCEIVED IDEAS.--Cultivate the scientific attitude of mind, which means, first to formulate clearly a problem, then to get together all the pertinent facts, and then to draw the logical conclusions. Be ready to accept gladly any logical conclusion from the facts, even if unpalatable. Truth is, or should be, the sole object of study.[5]

(_h_) BE MODEST INTELLECTUALLY, YET SELF-RELIANT. TRAIN YOURSELF TO LOVE CORRECTION.--Remember these sayings from wise men:

"Whoso loveth correction loveth knowledge; But he that hateth reproof is brutish." --_Proverbs_.

"Poverty and shame shall be to him that refuseth correction; But he that regardeth reproof shall be honoured." --_Proverbs_.

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"The beginning of wisdom is the knowledge of one's faults." --_Epicurus_.

"He that being often reproved hardeneth his neck Shall suddenly be broken, and that without remedy." --_Proverbs_.

"Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate thee; Reprove a wise man and he will love thee." --_Proverbs_.

"Be not wise in thine own eyes."--Proverbs.

"The true beginning of wisdom is the desire of discipline." --_Wisdom of Solomon_.

"Censure and criticism never hurt anybody. If false they can't hurt you unless you are wanting in manly character; and if true, they show a man his weak points, and forewarn him against failure and trouble."--_Gladstone_.

"If there's anything worse than knowing too little, it's knowing too much. Education will broaden a narrow mind, but there's no cure for a big head. The best you can hope is that it will swell up and bust, and then, of course, there's nothing left. Poverty never spoils a good man, but prosperity often does. It's easy to stand hard times, because that's the only thing you can do, but in good times the fool-killer has to do night work."--_Lorimer: Letters from a Self-made Merchant to his Son at College_.

Intellectual modesty is quite consistent with self-reliance and mental courage.

The study of books too often leads to intellectual arrogance, which is the surest bar to real mental progress. Realize the limitations of your own knowledge; see clearly what you know and what you do not know, otherwise you will see the things you know out of {21} proportion. Make sure, however, that you know the fundamentals. Socrates said that a knowledge of our ignorance is the first step toward true knowledge, and a Persian proverb says:

"He who knows not, and knows not that he knows not, is a fool; shun him. He who knows not, and knows that he knows not, is a child; teach him. He who knows, and knows not that he knows, is asleep; wake him. He who knows, and knows that he knows, is wise; follow him."

Ask yourself, which of these classes you belong to.

(_i_) REMEMBER THAT THE OBJECT OF STUDY SHOULD BE TO GAIN WISDOM, RATHER THAN KNOWLEDGE.--Facts are important and must be learned; but far more important is it to gain wisdom and to train the mind and judgment so that truth may be distinguished from error. As the poet says:

"Knowledge and wisdom, far from being one, Have ofttimes no connection. Knowledge dwells In heads replete with thoughts of other men; Wisdom, in minds attentive to their own. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much, Wisdom is humble that he knows no more."

The above points all have to do with the mental attitude of the student, and may be summarized by simply stating that the student must be possessed of _mental courage, self-reliance, discrimination, modesty, and caution, all in proper proportion_.

[1] "He that questioneth much shall learn much."--_Bacon_.

[2] "Mendax in uno praesumitur mendax in alio."

[3] "There are always people ready to assume that things are what they are called, because it is much easier to deal with names than to examine facts."--_Bryce: South America_.

[4] "A wise man knows an ignorant one, because he has been ignorant himself, but the ignorant cannot recognize the wise, because he has never been wise."--_Persian Proverb_.

[5] "Table talk proves that nine out of ten people read what amuses them, rather than what instructs them, and proves also, that the last thing they read is something which tells them disagreeable truths or dispels groundless hopes. That popular education results in an extensive reading of publications which foster pleasant illusions rather than of those which insist on hard realities, is beyond question."--_Spencer: The Coming Slavery_.

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II

STUDYING UNDERSTANDINGLY

The second essential which may be named, connected with the first, and already mentioned, but now to be discussed, is that _the student should understand what he reads_. This may seem almost a needless injunction, yet it is very surprising how commonly it is disregarded. It is, however, easy to understand why this should be so. A child, as it grows up, must gain all its knowledge either by the exercise of its own reasoning powers or from its senses. How does it learn the meaning of words? Certain nouns like "papa" or "cat" it may easily be made to understand by pointing at the object referred to and uttering the word, but how does it learn the meaning of abstract nouns, or of verbs and other parts of speech which cannot be illustrated by pantomime? It is almost inevitable that the child should use many words the meaning of which it does not understand, and when young children in school recite poetry at class-day exercises, it is almost certain that they do not understand the meaning of many of the words they use. Thus, it happens that they come {23} into the habit of using words and phrases without carefully examining their meanings. This tendency should be counteracted from the earliest stage. The child should be continually asked the meanings of words which it uses, and should be encouraged itself to inquire as to those meanings and to take the proper mental attitude. The use of the dictionary should be insisted upon even from an early age, the object being to avoid the formation of the habit of using words or phrases unintelligently, which is one of the worst habits that one can acquire.

Professor James, in his interesting book, "Talks to Teachers," illustrates this habit by an amusing anecdote:

"A friend of mine visiting a school, was asked to examine a young class in geography. Glancing at the book, she said: 'Suppose you should dig a hole in the ground, hundreds of feet deep, how should you find it at the bottom--warmer or colder than on top?' None of the class replying, the teacher said: 'I'm sure they know, but I think you don't ask the question quite rightly. Let me try.' So, taking the book, she asked: 'In what condition is the interior of the globe?' and received the immediate answer from half the class at once; 'The interior of the globe is in a condition of igneous fusion!'"

Perhaps it may be thought that an incident like the foregoing would only occur in an elementary school. As a matter of fact, college students and graduates, and indeed most of us, {24} do this very thing more often than we realize, even in subjects like mathematics or mechanics; and terms like "energy," "momentum," "rate of change," "period of vibration," "value," "social justice," etc., are often used without a clear understanding, and sometimes without any understanding at all, of what they mean.

(_a_) THE STUDENT SHOULD ACQUIRE AND INSIST UPON EXERCISING THE HABIT OF FORMING DEFINITE IDEAS.--This is one of the most important injunctions to be observed as an essential principle of intelligent study.[1] It is self-evident that facts or things cannot be reasoned about intelligently unless a definite idea is formed of the facts or things themselves. Vagueness of idea not alone precludes a proper conception of the thing itself, but may vitiate all reasoning regarding it. The student must resolutely make up his mind that he must not rest satisfied with hazy, uncertain, half-formed ideas. A half knowledge of a thing may not be useless, but it is generally found that it is the other half that is needed. If the student could learn this one precept and continually apply it, he would have little difficulty in studying properly.

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It is not easy to state just how the habit of forming definite ideas may be acquired. To a certain extent it is intuitive. Some students have it, while others do not; some can cultivate it, while others apparently cannot. It is probably safe to say, however, that a student who cannot cultivate it should not study books, or enter into a profession, but should go to work with his hands instead of taking a college course. Such a man will be always likely to be misled, his conclusions can never be depended upon, and what we term education may do him harm rather than good.

A definite idea is one that leaves no room for ambiguity--which means just one thing. The habit of forming such ideas habitually may be cultivated in several ways, as for instance:

1. STUDY THE DICTIONARY.--By study of the dictionary, the student may train himself to distinguish slight differences in meaning between words, and habitually to use precisely the word with the proper meaning to express his idea. A knowledge of the derivation of words will often assist, and such books as Archbishop Trench's on "The Study of Words," or a course in English composition under a good teacher, accompanied by exercises in expression, will all contribute to {26} the formation of the habit.[2] Sometimes, however, the dictionary may give little assistance, for it may be found that one term is defined by means of another and on looking up that other, it will be found to be defined by means of the first. Sometimes also a definition of a word will be given in terms even more difficult to understand than the one which is defined. There are differences in dictionaries. The study of language, and particularly of the classics, if properly pursued, may be of great benefit, because it involves translating {27} from one language into another, and should include much practice in discovering the precise word or phrase to express an idea. The reason why a study of the classics may be better than that of modern foreign languages, is that in studying the latter the object is more often considered--by the student at least--to become able to read professional books in a modern language, or to get a smattering which will be of use in travel or in business; while in the study of the classics these objects are entirely absent, and the attention is more apt to be concentrated on studying delicate shades of meaning. However, everything depends upon the teacher and the way the subject is taught.[3]

2. The habit of forming definite ideas may also be cultivated by each day attempting to define a certain number of common words, and after making as good a definition as possible comparing the result with that in the dictionary. If the student will practise this, he will at first receive many surprises, for any word may be defined in various ways, all correct as far as they go, but only one of which is a true definition. For instance, a cow may be defined as a {28} four-legged animal, but this, while correct, obviously does not define a cow, for the same definition would apply to many other animals that are not cows. What constitutes a definition?

This subject is clearly allied with the discussion of the question as to what constitutes perfect knowledge; what elements, for instance, go to make up what may be called a perfect conception of a thing. According to Liebnitz, perfect knowledge is clear, distinct, adequate, and intuitive. The student will do well to look up the discussion of this subject in Jevon's "Elementary Lessons in Logic" (Lesson VII).

The importance of forming definite ideas, as an essential of proper study, and of understanding what is read, cannot be exaggerated. Without it one cannot acquire more than a partial knowledge, and one is always liable to those errors of reasoning which arise from the use of equivocal language, which may lead us unconsciously from one meaning of a word to another--a logical error which is perhaps the most fruitful cause of fallacious reasoning.

3. STUDY LOGIC.--Logic is the science of correct reasoning. It teaches us how to discover truth, how to recognize it when discovered, how to arrive at general laws from facts collected by {29} observation or experiment, and how to deduce new facts from those already found to be true. It is thus the science of sciences, and finds its application in every branch of knowledge. The training of his power of logical thought is, therefore, one of the things that should be constantly aimed at by the student.

Now all thinking is concerned, first of all, with _terms_ or names for things or qualities or conceptions of some sort. Then, it is concerned with comparisons of things, and the discovery of their identity or dissimilarity, as when I say "Iron is a metal" or "all metals are elements," each of which statements is a _proposition_, the truth or falsity of which I must be able to discover. Finally, it is concerned in deducing new propositions from old ones, and so arriving at new truths, as when I discover from the two propositions stated above, the new truth that "Iron is an element."

But there are many chances for error in this process; for instance, I might say:

"To call you an animal would be to state the truth"--to which you would agree; and, "To call you an ass would be to call you an animal"--to which you would also agree; from which I might conclude that, "To call you an ass would {30} be to state the truth"--which you might have a vague idea was not true. If you wish to be sure that this conclusion is incorrect, you must be able to show just why it is incorrect. The study of logic would enable you to see just where the error lies. You must not be governed by vague ideas, or you will be intellectually at anybody's mercy.

In the logical study of _terms_, they are classified and distinguished, and the importance made manifest of having in mind a clear definition of the meaning of a term before reasoning about it. Many terms are ambiguous, as already explained, and may mean many different things, as for instance the terms "bill," "church," "evil," "value," "social justice." Here, then, the importance of definite ideas will be manifest.

Pascal laid down the essentials of logical method in the statement "Define everything and prove everything." In other words, do not attempt to think about a term until you have defined the term and have a clear idea what it means; and insist upon proving every statement at which you arrive, before accepting it finally and definitely; although for want of time, you may be obliged sometimes to accept or form a conclusion tentatively or provisionally. You may be able to draw correct conclusions from stated {31} premises even though you do not understand the terms of the premises. For instance, if I say, "Selenium is a dyad element" and "A dyad element is one capable of replacing two equivalents of hydrogen," I can correctly draw the conclusion that, "Selenium is capable of replacing two equivalents of hydrogen," but I cannot know that the conclusion is correct unless I understand the meaning of the terms in the premises and so can be sure of the correctness of those premises.

Every student should, therefore, in the writer's opinion, take a systematic course in logic, or carefully study by himself such books as Jevons' "Elementary Lessons in Logic" or John Stuart Mill's "Logic."[4]

(_b_) LEARN TO STATE A THING IN DIFFERENT WAYS OR FROM DIFFERENT POINTS OF VIEW.--Almost anything may be looked at from different points of view, or a truth stated in different ways, {32} and it may appear very different from different viewpoints. A student should practise doing this, first stating a principle perhaps from the mathematical point of view, and then in simple untechnical language that can be understood by one who is not a mathematician. The habit of stating even technical matters in simple untechnical language should be practised continually. As Bishop Berkeley urged, we should "think with the learned and speak with the vulgar." If you clearly understand a proposition, you can state it in clear and unambiguous language, though perhaps not in Addisonian English. Students frequently say "I understand that, but I cannot explain it." Such a student deceives himself: he does not understand it. If he understands it thoroughly, he can explain it clearly and without ambiguity, and so that others will understand him. For this reason an acute observer can get the mental measure of a man after a few minutes' conversation. Inaccurate or slipshod thinking will surely show itself in speech.

(_c_) STATE A THING NOT ONLY POSITIVELY BUT NEGATIVELY.--That is to say, state not only what it is, but what it is not, even if incompletely. Perceive not only what it includes, but what it excludes. When a result or a {33} principle is arrived at, it is essential not only to see that it is true, but how far the _reverse_ is _untrue_. The student does not really understand a thing unless he recognizes it from any point of view, can describe it from any point of view, can state it in language to suit the particular emergency, and can see why the other thing is untrue. As Aristotle says:

"We must not only state the truth, but the cause of the untrue statement; this is an element in our belief; for when it is made apparent why a statement not true appears to be true, our belief in the truth is confirmed."